Human Geography Last Exam

The global office

"Front Office" growth has been localized - concentrated in relatively small, distinctive settings within major metropolitan areas (clustering of specialized offices) "Back Office" growth has been delocalized. Technology system allow back offices (e.g. record keeping; analytical functions; data entry) to relocate to cheaper office space, freeing high-rent office space for front office work. New service-based agglomeration effects: ◦ Key infrastructure to support these services (office space, financial exchanges, etc) ◦ Comparative advantage in the mix of specialized firms and expert professional in cultural amenities as well as financial services ◦ Established a critical mass of people to become center of innovations (cultural and services) ◦ World Cities: a city in which a disproportionate part of the world's most important financial services and businesses are concentrated

Case study: Federalism and the making of the USSR

100+ nationalities at the dawn of the USSR Granted a modicum of independence through the federal system, a shift from the unitary government under the Russian czar With the dissolution of the USSR, these federal units became independent states

Maquiladoras

1960s - Mexico allowed US companies to establish "sister factories" or Maquiladoras within 12 miles of border Now are closing as the temporary tax breaks are expiring (2014), so companies are relocating production

Megacities case study: Pearl River Delta

> 50 million people The world's workshop: numerous commodity chains have linkages here Colonial legacies: Hong Kong as a gateway city Head start in economic development through early introduction of Special Economic Zones, attracted FDI

Tax havens

A country or independent area where taxes are levied at a low rate Some companies avoid paying taxes on sales outside the U.S. by using tax havens Tax avoidance = legal, but still impacts overall economies Tax evasion = illegal

East/West divide in geopolitics

A global-scale differentiation of space, made between communist countries "the east" and noncommunist countries "the west", respectively The domino theory associated with the E/W divide drove US foreign policy decisions during the Cold War Domino theory animated US foreign policy as it became hegemonic during the Cold War ◦ Domino Theory: if one country in a region chooses or is forced to accept a communist political and economic system, then neighboring countries would be irresistibly susceptible to communism ◦ Cold War: the state of heightened military and political tension as well as economic competition between the former Soviet Union and its satellite states and the United States and its allies. ◦ US isolation of Cuba and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 ◦ US invasions of Southeast Asia: proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos ◦ Ongoing US interference in domestic politics in Latin America Draws on cultural representations from a Western, especially American, perspective ◦ "Shining city on a hill" (United States) and the "Evil Empire" (Soviet Union) ◦ More recently, replacement of Soviet Union as "them" by Islamic terrorists

North/South divide in geopolitics

A global-scale differentiation of space, made between the colonizing states of the Northern Hemisphere and the formerly colonized states of the Southern Hemisphere, which has persisted after decolonization Usually associated with global patterns of social and economic inequality stemming from legacies of imperialism Decolonization: Reacquisition by colonized people of territory ◦ New states, new boundaries, formal sovereignty, often through armed conflict, protest ◦ Does not necessarily end relationship of dependency ◦ Vulnerabilities of primary sector production ◦ Structural adjustments, inability to build domestic manufacturing N/S divide describes a persistent power inequality between groups of states ◦ Ongoing Global South dependency on Global North ◦ The Global South: the periphery, former colonies ◦ ~3/4 of global population, ~1/5 of global income ◦ The Global North: the core, former colonizing countries ◦ ~1/4 of global population , ~4/5 of global income ◦ Including former empires of Russia and Japan as well as areas of the southern hemisphere (Australia and New Zealand) that

Urban farming in food deserts

A guerilla gardener in South Central LA | Ron Finley See also "Can You Dig This" documentary on Amazon Prime

Processes of regional economic development create a virtuous circle

A head start + external economies + path dependency = spiral 'upward' --- Processes contributing to regional variation: ◦ Initial advantage: one region gets a head start in a particular industry ◦ Creates conditions that support further growth ◦ Pre-existing labor markets with desirable skill sets ◦ Pre-existing consumer markets guarantee demand for product ◦ Agglomeration economies: other firms find it profitable to cluster around the location with initial advantage ◦ A special case of external economies, or cost savings that spill over beyond a firm's own production/organization decisions to lower costs for other firms ◦ Agglomeration effects continue - interdependencies associated with various kinds of economic linkages, including the cost advantages that accrue to individual firms because of their location among functionally related activities ◦ Geographical path dependence: historical relationship between the present activities and past experiences of that place

Gini index

A measure of the income distribution within a particular country Higher values of the Gini index reflect greater income inequality

Stateless nation

A nation without a state Example: Kurdistan Population of ~27 million spread across five states

International debt and structural adjustments

A number of periphery countries are saddled with large international debt obligations Servicing debt consumes export earnings Periphery states receive debt relief in exchange for implementing neoliberal economic reforms, known as "structural adjustments"

League of Nations

A system of international cooperation formed post-WWI that transferred colonial administration from defeated powers (Germany and Ottoman Empire) to victors Propped up colonial administration of mandated territories; also facilitated a few early decolonizations Model for the United Nations

Modernization theory

A.K.A. Rostow's model of economic development (1960) Assumptions: classical liberalism - free markets, private property rights, small role for state lead to economic growth Predicts a gradual process of industrialization and prosperity

Human development index

Account for noneconomic factors that contribute to overall well-being Factors: life expectancy, educational attainment, and personal income. Ranges from 0.0 (worst) to 1.0 (best)

Technology and technological change

Advances in telecommunications allows information flow to coordinate global trade Compare global connectivity under British vs American hegemony

Why do human geographers study agriculture?

Agriculture is key to the two - way interaction of humans and the environment Major factor in environmental change at all scales - local, regional and global "How we eat determines to a considerable extent how the world is used" - Wendell Berry, US farmer & writer

Geopolitics of Antarctica

Antarctic Treaty (1961): Establishes the continent as a scientific preserve to which scientists from all nations have guaranteed rights. Military activities are banned.

Corruption

Any abuse of a position of trust (in either the public or private sector) gain an unfair advantage Corruption is spatially uneven, tends to emerge amid poverty, conflict, weak institutions, lack of transparency, or a political culture of impunity Thought to hamper economic development and contribute to entrenched poverty, victimizes the poor - Petty Corruption • Small acts of abuse (i.e. accepting small gifts or bribes) Grand Corruption Corruption at the highest levels of government, usually in cases where dictators are in power or policing is weak Systemic Corruption Corruption is institutionalized, usually because of a lack of accountability or transparency in governing), and not just an individual activity

Second agricultural revolution

Began Western Europe 1600s Breakdown of feudal land tenure system, rise of private or semi-private property Improved inputs (fertilizers), practices (crop rotation), technologies (yokes, farm implements) leads to dramatic increased yields—food surplus Happening alongside demographic transition and urbanization—increased demand for food Result is a more efficient, more commercial form of agriculture

Controversial aspects to the Green Revolution

Borlaug hypothesis: restricting crop usage to traditional low-yield methods (such as organic farming) in the face of rising global food demand would require either the world population to decrease or the further conversion of forest land into cropland. Social/economic ◦ Unemployment generated as machines replaced human labor on farms ◦ Dependence on capitalized inputs forces everyone into the cash economy, subject to global price volatility ◦ Wealth and power accrued to a small number of agriculturalists - magnifies social inequality within communities Environmental ◦ Salinization of soil ◦ Aquifers drying up ◦ Top soil erosion ◦ Soil nutrient depletion ◦ Pollution of waterways ◦ Pesticide-resistant species ◦ Loss of genetic diversity in agricultural crops

