HS 2801 Research Methods Week 8

Impartial interviewers demonstrate this by:

Avoids verbal and nonverbal expressions of approval or disapproval Does not express personal opinions Avoids leading interviewees toward a particular answer (for example, by placing special emphasis on particular words in a question or by probing until receiving a particular desired response)

_______, or value theory, is the study of values.

Axiology Quantitative researchers usually apply an axiological perspective that assumes that rigorous procedures can eliminate the impact of values and biases on study outcomes. Qualitative researchers assume that a researcher's values affect the study.

Organized interviewers demonstrate this by:

Begins each scheduled interview session on time Has all necessary materials on hand prior to the start of each interview session Maintains meticulous records and completes all files and paperwork promptly

A __________is a qualitative data gathering technique in which approximately 8 to 10 people spend 1 or 2 hours participating in a moderated discussion.

focus group A focus group is especially valuable when interaction among participants stimulates richer responses and clarifies opinions.

Theoretical __________ occurs when a researcher draws on more than one theoretical framework to guide the design, analysis, and interpretation of a research project. Researchers using two or more theoretical perspectives must carefully explain why the theories were selected, how they were implemented, and how the use of multiple theories informed the insights gained from the study.

pluralism

All interviewers should undergo role-specific training and have an opportunity to _____ their interview skills

practice

Because the goal of qualitative research is to _______ a complex phenomenon rather than to predict some observable event, qualitative researchers must select the theoretical perspectives that will guide their study design, data analysis, and interpretation

understand

Respectful interviewers demonstrate this by:

- Communicates pleasantly and professionally with all study participants and members of the research team - Has practiced interviewing enough to be comfortable with both the script and the interview process - Asks supervisors for assistance when it is needed

Internet-based surveys are not an appropriate option to use when studying populations whose members are likely to have low ______- or to have limited Internet access or be unfamiliar with computers.

literacy

_____ is the process of a researcher intentionally setting aside any preconceived ideas about reality in order to be open to new meanings that might be expressed by participants.

Bracketing

What are the 8 characteristics of good interviewers? Chunky cats can hear in really odd areas

Careful, Honest, Impartial, Consistent, Articulate, Considerate, Organized and Respectful

Careful interviewers demonstrate this by:

Completes all steps of the interview process in the correct order, as prescribed by the interviewer handbook Documents informed consent prior to conducting an interview Does not skip any component of the interview Completes all response forms correctly

_______ is a paradigm in which researchers have a relativist perspective that considers each individual's reality to be a function of that person's lived experiences. The ontological assumption of constructivism is that there are many realities, not just one reality, and realities are created as researchers and participants interact. The epistemological assumption is that researchers and participants must work together to understand reality. The axiological assumption is that beliefs and values are social constructs. These philosophical stances make constructivism the opposite of positivism.

Constructivism

___ theory is a paradigm that considers reality to be dependent on social and historical constructs and assumes that reality can be uncovered by identifying and challenging power structures. The philosophical assumption of critical theory is that participants can actively construct realities that are shaped by beliefs and values. Research conducted under a critical theory framework is change-oriented. Studies based on critical theory often use participatory methods that empower participants and equip them to advocate for change.

Critical

_____ research seeks to understand key characteristics of a group.

Descriptive

Honest interviewers demonstrate this by:

Does not fabricate or falsify reports Records responses to open-ended questions verbatim, without rephrasing, paraphrasing, "correcting," or interpreting them

Considerate interviewers demonstrate this by:

Dresses and grooms appropriately for in-person interviews Is alert to modifiable conditions that may make interviewees uncomfortable, such as loud background noises, cold or hot temperatures, or dim lighting Allows adequate time for participants to respond to each question

_______ is the study of knowledge.

Epistemology

___________ is the systematic study of people and cultures in their natural environments.

Ethnography

________________ is an anthropological approach in which researchers aim to develop an insider's view (an emic perspective), rather than an outsider's view (an etic perspective), of how members of a particular sociocultural group understand their world. Ethnographers often use participant observation methods to understand a group's collective experiences, values, beliefs, and behaviors. It is typical for ethnographers to immerse themselves in the study community and to intentionally interact with the group for many months or years.

