HUSH Ch. 10-12 Test

10.4 Lincoln Douglas Debates

"The 1858 race for the U.S. Senate between Democratic incumbent Douglas and Republican challenger Abraham Lincoln. -Douglas was a two-term senator with an outstanding record and a large campaign chest. -Lincoln was a self-educated man with a dry wit. -Lincoln was known locally as a successful lawyer and politician. -Lincoln was elected as a Whig to one term in Congress in 1846, he broke with his party after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 and became a Republican two years later.

10.3 The Free-Soilers

-A number of Northern Free-Soilers supported laws prohibiting black settlement in their communities and denying blacks the right to vote. -Free-Soilers objected to slavery's impact on free white workers in the wage-based labor force, upon which the North depended. -Free-Soilers detected a dangerous pattern in such events as the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act and the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. -They were convinced that a conspiracy existed on the part of the "diabolical slave power" to spread slavery throughout the United States.

11.2 Britain Remains Neutral

-A number of economic factors made Britain no longer dependent on Southern cotton. -Not only had Britain accumulated a huge cotton inventory just before the outbreak of war, it also found new sources of cotton in Egypt and India. -When Europe's wheat crop failed, Northern wheat and corn replaced cotton as an essential import. -As one magazine put it, "Old King Cotton's dead and buried." -Britain decided that neutrality was the best policy—at least for a while.

10.2 Tension in Kansas and Nebraska

-Abolitionist feelings in the North further intensified when the issue of slavery in the territories—supposedly settled by the Compromise of 1850—surfaced once again. -Senator Stephen Douglas, who had helped to steer the compromise to victory, was the person most responsible for resurrecting the issue.

11.4 Sherman's March

-After Sherman's army occupied the transportation center of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, a Confederate army tried to circle around him and cut his railroad supply lines. -Sherman decided to fight a different battle. -He would abandon his supply lines and march southeast through Georgia, creating a wide path of destruction and living off the land as he went. -He would make Southerners "so sick of war that generations would pass away before they would again appeal to it." -In mid-November, he burned most of Atlanta and set out toward the coast. -After taking Savannah just before Christmas, Sherman's troops turned north to help Grant "wipe out Lee." -Following behind them now were about 25,000 former slaves eager for freedom. -As the army marched through South Carolina in 1865, it inflicted even more destruction than it had in Georgia. -As one Union private exclaimed, "Here is where treason began and, by God, here is where it shall end!" -The army burned almost every house in its path. -In contrast, when Sherman's forces entered North Carolina, which had been the last state to secede, they stopped destroying private homes and—anticipating the end of the war—began handing out food and other supplies."

11.1 "On to Richmond"

-After dawdling all winter, McClellan finally got under way in the spring of 1862. -He transported the Army of the Potomac slowly toward the Confederate capital. -On the way he encountered a Confederate army commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston. -After a series of battles, Johnston was wounded, and command of the army passed to Robert E. Lee. -Lee was very different from McClellan—modest rather than vain, and willing to go beyond military textbooks in his tactics. -He had opposed secession. However, he declined an offer to head the Union army and cast his lot with his beloved state of Virginia. -Determined to save Richmond, Lee moved against McClellan in a series of battles known collectively as the Seven Days' Battles, fought from June 25 to July 1, 1862. -Lee's determination and unorthodox tactics so unnerved McClellan that he backed away from Richmond and headed down the peninsula to the sea.

10.3 New Political Parties Emerge

-By the end of 1856, the nation's political landscape had shifted. -The Whig Party had split over the issue of slavery, and the Democratic Party was weak. -This left the new Republican Party to move within striking distance of the presidency.

10.1 Statehood for California

-After the gold rush, California's population grew that it skipped the territorial phase of becoming a state. -In 1849 CA had a constitutional convention, adopted a state constitution, elected a governor and a legislature, and applied to join the Union. -CA's new constitution forbade slavery. -Southerners assumed that because most of CA laid south of the Missouri Compromise line, the state would be open to slavery. -General Zachary Taylor (who succeeded Polk as President in 1849) supported CA's admission as a free state. -Taylor felt that the south could counter abolitionism most effectively by leaving the slavery issue up to individual territories instead of Congress. -Southerners say the statehood proposal as a move to block slavery in the territories and as an attack on the southern way of life.

11.2 Lincoln's View of Slavery

-Although Lincoln disliked slavery, he did not believe that the federal government had the power to abolish it where it already existed. -Lincoln did find a way to use his constitutional war powers to end slavery. -Slave labor built fortifications and grew food for the Confederacy. -As commander in chief, Lincoln decided that, just as he could order the Union army to seize Confederate supplies, he could also authorize the army to emancipate slaves. -The abolitionist movement was strong in Britain, and emancipation would discourage Britain from supporting the Confederacy.

11.3 Lives on the Line

-Although army regulations called for washing one's hands and face every day and taking a complete bath once a week, many soldiers failed to do so. -As a result, body lice, dysentery, and diarrhea were common. -Union troops subsisted on beans, bacon, and hardtack—square biscuits that were supposedly hard enough to stop a bullet. -A common food was "cush," a stew of small cubes of beef and crumbled cornbread mixed with bacon grease. -Fresh vegetables were hardly ever available. -Both sides loved coffee, but Southern soldiers had only substitutes brewed from peanuts, dried apples, or corn. Minié balls, soft lead bullets, caused traumatic wounds that could often be treated only by amputation. -As the effects of bacteria were not yet known, surgeons never sterilized instruments, making infection one of soldiers' worst enemies. 