State boundaries and abrupt landscape change

Boundaries reinforce spatial differentiation: different histories, different rules, different practices, different human-environment interactions unfold on either side of the border Example: deforestation in Haiti vs Dominican Republic Municipal boundaries and land use regulations can produce similar patterns of abrupt change at subnational scales

Globalization of agricultural epidemics

Case study: Swine fever https://www.youtube.com/w atch?v=9eOV5o7qP9Q Estimated that 1 in 4 animals will die of this disease or be culled to prevent its spread

Rise of China

China restructured economy between 1978 and 1997 under Deng Xiaoping Four Modernizations: industry, agriculture, science, and defense "Open -Door" policy - improved relations with core countries Allowed foreign direct investment targeting Chinese market (1992) Joined WTO (2001)

World cities

Cities that play a key roles in organizing space beyond their national boundaries Examples include organization of trade, execution of colonial, imperial, & geopolitical strategies

Agglomeration economies

Cost savings that result from spatial clustering around specific locations May result from initial advantage: One region gets a head start in a particular industry --- Examples of cost savings from initial advantage: ◦ Sharing a common facility with many amenities (parking lots, public space, food courts) ◦ Attracting a shared labor market ◦ Having consumers combine multipurpose commercial trips into one ◦ Common infrastructure and accessibility to transportation systems ◦ Agglomeration of a set of activities near a specific facility ◦ A transport terminal ◦ A seat of government (lobbying, consulting, law) ◦ A large university (technology parks). Example: biomedical companies in BCS "biomedical corridor"

The economics of location

Countries are not homogenous economic blocs; they contain substantial regional variation -- Economic development is uneven both between and within countries Basic principles of commercial and industrial location: site and situation ◦ Access to suppliers ◦ Proximity to markets ◦ The availability and cost of labor ◦ Processing costs ◦ Firm location decisions seek to minimize relative transport, labor, and agglomeration costs -- Different regions have different economic specialties...why?

Developed economies are diversified

Countries with low scores on the Index of Commodity Concentration of Exports have diverse export bases Geology and other site characteristics can shape comparative advantage but economic structure and terms of trade also shape economic development Specialization in a narrow range of primary activities associated with lower levels of development

Offshore financial centers

Critical nodes in the circulation of capital and global flows of finance that support the global economy. Banking, Finance and Business Services are global - the economic geography of these services have changed fundamentally since the early 1970s. How has this occurred? ◦ Liberalization of international finance ◦ Internationalization of financial services ◦ Technology system including advances in telecommunications, digital information, fiber optics, satellite technologies has made the globalization of the office possible ◦ "hot money" (undeclared profits, fraud, drugs money, white collar crime, etc)

Dependency theory

Critiques and challenges modernization theory Assumptions: development of one area can only happen through underdevelopment of another area Predictions: structurally uneven development, rich countries stay rich by keeping poor countries poor --- Economic development emerges through relationships between countries arranged in a hierarchy ◦ One area can only develop by keeping another area in a state of economic subordination ◦ Prevents import substitution, encourages a durable pattern of narrow specialization in primary activities ◦ Textbook subscribes to this theory by using core/periphery model - Wallerstein's world system theory In this theory, structural adjustments solidify this hierarchical relationship by keeping poor countries trapped in narrow primary sector specializations ◦ Results in dependency ◦ High reliance on foreign enterprises for investment, technology ◦ Structural adjustments combined with international debt obligations prevent industrialization

Monocultures

Cultivation of a single crop in a given area Profit -maximizing strategy in which agribusiness grows or raises single species over large areas Thought to increase long - term risk of pests and disease by reducing genetic diversity Example: blight and the Irish Potato famine

GMO labeling

Currently, 64 countries require GMO labeling A majority countries (such as the United States) do not require GMO products to be labeled A few countries have official bans on genetically modified food.

De jure boundaries

De jure = legally recognized Can occur at the state, municipal, district scale Versus de facto, meaning true in fact if not legally recognized

What are the drivers of megacities?

Demographic transition • Large natural increase in urban and rural population results in rapidly growing age - sex structure • 'Excess' rural population migrates to city - most urban migrants are young Globalization's push and pull factors • Agricultural changes and lack of global competitiveness in countryside pushes out young people • Economic opportunities in the urban areas of newly industrialized countries but not all that labor is absorbed by formal economy

Rank-size rule

Describes predictable statistical relationship between population size of cities and their rank within the overall urban hierarchy: nth largest city is 1/n the size of largest city

Allocational boundary disputes

Drawing boundaries may lead to disputes over ownership of transboundary resources Example: disputes over how to allocate Nile River streamflow among upstream/downstream countries

Primary sector - agriculture

Economic development tends to be lower in countries where agricultural activities comprise a greater share of the economy Why? Specializing in the primary sector creates vulnerabilities resulting from technological change Technological change may lead to changes in the demand for some types of natural resources This, in turn, shifts geographies of resource extraction ◦ Hydraulic fracturing -> reduced demand for coal ◦ Electronics -> increased demand for silicon (computer chips), lithium (batteries) --- Specializing in the primary sector creates vulnerabilities to price fluctuations Price elasticity of demand: degree to which levels of demand for a product or service change in response to changes in price Terms of trade: ratio of prices at which exports and imports are exchanged Vulnerable to global markets fluctuations ◦ Primary goods have high price elasticities of demand: small changes in price lead to large changes in demand ◦ Global commodity prices are volatile and have generally declined over time, the terms of trade are stacked against primary producers ◦ Some primary producers cooperate to limit supply to manage price (Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries) ---- The "resource curse": under certain conditions, abundant resources engender corruption Control over valuable, geographically clustered mineral deposits can become a flashpoint for armed conflict or otherwise fund the conflict ◦ Sierra Leone Civil War (1991-2002) ◦ Chile vs. Peru/Bolivia - The "War of the Pacific" (1879-1884), a conflict over resource-rich coastal regions

Natural resources

Energy production: coal, oil, natural gas, uranium, renewables (especially hydropower and biomass) Basic raw materials for manufacturing and industrial development: iron, lead, wood, metal alloys, copper, zinc, etc - Natural resources are unevenly distributed ◦ Key components of international trade ◦ For poor countries, cost of importing energy burdens the economy. ◦ Energy consumption mirrors the core-periphery cleavage ◦ US, Russia, Canada, South Africa, and Australia control a disproportionate share of natural resources considered valuable today ◦ Abundance of natural resources does not necessarily translate to economic development - requires political stability, extractive technologies

Kosovo and the former Yugoslavia

Ethno-nationalism: strong feeling of belonging to a minority nation that is contained within a state dominated by a more powerful nation Example: ethnic Albanians Kosovo achieves independence from Serbia 2008