Ethnography

The training and interviewer handbook should:

Explain each step of the interview process. Specify exactly how to ask questions and record responses. Identify any prompts or follow-up questions that the interviewer must use, is allowed to use, or is not allowed to use. Emphasize any restrictions against asking for clarification about particular items. Provide checklists for handling problems that might arise during an interview, such as interruptions, disconnections, or uncomfortable or emotional participants.

________ research tests hypotheses about causal relationships.

Explanatory

______ research aims to discover new ideas and develop hypotheses.

Exploratory

________ theory is an inductive reasoning process that uses observations to develop general theories that explain human behavior or other phenomena. Data collection and data analysis occur simultaneously, so that theories can be developed and refined.

Grounded

Paper questionnaire PROs/CONs

In some environments, they are required for the collection of data from a large number of participants at one time, as would be the situation when all students attending a school are asked to complete a questionnaire during the same 20-minute period. Paper instruments allow for the easy collection of signatures on informed consent statements, and some researchers value having paper records as a backup to electronic files. Con: Unless somewhat expensive optical scan forms are used, all responses must be manually entered into a computer at a later time. Data entry is often a very time-consuming process, and that can become costly.

___________ such as small gifts or the opportunity to be entered into a drawing to win a prize may be an effective means of encouraging participation among those invited to be in a study. Any inducements, gifts, or compensation must be approved by an ethics review committee prior to being offered.

Incentives

____ consent removes many of the _______ challenges associated with _________ research

Informed, ethical, observational

____ is a paradigm in which researchers consider the reality in the social world to be different from reality in the natural world. Interpretivism and constructivism are about understanding how various groups of people interpret reality. Studies based on constructivism and interpretivism use qualitative study designs.

Interpretivism

________ bias is a form of information bias that occurs when interviewers systematically question cases and controls or exposed and unexposed members of a study population differently, such as probing individuals they believe to have the disease or exposure of interest for more information but not doing the same probing for participants they believe to be unexposed controls.

Interviewer

_____________ occurs when the researcher unobtrusively observes study subjects in a natural setting, typically without the knowledge of the subjects. Data collection may involve a combination of listening and watching, with field notes recording both verbal and nonverbal cues.

Naturalistic observation

_______packets should include a concise cover letter that explains the purpose and importance of the study and discloses any necessary information such as financial sponsorship and contact details for key members of the research team. The mailed packet should also include the survey instrument and a preaddressed stamped envelope so that the completed survey can easily be returned to the researcher.

Mailed survey

____________ projects use both quantitative and qualitative methods in one research study.

Mixed methods

___- describes facts that can be evaluated without bias. A realist would say that meaning exists in an object independent of the subject investigating it. Quantitative research studies seek to make objective determinations about the world.

Objectivity

2 basic options for data recording

One is to record the responses on paper and to enter or scan them into a computer later. The other is to have interviewers or participants enter responses directly into a database.

_________ explains how a researcher defines reality and truth, while _________ explains how a researcher knows what is real and true.

Ontology, epistemology

_______ is a method of qualitative field observation in which a trained investigator seeks to understand a community by engaging with its members and immersing in its practices. Participant-observation methods are especially common in ethnographic research.

Participant-observation

Incentives such as small gifts or the opportunity to be entered into a drawing to win a prize may be an effective means of encouraging ________ among those invited to be in a study.

Participation

Most people in the process of leaving a venue will not choose to wait 15 or more minutes for a tablet computer to become available to them unless there is a very desirable reward for ___________

Participation

_______ rates will likely be higher if recruits understand the importance and value of the research project

Participation

___ seeks to understand how individuals interpret and find meaning in their own unique life experiences and feelings. The researcher uses in-depth interviews to gather data from several people, then the transcripts of those interviews are examined so that meanings and themes can be identified and understood from the perspective of the participants.

Phenomenology

______ is a paradigm in which researchers apply a realist perspective that assumes that reality is knowable and that inquiry should be logical and value-free. The word "positive" denotes definitiveness and certainty. Studies based on a positivist paradigm generally use empirical methods to test hypotheses and predict outcomes. They often employ quantitative experimental designs.