11.2 Conscription

-Although both armies originally relied on volunteers, it didn't take long before heavy casualties and widespread desertions led to conscription, a draft that would force certain members of the population to serve in the army. -The Confederacy passed a draft law in 1862, and the Union followed suit in 1863. -The Confederate law drafted all able-bodied white men between the ages of 18 and 35. (In 1864, as the Confederacy suffered more losses, the limits changed to 17 and 50.) -However, those who could afford to were allowed to hire substitutes to serve in their places. -The law also exempted planters who owned 20 or more slaves. -In spite of these protests, almost 90 percent of eligible Southern men served in the Confederate army. -The Union law drafted white men between 20 and 45 for three years, although it, too, allowed draftees to hire substitutes. -It also provided for commutation, or paying a $300 fee to avoid conscription altogether. -In the end, only 46,000 draftees actually went into the army. -Ninety-two percent of the approximately 2 million soldiers who served in the Union army were volunteers - 180,000 of them African Americans

11.2 Reactions to the Proclamation

-Although the Proclamation did not have much practical effect, it had immense symbolic importance. -For many, the Proclamation gave the war a high moral purpose by turning the struggle into a fight to free the slaves. -In Washington, D.C., the Reverend Henry M. Turner, a free-born African American, watched the capital's inhabitants receive the news of emancipation. -Free blacks also welcomed the section of the Proclamation that allowed them to enlist in the Union army. -Even though many had volunteered at the beginning of the war, the regular army had refused to take them. Now they could fight and help put an end to slavery. -Not everyone in the North approved of the Emancipation Proclamation. -The Democrats claimed that it would only prolong the war by antagonizing the South. -Many Union soldiers accepted it grudgingly, saying they had no love for abolitionists or African Americans, but they would support emancipation if that was what it took to reunify the nation. -Confederates reacted to the Proclamation with outrage. -As Northern Democrats had predicted, the Proclamation had made the Confederacy more determined than ever to fight to preserve its way of life. -After the Emancipation Proclamation, compromise was no longer an option.

10.2 "The Sack of Lawrence"

-Antislavery settlers had founded a town named Lawrence. -A proslavery grand jury condemned Lawrence's inhabitants as traitors and called on the local sheriff to arrest them. -On May 21, 1856, a proslavery posse of 800 armed men swept into Lawrence to carry out the grand jury's will. -The posse burned down the antislavery headquarters, destroyed two newspapers' printing presses, and looted many houses and stores. -Abolitionist newspaper articles called the event "the sack of Lawrence"

11.1 Farragut on the Lower Mississippi

-As Grant pushed toward the Mississippi River, a Union fleet of about 40 ships approached the river's mouth in Louisiana. -Its commander was sixty-year-old David G. Farragut; its assignment, to seize New Orleans, the Confederacy's largest city and busiest port. -On April 24, Farragut ran his fleet past two Confederate forts in spite of booming enemy guns and fire rafts heaped with burning pitch. -Five days later, the U.S. flag flew over New Orleans. During the next two months, Farragut took control of Baton Rouge and Natchez. (If the Union captured all the major cities along the lower Mississippi, then Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee would be cut off.) -Only Port Hudson, Louisiana, and Vicksburg, Mississippi, perched high on a bluff above the river, still stood in the way.

11.3 Slave Resistance in the Confederacy

-As Union forces pushed deeper into Confederate territory, thousands of slaves sought freedom behind the lines of the Union army. -Those who remained on plantations sometimes engaged in sabotage, breaking plows, destroying fences, and neglecting livestock. -When Southern plantation owners fled before approaching Union troops, many slaves refused to be dragged along. -They waited to welcome the Yankees, who had the power to liberate them. 0For whites on farms and plantations in the South, slave resistance compounded the stresses and privations of the war. -Fearful of a general slave uprising, Southerners tightened slave patrols and spread rumors about how Union soldiers abused runaways. -No general uprising occurred, but slave resistance gradually weakened the plantation system.

11.4 The Election of 1864

-As the 1864 presidential election approached, Lincoln faced heavy opposition. -Many Democrats, dismayed at the war's length, its high casualty rates, and recent Union losses, joined pro-Southern party members to nominate George McClellan on a platform of an immediate armistice. -Still resentful over having been fired by Lincoln, McClellan was delighted to run. -Lincoln's other opponents, the Radical Republicans, favored a harsher proposal than Lincoln's for readmitting the Confederate states. -They formed a third political party and nominated John C. Frémont as their candidate. -To attract Democrats, Lincoln's supporters dropped the Republican name, retitled themselves the National Union Party, and chose Andrew Johnson, a pro-Union Democrat from Tennessee, as Lincoln's running mate. - On August 5, Admiral David Farragut entered Mobile Bay in Alabama and within three weeks shut down that major Southern port. -On September 2, Sherman telegraphed, "Atlanta is ours." -By month's end, Frémont had withdrawn from the presidential race. -On October 19, General Philip Sheridan finally chased the Confederates out of the Shenandoah Valley in northern Virginia. -The victories buoyed the North, and with the help of absentee ballots cast by Union soldiers, Lincoln won a second term.

11.2 Proclaiming Emancipation

-As the South struggled in vain to gain foreign recognition, abolitionist feeling grew in the North. -Some Northerners believed that just winning the war would not be enough if the issue of slavery was not permanently settled.

11.1 The War for the Capitals

-As the campaign in the west progressed and the Union navy tightened its blockade of Southern ports, the third part of the North's three-part strategy—the plan to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond—faltered. -One of the problems was General McClellan. -Although he was an excellent administrator and popular with his troops, McClellan was extremely cautious. -After five full months of training an army of 120,000 men, he insisted that he could not move against Richmond until he had 270,000 men. -He complained that there were only two bridges across the Potomac, not enough for an orderly retreat should the Confederates repulse the Federals.