Economic structure

Examining economic structure helps explain why certain places or regions specialize in particular products or industries *Create Graphic Economic structure reflects geographic specialization in particular products or industries At a global scale, we can observe a correlation between economic structure and economic development ◦ Primary activities: typically low GDP countries in the periphery, where specialization can reflect colonial legacies (some oil-rich countries are an exception) ◦ Secondary activities: increasingly found in semiperiphery, either through import substitution or foreign direct investment, associated with increasing GDP ◦ Tertiary and quaternary activities: "post-industrial" economies in the core, high GDP. Economic development requires production and distribution of knowledge, managing information. Geographic specializations are also apparent at regional or local levels within a particular country ◦ Regions within a country specialize in primary, secondary, or tertiary activities

Deindustrialization in the core

Example of the geographic effects of creative destruction Lower -cost labor markets -> offshore manufacturing Creative destruction can turn agglomeration economies into backwash effects - downward spiral

Informal or de facto boundaries

Example: Areas controlled by armed groups that are not recognized by state actors

Central place theory

Explains the tendency for urban systems to be organized in hierarchical manner One large city surrounded by smaller towns and villages A function of consumer behavior and willingness to travel Geographic assumptions • Featureless landscape • Uniform population distribution • Infinite plane Behavioral assumptions • Consumers shop at the closest place possible • Consumers do not go beyond the range of the good • i.e. "how far consumers are willing to travel to buy" Hexagonal market areas • Higher-order central places also offer lower -order functions Central place: settlement in which certain types of products are available Smaller settlements: provide only those goods necessary for everyday needs Predicts a large number of small towns that provide 'everyday' goods, closer together Small number of larger settlements with broader variety of higher order goods, farther apart

The green revolution

Export of a technological package of machines, fertilizers, and high-yielding seeds from the core to the periphery to increase global agricultural productivity Key figure: Dr. Norman Borlaug (US agronomist) develops higher-yield varieties of wheat, rice, maize (corn) • Nobel Peace Prize, 1971

The urban divide

Extreme wealth and extreme poverty are juxtaposed against each other very closely Example: Apartheid legacies in Johannesburg Extreme wealth and extreme poverty are juxtaposed against each other very closely Example: Neza settlement in Mexico City, Mexico

U.S. agricultural subsidies

Farm subsidies allow for domestic ag products to remain profitable while ensuring cost to consumers remain affordable However, subsidies also contribute to inefficient production, can create unfair market practices --- US farm subsidies originate with Great Depression ◦ Compensate farmers to NOT produce, reducing surpluses, stabilize prices Today, most agricultural subsidies go to large corporations ◦ Corn, cotton, wheat, and rice are the most subsidized crops ◦ Texas is a key beneficiary of this system ◦ Direct payments to NOT produce, crop insurance ◦ Generally, core countries subsidize agricultural sector more than periphery (in part due to structural adjustments) --- US Farm Subsidy Database: http://farm.ewg.org/region.p hp?fips=00000 ~30% of farms subsidized "Specialty crops" a.k.a. fruits and vegetables largely NOT subsidized --- Texas is the largest recipient of agricultural subsidies in the US: $37 billion in subsidies 1995 -2019 Brazos County alone has received $54 million in subsidies over that period However, 86% of farms in Texas did NOT collect any payments

Feudal Europe

Feudalism: a rigid, rurally oriented form of economic and social organization based on the communal chiefdoms of Germanic tribes that had invaded the disintegrating Roman empire. Dominant social system in medieval Europe Rare to have settlements >10,000 inhabitants Walled cities: stark delineation of town and country

Fast food

Final link in numerous food supply chains Health concerns ◦ Addictive? ◦ World Health Organization: rising consumption of fast food linked with global increases in obesity, Type II Diabetes, other diet-related chronic health conditions Environmental concerns ◦ Producing cattle rangeland through deforestation ◦ Soil compaction ◦ Water consumption

What are the origins of cities?

First agricultural revolution set the stage: an agricultural surplus emerges Drivers of urbanization: • Population pressure • Specialization: crafts, trade • Social stratification: military, religion, taxation Early agricultural villages associated with mini-systems ◦ Began about 10,000 years ago ◦ Relatively small, egalitarian settlements where most of the population was involved in agriculture, some trade From village-based mini-systems: urban agglomerations emerged with early worldempires (dates approximate) ◦ Fertile Crescent - Nile, Tigris, Euphrates River valleys 3500 BCE ◦ Indus River Valley, 2500 BCE ◦ Huang He and Wei River Valleys, 1800 BCE ◦ Mesoamerica, 200 BCE ◦ Andes, 800 CE

Food supply chains

Five interconnected sectors: • Inputs • Production • Processing • Distribution • Consumption 4 external mediating forces: • State • International trade • Physical environment • Credit & Finance

Globalization of produce

Food regimes: specific set of links that exists among food production, consumption, capital investment, & accumulation opportunities Knox and Marston assert that a produce regime is currently dominant, a result of: • Integrated food chains • Containerization • Refrigeration Enables the post -modern diet of fresh fruits and vegetables year -round

Types of state boundaries

Formal boundaries often detour from straight lines and natural barriers in order to accommodate special needs and claims Physical-political boundary -Drawn along an agreed-upon feature in the physical geographic landscape e.g. center of river or crest of mountain Geometric boundaries -Boundaries based on a grid system e.g. latitude and longitude Cultural boundaries -Boundaries based on cultural traits e.g. ethnicity, religion, or language

Deindustrialization in the US Rust Belt

Former regional cluster of automotive manufacturing A relative decline in industrial employment in a core region as firms scale back their activities

Agricultural biotechnology

Genetically modified organisms: any organism that has had its DNA modified in a laboratory rather than through cross-pollination or other forms of evolution Hailed as the next wave of yield increases Potential to offer new pathways for production of commodities ◦ Overcome previous biological limitations to agriculture ◦ Reduce costs of production, natural resource management ◦ Address problems of agricultural sector (ie overproduction, overapplication of chemicals) ◦ "Pharming" - genetically modified plants that produce pharmaceuticals ◦ Integration into other nonfood sectors ◦ Production of plant material of combustion (better than ethanol)

Food deserts

Geographic areas where access to affordable, healthy whole foods, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, is limited and/or nonexistent Thought to contribute to diet -related health conditions among poor households and regions of core countries Arises from and entrenches poverty through health care costs

What is geopolitics?

Geopolitics refers to the interplay among geography, power, politics, and international relations

Hunger: Declining but still a problem

Global agricultural production could conceivably supply every person alive today with 3500 calorie per day diet However, today >700 million people undernourished Undernutrition: inadequate intake of one or more nutrients and/or calories Malnutrition: the condition that develops when the body does not get the right amount of the vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients it needs to maintain healthy tissues and organ function

Globalization of agribusiness

Globalization has restructured agricultural production Small number of transnational corporations dominate global agricultural market for some ag. products --- Results from shifts in international ag. policy ◦ Technological change - cheap transport, refrigeration ◦ International trade agreements (NAFTA, WTO) ◦ Integration into global commodity markets ◦ Interacts with national policies (subsidies, crop insurance) Decline of traditional agricultural practices ◦ Shifting cultivation, intensive subsistence replaced by commercial production ◦ Cheap imports drive out small, local producers Rise of transnational agribusiness ◦ Increased markets for goods ◦ Specialty knowledge of regulations, pricing - dealing with complexity ◦ Larger farmers have the capacity to: ◦ Export their overproduction to new markets ◦ Vertically integrate from 'raw materials' (farming) to finished commodities (what you see in the store) ◦ Concentration of land holdings ◦ "Get big or get out" - loss of the small farmer ◦ Spatial concentration of ag. production - monocultures

Contemporary globalization Faster, Broader scale, More complex

Globalization: increasing interconnectedness of different parts of the world through common processes of economic, environmental, political, and cultural change Economic globalization: The integration of all national economies into one global market, with one set of rules ◦ Global market takes precedence over national autonomy ◦ Supporting institutions are International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, World Trade Organization (WTO), and international trade agreements (NAFTA, etc.)