Positivism

____________ is a related paradigm in which researchers aim to experimentally test theories about how the world works, but they acknowledge that the unpredictability of human behavior limits the validity of some empirical methods. Post-positivism applies a critical realist perspective to research. Studies using a post-positivist paradigm often employ quasi-experimental and mixed methods designs.

Post-positivism

___________ is a paradigm in which researchers assume that reality is situational, and it is acceptable to use any and all research tools and frameworks to try to understand a particular problem so it can be solved. The goal of pragmatic research is to solve problems, so the focus is on the outcomes of the research project rather than the theories and processes that guide it

Pragmatism

_______- is an interviewing technique that prompts an interviewee to provide a more complete or specific response. During semi-structured interviews, a researcher can probe for more details about any response in order to gain fuller understanding of participants' experiences and perspectives.

Probing

_____ studies collect data using a variety of observational and participatory methods.

Qualitative

_______ data collection is more likely to be described using terms like informal, personal, and reflexive

Qualitative

____- research uses in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, participant observation, and other unstructured or semi-structured methods to explore attitudes and perceptions, identify themes and patterns, and formulate new theories.

Qualitative Qualitative research seeks to answer questions like "why?" and "how?" that numbers-focused quantitative research cannot adequately answer

____ research uses structured, hypothesis-driven approaches to gather data that can be statistically analyzed.

Quantitative

__________ data collection is often described using words like formal, impersonal, and detached.

Quantitative

_______ research assumes that researchers are independent from their study subjects and that researchers can control for possible biases in order to make objective measurements. ____________ research assumes that researchers and study participants are interdependent and create knowledge together as they interactively explore subjective topics.

Quantitative, Qualitative

Consistent interviewers demonstrate this by:

Reads the script exactly as it is written Probes for answers only when the script indicates that probing is approved Does not provide explanations for any question unless an explanation is provided in the script or approved in the interviewer handbook

________ assumes that one reality exists, and it can be understood.

Realism

______ assumes that there are multiple realities and they cannot be fully understood

Relativism

_______ describes claims and experiences that are interpreted based on an evaluator's beliefs, perceptions, and feelings. A relativist would say that a subject imposes meaning on an object. Qualitative research designs typically seek to understand subjective aspects of human existence.

Subjectivity

Articulate interviewers demonstrate this by:

Speaks at an appropriate pace and volume Enunciates clearly Uses an appropriate tone of voice (and, for in-person interviews, appropriate facial expressions and gestures) Rereads questions and/or the list of closed-ended responses when a participant does not understand the question or the acceptable responses

Phenomenon

The central concept being studied during a qualitative research project.

Ontology

The study of the nature of reality and truth. Ontological perspectives extend from realism to relativism

_________ sampling uses the emerging theory to guide the selection of new data sources. Data collection continues until data saturation has been reached.

Theoretical

To minimize the risk of interviewer bias, the interview process should be the same for all participants in a study. _________ is easiest to accomplish when all interviewers are provided with the tools they need to follow a standardized set of procedures.

Uniformity

_______ will know how to make participants comfortable, how not to intentionally or unintentionally guide participants toward particular answers rather than letting participants provide candid responses, and how to complete all survey forms consistently and completely.

Well-trained interviewers

studies based on critical theory may use an ___ research approach in which participants work together to solve a social problem.

action

Audio recordings should be transcribed __________ after an interview and reviewed for accuracy. All parts of the interview, including fillers (like "um" and "you know"), laughs, and other sounds should be included in the typed transcript.

as soon as possible

Because qualitative researchers are so closely engaged with participants, researchers need to reflect on how their backgrounds might _________ their observations, and they need to be transparent about these potential biases when designing rigorous studies and reporting findings

bias

A _______ study is a qualitative research approach that uses multiple data sources to examine one person, group, event, or other situation in detail.

case A case study approach may be used when preparing a case report or a case series, or it may be applied to understanding an event, process, or program. The goal is not to develop generalizable knowledge, but to understand one event well. Multiple data sources may be used as part of a holistic examination of the case, including observations, interviews, and reviews of historic documents.