10.4 Lincoln Challenges Douglas

-As the senatorial campaign progressed, the Republican Party decided that Lincoln needed to counteract the "Little Giant's" well-known name and extensive financial resources. -As a result, Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of seven open-air debates to be held throughout Illinois on the issue of slavery in the territories. -Douglas accepted the challenge. -Douglas exuded self-confidence, pacing back and forth on the stage and dramatically using his fists to pound home his points. -Lincoln, on the other hand, delivered his comments solemnly, using direct and plain language.

11.4 Confederate Morale

-As war progressed, morale on the Confederacy's home front deteriorated. -The Confederate Congress passed a weak resolution in 1863 urging planters to grow fewer cash crops like cotton and tobacco and increase production of food. 0Farmers resented the tax that took part of their produce and livestock, especially since many rich planters continued to cultivate cotton and tobacco—in some cases even selling crops to the North. -Many soldiers deserted after receiving letters from home about the lack of food and the shortage of farm labor to work the farms. -In every Southern state except South Carolina, there were soldiers who decided to turn and fight for the North—for example, 2,400 Floridians served in the Union army. -Discord in the Confederate government made it impossible for Jefferson Davis to govern effectively. -Members of the Confederate Congress squabbled among themselves. -In South Carolina, the governor was upset when troops from his state were placed under the command of officers from another state. -In 1863, North Carolinians who wanted peace held more than 100 open meetings in their state. -A similar peace movement sprang up in Georgia in early 1864.

10.1 Slavery in the Territories

-Aug 8, 1846, Pennsylvania Democrat David Wilmot created tensions between the North and South by introducing an amendment to a military appropriations bill. -The bill proposed that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude should ever exist in the lands the US may acquire after the Mexican war. -The Wilmot Proviso meant that California (and territories of Utah and New Mexico) would end slavery forever.

10.2 Fugitive Slaves and the Underground Railroad

-Burns's return to slavery followed the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act, which was a component of the Compromise of 1850. -Under the law, alleged fugitives were not entitled to a trial by jury, despite the Sixth Amendment provision calling for a speedy and public jury trial and the right to counsel (Nor could fugitives testify on their own behalf). -A statement by a slave owner was all that was required to have a slave returned. -Federal commissioners charged with enforcing the law were to receive a $10 fee if they returned an alleged fugitive, but only $5 if they freed him or her, an obvious incentive to "return" people to slavery. -Finally, anyone convicted of helping an alleged fugitive was subject to a fine of $1,000, imprisonment for six months, or both.

11.4 The Surrender at Appomattox

-By late March 1865, it was clear that the end of the Confederacy was near. -Grant and Sheridan were approaching Richmond from the west, while Sherman was approaching from the south. -On April 2—in response to news that Lee and his troops had been overcome by Grant's forces at Petersburg—President Davis and his government abandoned their capital, setting it afire to keep the Northerners from taking it. -Despite the fire-fighting efforts of Union troops, flames destroyed some 900 buildings and damaged hundreds more.  -Lee and Grant met to arrange a Confederate surrender on April 9, 1865, in a Virginia village called Appomattox (ăp´ə-măt´əks) Courth House. -At Lincoln's request, the terms were generous. Grant paroled Lee's soldiers and sent them home with their personal possessions, horses, and three days' rations. -Officers were permitted to keep their side arms. Within two months all remaining Confederate resistance collapsed. -After four long years, at tremendous human and economic costs, the Civil War was over. "

11.5 Political Changes

-Decades before the war, Southern states had threatened secession when federal policies angered them. -After the war, the federal government assumed supreme national authority and no state has ever seceded again. -The states' rights issue did not go away; it simply led in a different direction from secession. -The war greatly increased the federal government's power. -Before the Civil War, the federal government had little impact on most people's daily lives. -During the war, however, the federal government reached into people's pockets, taxing private incomes. -It also required everyone to accept its new paper currency (even those who had previously contracted to be repaid in coins). -Most dramatically, the federal government tore reluctant men from their families to fight in the war. -After the war, U.S. citizens could no longer assume that the national government in Washington was too far away to bother them.

10.4 Lincoln and Douglas: Positions and Arguments

-Douglas believed deeply in popular sovereignty, in allowing the residents of a territory to vote for or against slavery. -Although he did not think that slavery was immoral, he did believe that it was a backward labor system unsuitable to prairie agriculture. -The people, Douglas figured, understood this and would vote Kansas and Nebraska free. -However, Lincoln, like many Free-Soilers, believed that slavery was immoral—a labor system based on greed. -The crucial difference between the two was that Douglas believed that popular sovereignty would allow slavery to pass away on its own, while Lincoln doubted that slavery would cease to spread without legislation outlawing it in the territories. -Lincoln tried to make Douglas look like a defender of slavery and of the Dred Scott decision. -In turn, Douglas accused Lincoln of being an abolitionist and an advocate of racial equality. -Lincoln however, insisted that slavery was a moral, social, and political wrong that should not be allowed to spread. 

11.4 Prelude to Gettysburg

-During the first four days of May, the South defeated the North at Chancellorsville, Virginia. -Lee outmaneuvered Union general Joseph Hooker and forced the Union army to retreat. -The North's only consolation after Chancellorsville came as the result of an accident. -As General Stonewall Jackson returned from a patrol on May 2, Confederate guards mistook him for a Yankee and shot him in the left arm. -A surgeon amputated his arm the following day. -Lee decided to press his military advantage and invade the North. -He crossed the Potomac into Maryland and then pushed on into Pennsylvania.