Neoliberal economic policies

Here, "liberal" refers to political philosophy, distinct from US electoral politics Neoliberalism: a political philosophy that identifies unregulated markets as the ideal condition not only for economic organization but also for political and social life --- International trade agreements are a signature feature of the neoliberal economic reforms that emerged throughout the 1990s Predicated on: ◦ A minimalist role for the state: Reduced subsidies and taxes, privatize publicly-owned companies and utilities, dismantle regulations ◦ Strong protections for private property rights ◦ International free trade agreements remove tariff and "non-tariff barriers to trade" Rooted in classical liberalism ◦ Belief in the need for limited government, laissez-faire ("let it be") markets, protections for individual freedoms ◦ Economic systems fair poorly under a central authority ◦ Pursuit of self-interest promotes the efficient allocation of goods through the price mechanism ◦ Minimal regulation of economic competition and strong protections for private property promote economic development

Cultivable (or arable) land

Highly uneven distribution - historically decisive in economic development Some regions overcome limits through agricultural technology and trade Agricultural productivity can be undermined by overexploitation of soil or water resources

Mackinder's 'Heartland' theory

Holds that a land-based empire in Eurasia would be the most likely base for global domination - combination of resources, population, proximity Influenced the creation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), US's Russian containment policy in the 1950s The world according to Mackinder: ◦ Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland ◦ Who rules the Heartland commands the World Island ◦ Who rules the World Island commands the world

Where is the state?

How are states assembled in space? How do they transform it? How do they maintain control?

Measuring urbanization

How do we track how urbanized our world has become over time? ◦ World Bank agglomeration index: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10 986/9039?locale-attribute=es ◦ According to World Bank, an area is considered "urban" if: ◦ Population density > 150 people/km² ◦ Access to settlement of more than 50,000 inhabitants within 60 minutes by road ◦ 2010: ~50% of global population lived in an urban area ◦ Roughly 3% of the terrestrial surface is urbanized by this measure ◦ 2050: projected ~70% urban population, mostly attributable to growth in periphery How long does it take for the urban population to double in size? Doubling time: measure of how long it will take the population of an area to grow to twice its current size

Nomadic groups

Hunter-gatherers and some pastoralists are continuously moving in search of forage for livestock Transhumance: moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle, typically to lowlands in winter and highlands in summer.

First agricultural revolution

Hunting and gathering: activities whereby people feed themselves through killing wild animals and fish and gathering fruits, roots, nuts, and other edible plants to sustain themselves. Subsistence agriculture: farming for direct consumption by the producers; not for sale Replacement of hunting and gathering with subsistence agriculture ◦ Occurred roughly the same time in many places around the world ◦ Key innovations: seed breeding, plows, (usually) draft animals ◦ Developing where we normally think of cradles of civilization

Modernization theory and structural adjustments

If all countries follow a single path of economic development, perhaps their trajectory along that path could be accelerated ◦ Structural adjustments were seen as accelerating the modernization process, jump-starting an industrial revolution ◦ Free markets, privatization, deregulation set conditions for economic development ◦ Technology transfer, infrastructure projects, foreign aid accelerate the process However, modernization theory cannot explain persistent poverty in countries that have implemented reforms Critiques of modernization theory ◦ Based on a Western experience ◦ Posits a single, linear path of economic development - underdevelopment due to internal factors rather than position in a world system

Geopolitics of imperialism

Imperialism: extension of the power of a nation through direct or indirect control of the economic and political life of other territories

Gender inequality index

Improving conditions for women contributes to economic development through: Productivity gains Human capital development Responsive and representative institutions

Sea level rise poses existential threat to small island nations

In 2009, the Maldives held an 'underwater cabinet meeting' to draw attention to the threat of sea level rise

The Arab Spring

In 2011, a series of political uprisings emerged in the Middle East and North Africa against authoritarian regimes Outcomes from these uprisings have been mixed, from democratization (Tunisia) to civil war (Syria)

Benefits of the Green Revolution

Increased global yields; increased intensification ◦ Yields increased by 50 to 100 percent in the space of a few years ◦ Allowed global food production to match population growth Supported the creation of other International Agricultural Research Center (IARCs) ◦ Scientific advancement in periphery New economic policies for agriculture to benefit farmers

Second agricultural revolution related to Industrial Revolution

Industrial revolution crucial to further advances in commercial, mechanized agriculture • Boom in demand for food commodities • Diffusion of industrial innovations to agriculture: Machine tools and metalworking, steam power, and railroads reshape ag. productivity

Industrialization and urbanization of the core

Industrial revolution(s): economic development becomes synonymous with urbanization Demographic transition: surplus rural labor 2 nd Agricultural revolution: increased yields

Operational landscapes

Infrastructure networks that extend beyond the city

Tourism and economic development

International tourism economy = $944billion (2008) Core country spending (plus China) = 25% of total international tourist dollars in 2008 ◦ Cheaper transnational/transcontinental travel Tourism key development model for many countries in the periphery ◦ Ecotourism (Costa Rica) ◦ Exotic Wildlife (Kenya) ◦ Scenery (Nepal, Vietnam) ◦ Beaches (Seychelles) ◦ Shopping (Singapore, HK, Dubai) Positive ◦ Preservation of arts and crafts ◦ Valuation of local culture ◦ Potential income for diversifying the economy Negative ◦ Highly vulnerable to global economic change (eg, 2008) ◦ Highly vulnerable to political disturbance, natural disasters, atypical weather ◦ Exploitative relationship with local communities, indigenous communities; loss of control of local landscapes ◦ Pollution and unsightly development

The Blue revolution

Introduction of new production techniques, processing technology, infrastructure, and larger, motorized boats as well as the application of transgenics into peripheral country fisheries Industrializing fishing ◦ Larger, more sophisticated vessels for wild fishing Aquaculture ◦ Cultivation of fish and shellfish under controlled conditions, usually in coastal lagoons ◦ Breeding programs ◦ Pen/harvesting technology Industrial -scale fish processing Increased demand for affluent consumers ◦ Salmon, shrimp, ◦ Rebranding fish species: 'Chilean sea bass' a.k.a. Patagonian toothfish Example: Environmental costs of global shrimp through land cover conversion • loss of wetlands and mangroves • Affects biodiversity, hydrological services, carbon sequestration Land degradation of adjacent farmland due to saltation Contributing decline of fisheries through the indiscriminate capture

Irredentism on the Russian border

Irredentism: assertion by the government of a country that a minority living outside its formal borders belongs to it historically and culturally Example: disputed Russian annexation of Crimea (Ukraine) and invasion of South Ossetia (Georgia)

Post-Fordist production

JIT seeks to reduce inventories ◦ Reduces spatial requirements of production ◦ Small batches as needed, hence "just-in-time" Flexible production system allows producers to shift between different levels of output and from one process or product to another, made possible by: ◦ Reprogrammable computerized machine tools ◦ Computer-aided design Just-in-time -Computer-aided manufacturing systems

What is "informal economic activity"?