The best method for initiating _________ with potential participants is often related to the intended data collection method.

contact

Naturalistic observation is contrasted with ________- observation in which study participants are observed in a laboratory setting and know that they are being observed.

controlled

Before starting _______, the research team must decide how responses will be recorded and when they will be entered into a computer database.

data collection

Because qualitative research examines thoughts and beliefs that cannot be _________ measured, researchers using qualitative methods must be aware of the ways their own thoughts, experiences, biases, and assumptions shape the design and interpretation of their research studies.

directly

a guiding principle for quantitative studies is ___________, the assumption that the senses (such as seeing, hearing, and touching) are the best way to measure truth about the world.

empiricism

A mixed methods __________ study might collect qualitative data first and then use the insights from that study to design and implement a quantitative study. A mixed methods _________ study might collect quantitative data first and then use a qualitative study to assist with interpretation of the results.

exploratory, explanatory

The methodologic approaches selected for a qualitative research project must align with the ____ of the study and the selected theoretical paradigm

goals

Focus groups often use __________ sampling to recruit participants with similar backgrounds, experiences, or perspectives. Focus groups can then be used to understand the norms of a group as well as to identify the diversity of perspectives that exist within a population. Focus groups do not work well when peer pressure inhibits disclosure of participants' true feelings and opinions.

homogeneous

An _________ is a qualitative research technique in which an interviewer spends 1 or 2 hours interviewing a key informant using open-ended questions. These conversations are usually in-person dialogues between one interviewer and one participant. Sometimes two researchers meet with one participant for safety or cultural reasons, or so that one researcher can ask questions while the other takes notes.

in-depth interview

Some qualitative data can be collected through open-ended questions on survey instruments, from existing documents and other artifacts, and by other means, but qualitative data collection in the health sciences usually involves ____________, focus groups, or other specialized data collection methods.

in-depth interviews

If the plan is to interview participants by telephone, it may be possible to recruit some participants with cold calls. However, the participation rate will likely be higher if a letter of invitation is sent first. Sending a letter will also allow for the acquisition of signed ________ forms prior to the interview, if they are required.

informed consent

An ________- is the process of a researcher verbally asking a participant questions and recording that person's responses.

interview

A key advantage of using __________ to gather data is that trained interviewers record the responses, and they can ensure the accuracy and completeness of each questionnaire.

interviews interviews may require major time commitments from study personnel. One-on-one interviews may take a considerable amount of time per participant, and it may take months to schedule all of the needed interviews. Interviews may be conducted in person or via telephone. For in-person interviews, transportation to the interview site may be a barrier to participation. For telephone-based interviews, hearing impairments and discomfort with using a telephone may be a challenge for some participants.

A focus group session typically begins with the ________ establishing rapport with the group and setting the ground rules for the session. Participants need to understand that their involvement in the study is voluntary (even if they have been offered an incentive to participate) and they can leave at any time. The importance of privacy and respect must be emphasized. Participants are usually asked not to disclose to outsiders what others say during the group discussion. For sensitive topics, it may be helpful to assign pseudonyms to group members so that their true names are not disclosed to other participants.

moderator

Interviews are often audio- or video-recorded and then transcribed so that the exact words (and sometimes also the _____ expressions) can be coded and interpreted. Interviews are sometimes supplemented by other data collection methods, such as participant diaries or journals.

nonverbal

Most focus groups are hosted by two researchers. One serves as the moderator who sets the agenda, facilitates the discussion, and keeps the conversation on track. The other serves as a _____while providing other support such as assisting with welcoming participants, collecting consent forms, operating recording devices and backup recorders, and time-keeping

note-taker

In qualitative research, ________ methods are ones that involve systematic observations of human actions and interactions.

observational

Focus groups should be audio- or video-recorded so that complete transcripts can be created. The note-taker can track the key messages and themes that emerge during the discussion while also documenting _________ like emotions and gestures that may not show up in the transcript.