11.4 Gettysburg (3rd Day)

-Early in the afternoon of July 3, Lee ordered an artillery barrage on the middle of the Union lines. -For two hours, the two armies fired at one another in a vicious exchange that could be heard in Pittsburgh. -When the Union artillery fell silent, Lee insisted that Longstreet press forward. -Longstreet reluctantly ordered his men, including those under the command of General Pickett, to attack the center of the Union lines. -They marched across the farmland toward the Union high ground. -Suddenly, Northern artillery renewed its barrage. -The Northerners had succeeded in holding the high ground south of Gettysburg. -Lee sent cavalry led by General James E. B. (Jeb) Stuart circling around the right flank of Meade's forces, hoping they would surprise the Union troops from the rear and meet Longstreet's men in the middle. -Stuart's campaign stalled, however, when his men clashed with Union forces under David Gregg three miles away. -Union general Meade never ordered a counterattack. -Lee gave up any hopes of invading the North and led his army in a long, painful retreat back to Virginia through a pelting rain. -The three-day battle produced staggering losses. -Total casualties were more than 30 percent. -Union losses included 23,000 men killed or wounded. For the Confederacy, approximately 28,000 were killed or wounded.

10.3 Republican Party

-February 1854, at a school house in Ripon, Wisconsin, some discontented Northern Whigs held a meeting with antislavery Democrats and Free-Soilers to form a new political party. -On July 6, the new Republican Party was formally organized in Jackson, Michigan. Among its founders was Horace Greeley. -The Republican Party was united in opposing the Kansas-Nebraska Act and in keeping slavery out of the territories. -The conservative faction hoped to resurrect the Missouri Compromise. (At the opposite extreme were some radical abolitionists.) -The Republican Party's ability to draw support from such diverse groups provided the party with the strength to win a political tug of war with the other parties. -The main competition for the Republican Party was the Know-Nothing Party. (Both parties targeted the same groups of voters.) -By 1855 the Republicans had set up party organizations in about half of the Northern states, but they lacked a national organization. -Then, in quick succession, came the fraudulent territorial election in Kansas in March 1855, and the sack of Lawrence, the Pottawatomie massacre, and the caning of Sumner in 1856. -Between "Bleeding Kansas" and "Bleeding Sumner," the Republicans had the issues they needed in order to challenge the Democrats for presidency in 1856.

10.2 Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad

-Free African Americans and white abolitionists developed a secret network of people who would, at great risk to themselves, aid fugitive slaves in their escape (This network became known as the Underground Railroad.). - The "conductors" hid fugitives in secret tunnels and false cupboards, provided them with food and clothing, and escorted or directed them to the next "station," often in disguise. -The most famous conductors was Harriet Tubman, born a slave in 1820 or 1821. -In 1849, after Tubman's owner died, she decided to make a break for freedom and succeeded in reaching Philadelphia. -Shortly after passage of the Fugitive Slave Act, Tubman became a conductor on the Underground Railroad. -In all, she made 19 trips back to the South and is said to have helped 300 slaves—including her own parents—flee to freedom. -Neither Tubman nor the slaves she helped were ever captured (Later she became an ardent speaker for abolition). -Once fugitive slaves reached the North, many elected to remain there and take their chances. -Other fugitives continued their journey all the way to Canada to be completely out of reach of slave catchers.

10.2 Violence Erupts in "Bleeding Kansas"

-From both the North and the South, settlers poured into the Kansas Territory. -Some were simply farmers in search of new land. -Most were sent by emigrant aid societies, groups formed specifically to supply rifles, animals, seed, and farm equipment to antislavery migrants. -By March 1855, Kansas had enough settlers to hold an election for a territorial legislature. -However, thousands of "border ruffians" from the slave state of Missouri, led by Missouri senator David Atchison, crossed into Kansas with their revolvers cocked and voted illegally. -They won a fraudulent majority for the proslavery candidates, who set up a government at Lecompton and promptly issued a series of proslavery acts. (Furious over events in Lecompton, abolitionists organized a rival government in Topeka in fall 1855).

11.1 Shiloh

-Grant gathered his troops near a small Tennessee church named Shiloh, which was close to the Mississippi border. -On April 6 thousands of yelling Confederate soldiers surprised the Union forces. -Many Union troops were shot while making coffee; some died while they were still lying in their blankets. -Grant reorganized his troops, ordered up reinforcements, and counterattacked at dawn the following day. -By midafternoon the Confederate forces were in retreat. -The Battle of Shiloh taught both sides a strategic lesson. Generals now realized that they had to send out scouts, dig trenches, and build fortifications. -Shiloh also demonstrated how bloody the war might become, as nearly one-fourth of the battle's 100,000 troops were killed, wounded, or captured. -Although the battle seemed to be a draw, it had a long-range impact on the war. -The Confederate failure to hold on to its Ohio-Kentucky frontier showed that at least part of the Union's three-way strategy, the drive to take the Mississippi and split the Confederacy, might succeed.

11.4 Grant and Lee in Virginia

-Grant's overall strategy was to immobilize Lee's army in Virginia while Sherman raided Georgia. -Even if Grant's casualties ran twice as high as those of Lee—and they did—the North could afford it. (The South could not.) -Starting in May 1864, Grant threw his troops into battle after battle, the first in a wooded area, known as the Wilderness, near Fredericksburg, Virginia. -The fighting was brutal, made even more so by the fires spreading through the thick trees. -The string of battles continued at Spotsylvania, at Cold Harbor (where Grant lost 7,000 men in one hour), and finally at Petersburg, which would remain under Union attack from June 1864 to April 1865. -During the period from May 4 to June 18, 1864, Grant lost nearly 60,000 men—which the North could replace—to Lee's 32,000 men—which the South could not replace. -Democrats and Northern newspapers called Grant a butcher.