Key adaptation to overurbanization Economic activity that provides some income for those employed or engaged in that activity Not authorized by the state; unregistered, untaxable Estimated to be growing 10x faster than the formal sector in some areas Women tend to participate in the informal economy more than men

Food localization movements

Local food: food produced within a fairly limited distance from where it is consumed Food miles: the distance that food travels from the farm to the consumer. Howdy Farm: http://tamuhowdyfarm.weeb ly.com

Projected effects of climate change on agricultural output

Major changes in agriculture worldwide over the last five decades Agriculture systems face uncertain future EPA projected impacts of climate change on ag: https://19january2017snapsho t.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate-impactsagriculture-and-foodsupply_.html

Fordism

Manufacturing based on assembly line techniques and high wages, and reliant upon mass consumption

Megaregions

Megaregions form as low - density urban settlements begin to grow into one another An interlocking set of urban systems emerge Higher population densities although not all places within these regions are evenly urbanized

Cumulative causation theory

Model to formalize the spiral buildup of advantages that occurs in specific geographic settings as a result of the development of external economies, agglomeration effects, and so on Introduced by Myrdal Backward linkage - develop as new firms arrive to provide the growing industry goods and services (components, facilities, etc.) Forward linkage - develop as new firms arrive to take products from the growing industry and use them as inputs to their processing, assembly, finishing, packaging, etc. Ancillary industries: industries that support larger industries (maintenance, data entry) - As various components of the regional economy become more functionally interdependent: Specialized labor pools develop Research and Development (R&D) emerge Further enhances benefits of continuing to locate in this region Benefits spill over to the housing market and the service industries that provide products those workers would like to purchase Cumulative regional development, complex webs of functionally interdependent economic activities Increased tax base funds infrastructure improvements, local amenities, schools

The world's megacities

Most important attribute is their sheer size: population of 10 million or more Megacities are disproportionately concentrated in periphery, where rates of urban growth are highest In periphery, these cities often play an intermediary role in world system: a link between hinterlands and the global market Sometimes sites with historical linkages to colonialism

Key cities in 1000 CE

Most major urban settlements (~100K or more population) were seats the Islamic caliphates, the Byzantine empire, the Chinese empire, and Indian kingdoms

Multi -state nation

Nation that transcends the borders of two or more states Example: The Koreas

The nation-state

Nation-state: ideal form consisting of a homogeneous group of people governed by their own state. Articulates the idea that a nation and a state should be geographically coterminous ◦ Political boundaries align with cultural boundaries ◦ An ideal for governments as source of political loyalty and unity ◦ Rare in practice ◦ Examples: Japan, Iceland

Cumulative causation theory 2

Negative feedbacks on cumulative causation Agglomeration diseconomies: the negative economic effects of urbanization and the local concentration of industry --- Over time, the effects of agglomeration economies can increase certain costs ◦ Congestion: Heavy traffic increases time and fuel costs of transport ◦ Crowding-out effects: too many competitors in the same place may increase incentives to move elsewhere ◦ High costs of land and housing: as demand to be located in the regional economic hub increases, prices for land and housing are bid up ◦ Higher taxes, other costs of living --- What about areas that do not have initial advantage? Cumulative causation can drain other regions of their labor, entrepreneurial talent, and investment capital However, it may also create opportunities for economic growth One possibility: Backwash effects ◦ Negative impacts on a region (or regions) of the economic growth of some other region ◦ Capital outflows: capital seeks highest return, prefers to locate in areas where cumulative causation occurs and avoid areas where it does not ◦ Out-migration, brain drain (loss of talent) to areas enjoying benefits of cumulative causation, depleted labor pools ◦ Depleted tax base, less funds for infrastructure, amenities Another possibility: Spread effects ◦ Positive impacts on a region (or regions) of the economic growth of some other region ◦ Increasing demand for products that are more profitable outside the regional cluster ◦ Ex: vegetable production is land and labor-intensive, does not need to happen in Silicone Valley where land prices are high, but growth of Silicone Valley increases demand for vegetables

Neoliberal economic policies 2

Neoliberalism: a political philosophy that identifies unregulated markets as the ideal condition not only for economic organization but also for political and social life International trade agreements are a signature feature of the neoliberal economic reforms that emerged throughout the 1990s Predicated on: ◦ A minimalist role for the state: Reduced subsidies and taxes, privatize publicly-owned companies and utilities, dismantle regulations ◦ Strong protections for private property rights ◦ International free trade agreements remove tariff and "nontariff barriers to trade" Assumes that: ◦ Markets will end poverty ◦ Markets will solve environmental problems ◦ Economic growth is essential ◦ Even if some people lose out

A new international division of labor

Newly industrializing countries (NICs): formerly peripheral countries that have acquired a significant industrial sector, either through import substitution or foreign direct investment Foreign direct investment (FDI): total of overseas business investments made by transnational corporations (TNCs)

Gateway cities

Often, these are port cities that facilitate easy entrance and exit, connectivity between regions During the colonial period, European powers founded or developed gateway cities as they expanded trading networks and established colonies.

Orientalism

Orientalism is a discourse associated with European imperialism that positions the West as culturally superior to the East This discourse and the cultural representations it produced legitimized imperialism by framing it as a moral duty Edward Said argued that European art, literature, scholarship, etc. exaggerated and over -simplified the differences between 'West' and 'East' to portray the latter as backwards, unchanging, exotic, or irrational - and therefore in need of Western control. Today, orientalism is a foundational concept within postcolonial studies, which examines cultural legacies of imperialism.

Third agricultural revolution

Originated in North America, late 19th century Three main phases: • Mechanization • Chemical & synthetic fertilizers • Food manufacturing Another vast increase in yields Mechanization ◦ Replacement of human labor with machines ◦ Rise of the combine - vast efficiencies in grain production ◦ Reliance on hydrocarbons Agricultural chemicals ◦ Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, synthetic fertilizers ◦ 1950s US 1960s in Europe, 1970s peripheral ◦ Important environmental, social and economic consequences Food manufacturing ◦ Adding value to agricultural products including canning, processing, refining, packaging, etc. ◦ New technologies, new market ◦ Begin a tremendous change between humans and their food

Industrialization of agriculture

Outcome of 3rd ag. revolution The farm has moved from being the centerpiece of agricultural production to part of broader commodity production system This system integrates a string of vertically organized industrial processes including production, storage, processing, distribution, marketing, and retailing --- A few social consequences of the industrialization of agriculture: • Changes in rural labor activities • Machines replaced workers • Rural out -migration • Farmers obligated to purchase specific inputs • Fertilizers, pesticides, biotechnologies • Industrialization of food • Industrial substitutes for some ag. products

Wall painting from Catal Hyük

Part of a World Heritage site (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1405) from Catal Hyük in modernday Turkey, this wall painting appears to depict a "beehive" settlement design, dated to 6200 BCE

What is political geography?