observations

Interviewers can also record their _________ of the body language and other nonverbal communication conveyed by participants. At the same time, interviewers should be aware of how their own word choices, tone of voice, and body language may be interpreted or misinterpreted by interviewees. Interviewers should not ask leading questions and not move on to a new set of questions before full responses have been gathered from the current line of inquiry. If the interviewer is not certain what a participant meant by a particular statement, he or she can respectfully request clarification.

observations

Other ways to increase the ___________ rate are providing multiple invitations and opportunities to participate and making participation as easy as possible.

participation

Most _____ studies collect data from individual participants using interviews or self-administered questionnaires.

primary

Each interviewer should be given a comprehensive interviewer handbook that provides information about the ________ of the study, details about interview logistics, an annotated script for the in-person, phone, or online interview, and annotated copies of all study forms.

purpose

A ___- study looks for the meanings, themes, and theories that emerge from observing and interacting with study participants.

qualitative

In the health sciences, many _________- research projects aim to improve health promotion programs and clinical processes or to provide a foundation for social change. They may seek to understand how people experience health and illness as individuals and as members of communities, why they engage in or do not engage in various health-related behaviors, and how they make health-related decisions.

qualitative

The first decision to make about collection of ____________ data is whether to have a member of the research team interview participants or to have participants record their own answers

quantitative

several hundred calls made by_________—calls to a computer-generated list of unscreened telephone numbers—may yield only a few people willing to participate in a study. Even then, many willing participants may turn out to be ineligible. A growing problem with using random-digit dialing is that mobile phone numbers are often unlisted and are not necessarily indicative of the user's geographic location. These issues may further reduce the representativeness of study populations recruited by random-digit dialing.

random-digit dialing

Once a data collection method has been selected, the next step is to decide on an effective method for ________ members of the sample population to be participants in the study.

recruiting

The goal of __________ is to maximize the participation rate among members of the sample population so as to yield a study population that is reasonably representative of the source population. Ideally, the researcher should try to find a way to compare the characteristics of participants to the demographics of the source population as a whole.

recruiting

Clear guidelines and practice opportunities will help to create skilled, confident, and ________ interviewers

reliable

A ____________ survey uses a questionnaire form that participants complete by themselves, using either a paper-and-pencil version or an online version of the survey instrument. A major benefit of self-administered surveys is that they can allow for the cost-effective and time-efficient collection of data from a large number of participants. For example, a school-based survey could gather data from hundreds of students during one 20-minute period. Self-administered surveys may also be the best way to get honest answers to sensitive questions.

self-administered

In a_________ interview, the interviewer starts with a list of open-ended questions that will be asked of each participant. However, these questions or lists of topics are merely starting points for eliciting responses from participants

semi-structured

The ontological assumption of pragmatism is ___________ realism, which treats individuals' realities as being real to those individuals, because that orientation is the most useful and practical. The epistemological assumption is that reality can be known and understood using many different approaches. The axiological assumption is that beliefs and values are part of practical decisions. Pragmatists often use mixed methods in their study designs.

symbolic

Older adults who have limited access to the Internet or do not routinely use computers may ______ choose not to participate in an Internet-based survey

systematically

Pro / Con = computer-assisted surveys

they eliminate the need for later data entry. simplify the questionnaire by automatically removing any questions not relevant to a particular study participant. For example, they may skip questions specific to females for participants who identify themselves as being males. CON: some populations are uncomfortable with computer technology. Discomfort with technology may be expressed in several ways. Older adults who have limited access to the Internet or do not routinely use computers may systematically choose not to participate in an Internet-based survey. There may also be cultural reasons not to use computers during in-person interviews. Some interviewees may be distracted by an interviewer entering responses into a computer as they give their responses, and they might not be similarly bothered by an interviewer with a clipboard jotting down their comments on a piece of paper.

Training sessions also emphasize the importance of strictly following the procedures spelled out in the interviewer handbook and make clear the absolute necessity of maintaining the confidentiality of all information that study participants share with interviewers. Interviewers may also need to complete institution-mandated research ethics _________ sessions prior to interacting with participants.

training

Action research conducted under a __ paradigm assumes that reality can be changed when researchers collaborate with participants from marginalized populations to address a social justice issue.

transformative