10.1 Webster's Goals - The Compromise of 1850

-He argued with the Northern Whigs that slavery shouldn't be extended into the territories. -Upon hearing his opponent's threat of secession, he took to the Senate floor and endorsed Clay's compromise for the preservation of the Union... a great, popular, and constitutional government, guarded by legislation, by law, by judicature, and defended by the whole affections of the people.

10.1 Calhoun's Goals - The Compromise of 1850

-He believed in state's rights over federal power. -He held interests of the slaveholding South as his highest priority. -He had long believed that the agitation of the subject of slavery would end in disunion. -He blamed the sectional crisis on Northern abolitionists and argued that the South had no concession or surrender to make on the issue of slavery.

10.1 Clay's Compromise

-Henry Clay worked to shape a compromise that both the North and the South could accept. -He spoke to his old rival Daniel Webster on January 21, 1850, and obtained Webster's support. -Eight days later, Clay presented to the Senate a series of resolutions later called the Compromise of 1850, which he hoped would settle "all questions in controversy between the free and slave states, growing out of the subject of Slavery."

11.1 Lincoln's Dillema

-If he ordered the navy to shoot its way into Charleston harbor and reinforce Fort Sumter, he would be responsible for starting hostilities, which might prompt the slave states still in the Union to secede. -If he ordered the fort evacuated, he would be treating the Confederacy as a legitimate nation. -Such an action would anger the Republican Party, weaken his administration, and endanger the Union.

11.3 Prisons

-Improvements in hygiene and nursing did not reach the war prisons, where conditions were even worse than in army camps. -The worst Confederate prison, at Andersonville, Georgia, jammed 33,000 men into 26 acres, or about 34 square feet per man. -The prisoners had no shelter from the broiling sun or chilling rain except what they made themselves by rigging primitive tents of blankets and sticks. -They drank from the same stream that served as their sewer. -About a third of Andersonville's prisoners died. -Part of the blame rested with the camp's commander, Henry Wirz (whom the North eventually executed as a war criminal). -The South's lack of food and tent canvas also contributed to the appalling conditions. 0The prisons were overcrowded because the North had halted prisoner exchanges when the South refused to return African-American soldiers who had been captured in battle. -Northern prisons provided about five times as much space per man, barracks for sleeping, and adequate food. -Thousands of Confederates, housed in quarters with little or no heat, contracted pneumonia and died. -Hundreds of others suffered from dysentery and malnutrition, from which some did not recover. -Historians estimate that 15 percent of Union prisoners in Southern prisons died, while 12 percent of Confederate prisoners died in Northern prisons. A series of battles in the Mississippi Valley and in the East soon sent a fresh wave of prisoners of war flooding into prison camps. 

10.3 Antislavery Parties Form

-In 1844 the tiny abolitionist Liberty Party—whose purpose was to pursue the cause of abolition by passing new laws—received only a small percentage of votes in the presidential election. -The Liberty Party won enough votes to throw the election to Democrat James K. Polk instead of Whig candidate Henry Clay. -In 1848 the Free-Soil Party, which opposed the extension of slavery into the territories, nominated former Democratic president Martin Van Buren. -Although the Free-Soil Party failed to win any electoral votes in 1848, it received 10 percent of the popular vote, thus sending a clear message: even if some Northerners did not favor abolition, they definitely opposed the extension of slavery into the territories.

10.2 Popular Sovereignty

-In 1844, Douglas was pushing to organize the huge territory west of Iowa and Missouri. -In 1854, he developed a proposal to divide the area into two territories, Nebraska and Kansas. -Douglas was pushing for the construction of a railroad between Chicago—his hometown, where he also owned real estate—and San Francisco. -To get this route, Douglas had to make a deal with Southerners, who wanted the railroad to start in Memphis or New Orleans. -In addition, Douglas was anxious to organize the western territory because he believed that most of the nation's people wished to see the western lands incorporated into the Union. -Along with many other Democrats, Douglas was sure that continued expansion would strengthen his party and unify the nation. -He also believed that popular sovereignty—that is, the right of residents of a given territory to vote on slavery for themselves—provided the most fair and democratic way to organize the new state governments (Douglas failed to fully understand was how strongly opposed to slavery Northerners had become). -To Douglas, popular sovereignty seemed like an excellent way to decide whether slavery would be allowed in the Nebraska Territory. -The only difficulty was that Nebraska Territory lay north of the Missouri Compromise line of 36°30' and therefore was legally closed to slavery. -However, to win over the South, Douglas decided to support repeal of the Missouri Compromise—which now would make slavery legal north of the 36°30' line—though he predicted it would cause "a storm" in Congress (his prediction was correct).

10.2 Uncle Tom's Cabin

-In 1852, ardent abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe published Uncle Tom's Cabin. -The novel's plot was melodramatic and many of its characters were stereotypes, but Uncle Tom's Cabin delivered the message that slavery was not just a political contest, but also a great moral struggle. -Northern abolitionists increased their protests against the Fugitive Slave Act, while Southerners criticized the book as an attack on the South as a whole.

10.4 Dred Scott Decision

-In 1856 an important legal question came before the Supreme Court. -The case concerned Dred Scott, a slave from Missouri. -Scott's owner had taken him north of the Missouri Compromise line in 1834. For four years they had lived in free territory in Illinois and Wisconsin. -Later they returned to Missouri, where Scott's owner died. Scott then began a lawsuit to gain his freedom. -He claimed that he had become a free person by living in free territory for several years. -On March 6, 1857, Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney handed down the decision. -The Court ruled that slaves did not have the rights of citizens. -The court, Dred Scott had no claim to freedom, because he had been living in Missouri, a slave state, when he began his suit. -Finally, the Court ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional. (Congress could not forbid slavery in any part of the territories. Doing so would interfere with slaveholders' right to own property, a right protected by the Fifth Amendment.) -Southerners cheered the Court's decision. Northerners were stunned. -By striking down the Missouri Compromise, the Supreme Court had cleared the way for the extension of slavery. -Opponents of slavery now pinned their hopes on the Republican Party. (If the Republicans became strong enough, they could still keep slavery in check.)