Political geography is the study of political organization of the world and the spatial manifestations of political processes at various scales: from the local to national, international, and global. Examples of questions posed by political geography: ◦ What are the functions of political boundaries? How are political boundaries delineated and enforced? How do they change over time? ◦ How is power used to govern populations and territories? What are some of the ways that power is contested? ◦ What constitutes the state? How are populations, territories, and states inter-related?

Urban expansion during late medieval period

Population centers in feudal Europe: • Ecclesiastical or university centers • Defensive strongholds • Administrative centers Drivers of merchant capitalism • Regional specializations and money economy emerge, products of increased taxation • Rise of nodal centers of trade

Shifting cultivation

Practice in which farmers aim to preserve soil fertility by rotating fields that are cultivated Ex: Cultivate for 5 years, allow 20 years fallow (unused) to recover fertility, then slash and burn to return to cultivation Only supports low population densities, can be ecologically damaging at higher densities Typically associated with communal land tenure systems Today, found mainly in tropics where climate, rainfall, & vegetation combine to produce nutrient poor soils

Urban agriculture

Practice of agriculture and livestock -raising in urban and peri - urban environments. Examples: • Household gardens • Urban chicken coops • Community gardens In US, post -WWII decline and recent rebound associated with food localization movement Considered a key dimension of food security in periphery

Intertillage

Practice of mixing crops in field Common among agrarian societies using shifting cultivation: • Reduce risk of crop failure from disasters • Balance diet • Allow for staggering harvesting - food all year

Intensive subsistence

Practice that involves cultivating small parcels of land year after year with the aim of maximizing crop yield Usually involves high inputs of human labor and fertilizer to be effective Associated with familial land tenure system - land passed down generation to generation, often subdivided

The "new world order" following the Cold War

Pres. H.W. Bush proclaimed a "new world order" at the end of the Cold War (1991) What "new world order" did Bush envision? ◦ New world order: triumph of capitalism over communism, wherein the United States becomes the world's only superpower and therefore its policing force Signature feature of Bush I's "new world order": political and economic globalization backed up by US military dominance ◦ Worldwide promotion of Western-style democracy ◦ Capitalist economic development guided by neoliberal economic policies and transnational corporations ◦ Certain forms of international cooperation ◦ Unregulated international trade ◦ Military coalitions to conduct global policing actions (Iraq, Afghanistan) ◦ Realignment of geopolitical power, rising influence of newly industrialized countries

Primacy and centrality

Primacy: population of the largest city is disproportionality large, skews the rank -size rule Centrality: city is dominant (in political power, cultural influence, or economic output) relative to population

What are the consequences of megacity growth?

Rapid, uncontrolled growth of megacities overwhelms existing housing, jobs, and infrastructure Leads to overurbanization: condition in which cities grow more rapidly than the jobs and housing they can sustain Scarcity of safe, sanitary, affordable housing -> growth of informal housing Example: Informal housing in Bandjarmasin, Indonesia Urban migrants settle in areas that are neither owned nor rented by occupants Public health and environmental problems - lack of water/sewer infrastructure, excess of air and water pollution Example: Air pollution in Delhi, India Motor vehicle emissions, coal plants, and burning of agricultural stubble contribute to Delhi's poor air quality Population growth exceeds urban jobs availability -> growth of informal urban economy Example: Waste pickers in Brasilia, Brazil Jobs in the informal economy can outnumber those in the formal economy for some developing countries

Deindustrialization

Results from agglomeration diseconomies (pollution, increased crime, etc.) Decentralization of jobs and people from larger to smaller cities, often with lower labor costs Counterurbanization: occurs when cities experience net population loss to rural or smaller cities Reurbanization: growth of population in central cores following period of decline

Terrorism

Rise of terrorism as a mechanism to challenge US hegemony in the new world order - pivotal factor in contemporary geopolitics For US government's description of terrorism, see: Groups take issue with the move toward liberal, Western-style democracies and capitalist consumption practices have used terrorism to advance their agenda ◦ Terrorism: the threat or use of force to bring about political change ◦ Derived from the Latin "terrorem," which translates as "panic," "alarm," or "great fear" ◦ Aims to have psychological repercussions beyond immediate victims ◦ Does not adhere to conventions of war outlined in Geneva Convention ◦ Often (but not always) targets civilians indiscriminately ◦ Can be categorized as domestic or international, conducted by individual or group, state-sponsored, faith-based US War on Terrorism has become central to global policing ◦ Invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, US military presence in 150 countries

Roman Empire 117 CE

Roman expansion produced a network of urban settlements and military garrisons linked by a well - developed road system facilitating trade Shapes the urban system in Europe today

Dominant forms of subsistence agriculture

Shifting cultivation Intensive subsistence cultivation Pastoralism

Lagos, Nigeria: An archetypal megacity

Shock city: A city that is seen as the embodiment of surprising and rapid changes in economic, social, and cultural life Previous shock cities: Manchester, England (early 19th cent.) and Chicago IL (early 20th cent.), archetype for the industrial city

Thawing of the Arctic opens up a new arena of geopolitical competition

Significant areas of the Arctic may turn permanently ice - free in the future The entire area may become seasonally ice -free. The absence of ice will open up strategic waterways for longer periods of time - new shipping routes, new opportunities for resource extraction

Creative destruction

Sparked by technological change, new markets Creates new industries, job opportunities, products, demand for different resources, new windows of locational opportunity But also destroys other industries, jobs, etc., undermines the competitiveness of other regions

Multi -national states

State with more than one nation Examples: Afghanistan, Pakistan

Pastoralism

Subsistence activity that involves the breeding and herding of animals to satisfy the human needs of food, shelter, and clothing Usually practiced in cold or dry climates of savannas (grasslands), deserts, & steppes (lightly wooded grassy plains) Can be either sedentary or nomadic

Transnational political integration

Supranational organizations: collections of individual states with a common goal that may be economic and/or political in nature Example: United Nations (emerged from League of Nations) Example: European Union Indicates a changing role of the state, diminishing state sovereignty in favor of collective action Post-Cold War - a multipolar world? World Trade Organization is the clearest global manifestation of the 'new world order' Economic integration into world market places limits on how states can control economic activity within their territories - Increasing participation in international agreements and treaties Rise of international frameworks on armed conflict (International Criminal Court) or human rights US has played a role in drafting these agreements but US Congress has not always ratified them

Main consequences of economic globalization

Technological change + policy change produce a new international division of labor, which in turn shifts core-periphery relationships A new technology system • Manufacturing has largely shifted to periphery and semiperiphery • Core countries engaged in high tech manufacturing and services A new international division of labor • The emergence of a materialistic international culture (facilitated largely by the new telecommunications media) • Global branding and marketing of "world products" Homogenized int'l consumer markets • Emergence of global banking and the internationalization of finance • Facilitates new patterns of investment and disinvestment (including speculative investing and trading) The internationalization of finance • Emergence of global banking and the internationalization of finance • Facilitates new patterns of investment and disinvestment (including speculative investing and trading).