11.2 Draft Riots

-In 1863 New York City poor people were crowded into slums, crime and disease ran rampant, and poverty was ever-present. -Poor white workers—especially Irish immigrants—thought it unfair that they should have to fight a war to free slaves. -The white workers feared that Southern blacks would come north and compete for jobs. -When officials began to draw names for the draft, angry men gathered all over the city to complain. -July 13-16, mobs rampaged through the city. -The rioters wrecked draft offices, Republican newspaper offices, and the homes of antislavery leaders. -They attacked well-dressed men on the street (those likely to be able to pay the $300 commutation fee) and attacked African Americans. -By the time federal troops ended the melee, more than 100 persons lay dead.

11.5 The War Changes the Nation

-In 1869 Professor George Ticknor of Harvard commented that since the Civil War, "It does not seem to me as if I were living in the country in which I was born." -The Civil War caused tremendous political, economic, technological, and social change in the United States. It also exacted a high price in the cost of human life.

11.1 Forts Henry and Donelson

-In February 1862 a Union army invaded western Tennessee. (At its head was General Ulysses S. Grant). -In just 11 days, Grant's forces captured two Confederate forts that held strategic positions on important rivers, Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. -In the latter victory, Grant informed the Southern commander that "no terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted." -The Confederates surrendered and, from then on, people said that Grant's initials stood for "Unconditional Surrender" Grant.

11.4 Grants Appoints Sherman

-In March 1864, President Lincoln appointed Ulysses S. Grant, the hero of the battle at Vicksburg, commander of all Union armies. -Grant in turn appointed William Tecumseh Sherman as commander of the military division of the Mississippi. -Old friends and comrades in arms, both men believed in total war. -They believed that it was essential to fight not only the South's armies and government but its civilian population as well. -They reasoned, first, that civilians produced the weapons, grew the food, and transported the goods on which the armies relied, and, second, that the strength of the people's will kept the war going.

11.4 The Gettysburg Address

-In November 1863, a ceremony was held to dedicate a cemetery in Gettysburg. -The first speaker was Edward Everett, a noted orator, who gave a flowery two-hour oration. -Then Abraham Lincoln spoke for a little more than two minutes. -According to the historian Garry Wills, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address "remade America." -Before the war, people said, "The United States are." After Lincoln's speech, they said, "The United States is."

10.4 The Lecompton Constitution

-In fall 1857, the proslavery government at Lecompton, Kansas, wrote a constitution and applied for admission to the Union. -Free-Soilers—who by this time outnumbered proslavery settlers in Kansas by nearly ten to one—rejected the proposed constitution because it protected the rights of slaveholders. -The legislature called for a referendum in which the people could vote on the proslavery constitution. They voted against it. -At this point President Buchanan made a poor decision: he endorsed the proslavery Lecompton constitution. -He owed his presidency to Southern support and believed that since Kansas contained only about 200 slaves, the Free-Soilers were overreacting. -Buchanan's endorsement provoked the wrath of Illinois Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, who did not care "whether [slavery] is voted down or voted up." (What he cared about was popular sovereignty.) -Douglas persuaded Congress to authorize another referendum on the constitution. -In summer 1858, voters rejected the constitution once again. -Northerners hailed Douglas as a hero, Southerners scorned him as a traitor, and the two wings of the Democratic Party moved still farther apart.

11.2 The Trent Affair

-In the fall of 1861, an incident occurred to test that neutrality. -The Confederate government sent two diplomats, James Mason and John Slidell, in a second attempt to gain support from Britain and France. -The two men traveled aboard a British merchant ship, the Trent. -Captain Charles Wilkes of the American warship San Jacinto stopped the Trent and arrested the two men. -The British threatened war against the Union and dispatched 8,000 troops to Canada. -Lincoln freed the two prisoners, publicly claiming that Wilkes had acted without orders. -Britain was as relieved as the United States was to find a peaceful way out of the crisis.

11.4 Vicksburg Under Siege

-In the spring of 1863, Grant sent a cavalry brigade to destroy rail lines in central Mississippi and draw attention away from the port city. -While the Confederate forces were distracted, Grant was able to land infantry south of Vicksburg late on April 30. -In 18 days, Union forces whipped several rebel units and sacked Jackson, the capital of the state. -Their confidence growing with every victory, Grant and his troops rushed to Vicksburg. -Two frontal assaults on the city failed; so, in the last week of May 1863, Grant settled in for a siege. -He set up a steady barrage of artillery, shelling the city from both the river and the land for sever-al hours a day and forcing its residents to take shelter in caves that they dug out of the yellow clay hillsides. -Food supplies ran so low that people ate dogs and mules. -At last some of the starving Confederate soldiers defending Vicksburg sent their commander a petition saying, "If you can't feed us, you'd better surrender." -On July 3, 1863, the same day as Pickett's charge, the Confederate commander of Vicksburg asked Grant for terms of surrender. -The city fell on July 4. Five days later Port Hudson, Louisiana, the last Confederate holdout on the Mississippi, also - fell and the Confederacy was cut in two.

10.4 The Freeport Doctrine

-In their second debate, held at Freeport, Lincoln asked his opponent a crucial question. Could the settlers of a territory vote to exclude slavery before the territory became a state? -Everyone knew that the Dred Scott decision said no—that territories could not exclude slavery. -Popular sovereignty, Lincoln implied, was thus an empty phrase. -Douglas's response to Lincoln's question became later known as the Freeport Doctrine. -In other words, regardless of theory or the Supreme Court's ruling, people could get around the Dred Scott decision. -Douglas won the Senate seat, but his response had worsened the split between the Northern and Southern wings of the Democratic Party. -As for Lincoln, his attacks on the "vast moral evil" of slavery drew national attention, and some Republicans began thinking of him as an excellent candidate for the presidency in 1860.

10.2 Resisting the Law (Fugitive Slave Law)

-Infuriated by the Fugitive Slave Act, some Northerners resisted it by organizing vigilance committees to send endangered African Americans to safety in Canada. (Others resorted to violence to rescue fugitive slaves). -Nine Northern states passed personal liberty laws, which forbade the imprisonment of runaway slaves and guaranteed that they would have jury trials. -Northern lawyers dragged these trials out—often for three or four years—in order to increase slave catchers' expenses.

11.1 Ironclad

-Instrumental in the successes of Grant and Farragut in the West was a new type of war machine: the ironclad ship. -The ironclad ship could splinter wooden ships, withstand cannon fire, and resist burning. -Grant used four ironclad ships when he captured Forts Henry and Donelson. -On March 9, 1862, two ironclads, the North's Monitor and the South's Merrimack (renamed by the South as the Virginia) fought an historic duel. -A Union steam frigate, the Merrimack, had sunk off the coast of Virginia in 1861. -The Confederates recovered the ship, and Confederate secretary of the navy Stephen R. Mallory put engineers to work plating it with iron. -Naval engineer John Ericsson designed a ship, the Monitor, that resembled a "gigantic cheese box" on an "immense shingle," with two guns mounted on a revolving turret. -On March 8, 1862, the Merrimack attacked three wooden Union warships, sinking the first, burning the second, and driving the third aground. -The Monitor arrived and, the following day, engaged the Confederate vessel. Although the battle was a draw, the era of wooden fighting ships was over.

10.4 Harpers Ferry

-John Brown, reemerged and ended all hopes of a compromise over slavery between the North and the South. -He believed that the time was ripe for similar uprisings in the United States. -Brown secretly obtained financial backing from several prominent Northern abolitionists. -On the night of October 16, 1859, he led a band of 21 men, black and white, into Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). -His aim was to seize the federal arsenal there, distribute the captured arms to slaves in the area, and start a general slave uprising. -Sixty of the town's prominent citizens were held hostage by Brown who hoped that their slaves would then join the insurrection. -Instead, local troops killed eight of Brown's men. -Then a detachment of U.S. Marines, commanded by Colonel Robert E. Lee, raced to Harpers Ferry, stormed the engine house where Brown and his men had barricaded themselves, killed two more of the raiders, and captured Brown. -Brown was then turned over to Virginia to be tried for treason.

11.2 Dealing With Dissent

-Lincoln dealt forcefully with disloyalty. -For example, when a Baltimore crowd attacked a Union regiment a week after Fort Sumter, Lincoln sent federal troops to Maryland. -He also suspended in that state the writ of habeas corpus, a court order that requires authorities to bring a person held in jail before the court to determine why he or she is being jailed. -As a result, more than 13,000 suspected Confederate sympathizers in the Union were arrested and held without trial, although most were quickly released. -The president also seized telegraph offices to make sure no one used the wires for subversion. -When Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger Taney declared that Lincoln had gone beyond his constitutional powers, the president ignored his ruling. -Those arrested included Copperheads, or Northern Democrats who advocated peace with the South. -Ohio congressman Clement Vallandigham was the most famous Copperhead. -Vallandigham was tried and convicted by a military court for urging Union soldiers to desert and for advocating an armistice. -Jefferson Davis at first denounced Lincoln's suspension of civil liberties. -Later, however, Davis found it necessary to follow the Union president's example. -In 1862, he suspended habeas corpus in the Confederacy.

11.1 First Shots (Lincoln and Jefferson Davis)

-Lincoln executed a clever political maneuver. -He would not abandon Fort Sumter, but neither would he reinforce it. He would merely send in "food for hungry men." -Now it was Jefferson Davis who faced a dilemma. -If he did nothing, he would damage the image of the Confederacy as a sovereign, independent nation. -On the other hand, if he ordered an attack on Fort Sumter, he would turn peaceful secession into war. (Davis chose war.) -At 4:30 A.M. on April 12, Confederate batteries began thundering away. Charleston's citizens watched and cheered as though it were a fireworks display. -The South Carolinians bombarded the fort with more than 4,000 rounds before Anderson surrendered.

11.1 Union Armies in the West

-Lincoln responded to the defeat at Bull Run by calling for the enlistment of 500,000 men to serve for three years instead of three months. -Three days later, he called for an additional 500,000 men. -He also appointed General George McClellan to lead this new Union army, encamped near Washington. -While McClellan drilled his men—soon to be known as the Army of the Potomac—the Union forces in the West began the fight for control of the Mississippi.

10.4 Southern Secession

-Lincoln's victory convinced Southerners that they had lost their political voice in the national government. -Fearful that Northern Republicans would submit the South to what noted Virginia agriculturist Edmund Ruffin called "the most complete subjection and political bondage," some Southern states decided to act. -South Carolina led the way, seceding from the Union on December 20, 1860. -For many Southern planters, the cry of "States' rights!" meant the complete independence of Southern states from federal government control. -Most white Southerners also feared that an end to their entire way of life was at hand. -Many were desperate for one last chance to preserve the slave labor system and saw secession as the only way. -Mississippi followed South Carolina's lead and seceded on January 9, 1861. (Florida seceded the next day.) -Within a few weeks, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had also seceded.