State boundaries define territory

Territory: delimited area over which a state exercises control and which is recognized by other states Inclusionary and exclusionary functions: • Control people, resources, and activities within territory • Regulate who or what can traverse boundary

Environmental effects of boundaries

The Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) between North and South Korea is perhaps the most heavily fortified state boundary in existence today Yet, the way this area has been rendered off -limits to humans has produced a spontaneous wildlife refuge, home to 2000+ species

What conditions influence the prosperity of cities?

The UN's "City Prosperity Index": • Infrastructure and amenities • Social services • Environmental quality • Equity and social inclusion • Income and employment that afford adequate living standards

"Just -in -time" flexible logistics

The Walmart model No backroom inventories Communication and transportation technologies to restock as needed Potentially sensitive to unanticipated shifts in supply or demand

Government

The body or group of persons who run the administration of a country

Colonial cities

The colonial legacy has been inscribed in the urban form of these cities • Colonial architecture associated with colonial power • City planning and regulations based on colonizers' concepts building codes, and requirements • Example - Mumbai, a "planted" colonial city Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, a World Heritage site Rajabai Clock Tower, modeled off Big Ben

What is a city?

The forms produced through urbanization and the very definitions of an urban settlement vary by country and world region Madrid neighborhood exhibits urban form pre-automobile Tokyo, densest urban area in the world Houston suburb, planned around the car New types of urban agglomeration and inequality, particularly in the global South, are challenging conventional approaches to how to think about and plan for urbanization Hillside development in Caracas Kibera shantytown, Nairobi, Kenya Blue tarps serve as roofs in informal settlements of Mumbai

Drivers of economic globalization

The interaction of these drivers enables: • Moving goods • Moving capital (debt, investment, aid) • Faster and Cheaper Transnational corporate (TNC) dominance over economic activity --- Technological change in transport and communication Reduced transportation costs ◦ Containerization: vast reduction in the cost of moving stuff across the globe ◦ Increase productivity, reduce production costs, sell to new markets ◦ Affects the economics of location Contributes to intensified international competition ◦ New players, new places to produce goods to further increase productivity and profits ◦ New agglomeration economies ◦ Contributes to the homogenization of consumer tastes --- The logistics revolution: containerization reshaped patterns of world trade Did away with the slow, expensive, and unreliable business of loading and unloading ships with manual labor

How is space politically organized?

The modern state: An independent, bounded, and internationally recognized territory with full sovereignty over the land and people within it—in other words, a "country." Sovereignty: exercise of state power over people and territory, recognized by other states and codified by international law. --- Origins of the State (in the West) ◦ 1648: Peace of Westphalia established the Holy Roman Empire and other sovereign states ◦ Defined rights of rulers within fixed, defined, demarcated territories (sovereignty); non-overlapping territories ◦ First time that territories defined society - not societies defining territories Key ideologies associated with the rise of states ◦ Patriotism: Promotion of loyalty to the state ◦ Citizenship: A category of belonging that confers a set of political and social rights within a state ◦ 18th -19th century invention, results from revolt against monarchy Today, nearly all land areas are incorporated within states ◦ Exception: portions of Antarctica --- Nation: A defined group of people with a shared past and a common future who relate to a territory and have political goals Constructed by people to make sense of themselves "Imagined communities" (Benedict Anderson) ◦ Imagined = you will never meet all the people in your nation ◦ Community = you see yourself as part of it (eg., language; history; religion; culture) ◦ Nationalism: Strong sense of loyalty to one's nation; does not coincide with the borders of a state Relates to the political organization of space through the idea of a homeland ◦ Homeland: territory in which it is believed that a nation has origins ◦ Nations perceived as "natural" and "always existing" but really a relatively recent phenomenon ◦ 19th century republics cultivated a sense of the nation from which to derive legitimacy for democratic rule ◦ Example: producing the French nation through standardization on an official language, stamping out of regional dialects

The global assembly line

The reorganization of corporate operations in production, manufacturing, marketing and sales of a good that takes advantage of cost opportunities between countries, place and regions. --- The global assembly line refers to consumer goods that are made with raw materials, components, labor, and manufacture from around the world Key advantages of global assembly line ◦ Standardized product for global market is cheaper ◦ Takes advantage of full range of geographical variations in cost (labor, inputs, etc) ◦ Not dependent on single source for inputs or components (distributes risk) Supply chains that crisscross the world A new division of labor Allows to maximize economies of scale Allows to maximize geographic variation in cost - cheaper labor, manufacture near raw materials & near markets Not dependent on single source of supply -- Export-processing zones: Small areas or regions within countries (semi-peripheral, or peripheral countries) where governments encourage FDI Favorable conditions include: ◦ Min. bureaucracy; no foreign exchange restrictions; Little environmental regulation; Low labor unionization; government-backed actions against organized labor; Available factory space (cheap; Low/No taxes; Exemption from tariffs New employment opportunities ◦ 1985: 173 EPZs, 1.8m workers ◦ 1998: 850 EPZs, 27m workers ◦ 2006: 3500 EPZs, 66m workers Do not necessarily strengthen local economies Environmental problems; labor repression; social disruption (ie, Ciudad Juarez); child labor

What is agriculture?

The science, art, and business directed at the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance and profit Agrarian: referring to the culture of agricultural communities and the type of tenure (landholding) system that determines access to land and the kind of cultivation practices employed there

Measures of economic development

Three global-scale indicators of economic development Allow for comparing national economies Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ◦ An estimate of the total value of materials, goods, and services produced by a country in a particular year ◦ Produced WITHIN country boundaries Gross National Income (GNI) ◦ similar to GDP, but also includes the value of income from abroad ◦ i.e. includes flow of profits and losses from overseas investments Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) ◦ measures how much of a common "market basket" of goods and services each currency can purchase locally, including goods and services that are not traded internationally.

Global changes in food production and consumption

Three prominent forces are shaping ag today: • Agribusiness • Food commodity chains • Integration of ag into manufacturing, service, finance, & trade sectors

How do cities relate to one another?

Towns and cities are part of an interlocking urban systems based on the economic role they play in the larger economy Central place theory Rank-size rule Primacy/centrality "World cities"

International trade agreements

Trading blocs: groups of countries with formalized systems of trading agreements Autarky: an economic policy or situation in which a nation is independent of international trade and not reliant upon imported goods -- Trading blocs structure most of the international trade that takes place today ◦ Trading blocs form international trade agreements that govern the movement of goods, services, and money across borders ◦ GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), 1947 ◦ WTO (World Trade Organization) - replaced GATT 1995 ◦ NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 1994 ◦ EU (European Union, different levels of engagement), 1999 ◦ MERCOSUR/MERCOSUL (South America), 1991 International trade is associated with increased economic growth at the country level ◦ However, creates winners and losers within and between countries ◦ Some countries have a formal or de facto policy of autarky and abstain from these trading blocs (North Korea)

Transnational corporations

Transnational corporations (TNCs): companies with investments/activities that go across international borders The annual sales figures of the world 's largest corporations exceed the GNI of some countries

Transportation infrastructure drives urbanization today

Transportation networks guide how cities develop and influences the rising or falling prominence of cities at specific points in history The canal system opened up the interiors of Europe and North America in the eighteenth century were initially dependent on horsepower Chicago's phenomenal growth in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century could not have taken place without its railroad network The interstate system both promoted and redistributed economic development, leveraging tech. changes like containerization

How are state boundaries established?

Treaties after conflict, as part of peace accords Example: Peace of Westphalia, 1648 Redistributed territories, also introduced fundamental concepts of sovereignty and balance of power that would form the basis of international law --- Processes of colonization Example: Berlin Conference, 1884 Set ground rules among colonizing countries in the scramble for Africa --- Processes of decolonization Example: Partition of India and Pakistan, 1947 British bureaucrat draws a line creating separate states of India and Pakistan, millions of households find themselves on the 'wrong' side of the new border --- Collapse of a geopolitical formation Example: Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the reunification of Germany, 1990 --- Mechanisms of state boundary formation ◦ Treaties after conflict, as part of peace accords ◦ Example: Peace of Westphalia (1648) ◦ Processes of colonization ◦ Example: Berlin Conference, 1884 ◦ Processes of decolonization ◦ Example: Partition of India and Pakistan, 1947 ◦ Collapse of a geopolitical formation ◦ Example: Dissolution of Soviet Union, reunification of Germany 1989 ◦ Other examples? Four steps to establishing boundaries (all highly contentious) ◦ Define boundary and secure international recognition ◦ Map boundary - put it on paper, make it formal ◦ Demarcate boundary on the ground - fortifications, defenses ◦ Administer boundary ◦ How will the border be maintained? ◦ How will people and goods cross the border?

Urbanization in Europe's Age of Discovery

Two processes of urbanization underway: colonial cities and gateway cities Colonial city • Deliberately established or developed as commercial or administrative centers by imperial powers • Two types: • Cities deliberately "planted" by colonial powers in locations that previously did have significant urban settlement • Calcutta, Mumbai ("Bombay"), Ho Chi Minh City ("Saigon"), Hong Kong, Jakarta, and Manila • Colonial functions were grafted onto an existing settlement • Delhi, Mexico City, Shanghai, and Tunis Gateway city • Urban centers that serve as a link between on country or region and others because of physical location • Control centers that command trading access to country or region and gradually became administrative and financial centers (port cities); • Commodities and people moved through these locations • As colonization increased, some gateway cities grew into major population centers

Spatial distribution of state power

Unitary state: form of government in which power is concentrated in the central government Federal state: form of government in which power is allocated to units of local government within the country. Increasingly, regionalist sentiments are producing calls for devolution of power in European countries ◦ Regionalism: collective identity based on politico - territorial identification within a state or across borders ◦ Devolution: The movement of power from the central government to regional governments within the state ◦ In other words, regions seek greater autonomy, a redistribution of power 'outward' to the local or regional level

Frontiers

Unsettled or sparsely settled regions with weak state boundaries Spanning Mongolia and China, the Gobi Desert is a sparsely populated frontier region where rangeland, resource extraction, and (increasingly) solar farming are the dominant economic activities

What is urban geography?

Urban geography is the quantitative and qualitative study of towns and cities around the world, their development, spatial form, attributes, dynamism and interdependencies with other places Exemplar questions posed by urban geographers: ◦ Why does urban growth happen at particular places and times? ◦ What are the relationships and interdependencies between cities? ◦ What attributes make particular towns and cities distinctive? How have these distinctions evolved over time? ◦ What regularities exist in the spatial organization of land use within cities, patterning of neighborhoods, and in the urban landscape?

Informal economy: Benefits and problems

Urban informality represents an adaptation to the failure of markets to provide sufficient jobs and housing to accommodate growing urban migration However, some global development organizations (ex: OECD) argue that the dual economic structure acts as a drag on economic development Benefits • Absorbs to a certain degree the young labor force migrating to the city • Produce goods and services not filled by the formal sector • Increase economic opportunities for women Problems • Informal sector does not yield tax revenue for improving infrastructure • Exploitation of labor rampant; most vulnerable (children, disabled, vulnerable) • Difficult for urban planning with highly diversified and unknown economic activities • Income -generating, but low productivity reliant on obsolete technologies (often dangerous) • Reliance on informal credit (money lenders)

Urbanization

Urbanization typically refers to the process of increasing concentration of population into growing metropolitan areas Leads to a complex series of quantitative and qualitative shifts Key aspects of city spaces that undergo change through the process of urbanization: ◦ Urban systems: interdependent set of urban settlements ◦ Urbanism: describes the way of life fostered in urban settings; the distinctive attitudes, values, and patterns of behavior in urban settings ◦ Urban form: the physical structure and organization of cities in the land use, layout and built environment ◦ Urban ecology: social and demographic composition of city districts and neighborhoods (ethnic neighborhoods, gentrification processes); concern with urban environmental quality, the distribution of green spaces, parks, etc.

Ratzel's 'organic state' theory

Used to justify territorial expansion of empires in late 19th century Naturalized the nation-state and conquest for resources Ratzel's ideas influenced Nazi expansionism, especially through the concept of 'Lebensraum' Ratzel's theory drew on Darwin's theories of evolution to explain territorial expansion ◦ Compares the state to a biological organism ◦ A developing state 'absorbs' smaller political units ◦ Territorial expansion was framed as a natural, inevitable consequence of social evolution ◦ State requires more and more territory, overseas connections, in order to survive Although this biological metaphor has been abandoned, the idea that geopolitics stems from the interactions of power and territory persists

States use a variety of strategies to police boundaries

Varying degrees of security along the US border - fences, swath of bare earth Increasingly, states augment physical manifestations of boundaries with technologies like drones, RFID (radio frequency identification) chips, and biometrics

Functions and capacities of urban settlements

What are the roles of towns and cities in human social and economic organization? These functions and capacities make urban settlements hubs for economic development and cultural change Mobilizing functions- • Provide effective and efficient means for entrepreneurs to mobilize labor, capital, raw materials •Hub for transportation infrastructure - bring inputs together, distribute outputs, facilitate international trade Decision-making capacity Nerve centers for national economies • Concentrations of economic and political power i.e. corporate headquarters, banking/finance, bureaucratic administration Generative functions Concentrate human capital - magnets for talent, hubs for innovation/art/culture • Serendipity - possibilities for encounter, hybridity, novel combinations • Centers of innovation, knowledge, and information development and distribution Transformative capacity • Variety of urban settlements, population and communities often have a liberating effect on people and opportunity to participated in variety of lifestyles.

What is economic development?

processes of change involving the nature and composition of the economy of a particular region as well as to increases in the overall prosperity of a region The process of economic development is typically described in terms of: ◦ Composition of the economy (e.g. agriculture, manufacturing, services) ◦ Economic organization (e.g. capitalism, socialism) ◦ Technological change Using these descriptions, we can scrutinize and compare uneven economic development at multiple scales ◦ Local or regional clusters of manufacturing ◦ National economies ◦ Core-periphery dynamics ◦ Complex global supply chains