11.2 Both Sides Face Political Problems

-Neither side in the Civil War was completely unified. There were Confederate sympathizers in the North, and Union sympathizers in the South. -Such divided loyalties created two problems: How should the respective governments handle their critics? How could they ensure a steady supply of fighting men for their armies?

11.1 Virginia Secedes

-News of Fort Sumter's fall united the North. -When Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to serve for three months, the response was overwhelming. -In Iowa, 20 times the state's quota rushed to enlist. -Lincoln's call for troops provoked a very different reaction in the states of the upper South. -On April 17, Virginia, unwilling to fight against other Southern states, seceded—a terrible loss to the Union. -Virginia was the most heavily populated state in the South and the most industrialized (with a crucial ironworks and navy yard). -In May, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina followed Virginia, bringing the number of Confederate states to 11. -The western counties of Virginia were antislavery, so they seceded from Virginia and were admitted into the Union as West Virginia in 1863. -The four remaining slave states—Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri—remained in the Union, although many of the citizens in those states fought for the Confederacy. 

10.1 Industry and Immigration in the North

-North industrialized rapidly as factories produced increasing amounts of products. (like textiles, sewing machines, guns, etc.) -Railroads were laid and were as long as 20,000 miles. -Railroads carried raw materials eastward and manufactured goods and settlers westward. -Telegraph wires were strung along railroad tracks to provide a network of instant communication for the North. -Immigrants from Europe entered the industrial workplace. -Many immigrants became voters who has an opposition to slavery. -They feared expansion of slavery because they thought it might bring slave labor into direct competition with free labor and because it threatened to reduce the status of white workers who couldn't compete with slaves.

11.5 The Assassination of Lincoln

-On April 14, 1865, five days after Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, Lincoln and his wife went to Ford's Theatre in Washington to see a British comedy, Our American Cousin. -During the play's third act, a man silently opened the unguarded doors to the presidential box. -He crept up behind Lincoln, raised a pistol, and fired, hitting the president in the back of the head. -The assassin, John Wilkes Booth—a 26-year-old actor and Southern sympathizer—then leaped down to the stage. -In doing so, he caught his spur on one of the flags draped across the front of the box. -Booth landed hard on his left leg and broke it. -Booth managed to escape. Twelve days later, Union cavalry trapped him in a Virginia tobacco barn, and set the building on fire. -When Booth still refused to surrender, a shot was fired. -He may have been shot by cavalry or by himself, but the cavalry dragged him out." -He died at 7:22 a.m. the following morning, April 15. It was the first time a president of the United States had been assassinated. -The funeral train that carried Lincoln's body from Washington to his hometown of Springfield, Illinois, took 14 days for its journey. -Approximately 7 million Americans, or almost one-third of the entire Union population, turned out to publicly mourn the martyred leader. -The Civil War had ended. Slavery and secession were no more.

11.1 Antietam

-On August 29 and 30, his troops won a resounding victory at the Second Battle of Bull Run. -A few days later, they crossed the Potomac into the Union state of Maryland. -A resident of one Potomac River town described the starving Confederate troops. -For once McClellan acted aggressively and ordered his men forward after Lee. -The two armies fought on September 17 beside a sluggish creek called the Antietam (ăn-tē´təm). -The clash proved to be the bloodiest single-day battle in American history. -Casualties totaled more than 26,000, as many as in the War of 1812 and the war with Mexico combined. -Though the battle itself was a standoff, the South, which had lost a quarter of its men, retreated the next day across the Potomac into Virginia. -On November 7, 1862, Lincoln fired McClellan. This solved one problem by getting rid of the general whom Lincoln characterized as having "the slows." -However, the president would soon face a diplomatic conflict with Britain and increased pressure from abolitionists. 

10.4 John Brown's Hanging

-On December 2, 1859, Brown was hanged for high treason in the presence of federal troops and a crowd of curious observers. -Public reaction was immediate and intense. -Although Lincoln and Douglas condemned Brown as a murderer, many other Northerners expressed admiration for him and for his cause. -Northerners began to call Brown a martyr for the sacred cause of freedom. -In the South, where outraged mobs assaulted whites who were suspected of holding antislavery views. -Harpers Ferry terrified Southern slaveholders, who were convinced the North was plotting slave uprisings everywhere. -Even longtime supporters of the Union called for secession.

10.4 The Shaping of the Confederacy

-On February 4, 1861, delegates from the secessionist states met in Montgomery, Alabama, where they formed the Confederacy, or Confederate States of America. -The Confederate constitution closely resembled that of the United States. -The most notable difference was that the Confederate constitution "protected and recognized" slavery in new territories. -The new constitution also stressed that each state was to be "sovereign and independent," a provision that would hamper efforts to unify the South. -On February 9, delegates to the Confederate constitutional convention unanimously elected former senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president and Alexander Stephens of Georgia as vice-president. -President Buchanan was uncertain. He announced that secession was illegal, but that it also would be illegal for him to do anything about it. . -One problem was that Washington, D.C. was very much a Southern city. -There were secessionists in Congress and in all of the departments of the federal government, as well as in the president's cabinet. (Consequently, mass resignations took place.)

11.2 Emancipation Proclamation

-On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation. -The Proclamation did not free any slaves immediately because it applied only to areas behind Confederate lines, outside Union control. -Since the Proclamation was a military action aimed at the states in rebellion, it did not apply to Southern territory already occupied by Union troops nor to the slave states that had not seceded.

10.2 The Kansas and Nebraska Act

-On January 23, 1854, Douglas introduced a bill in Congress to divide the area into two territories: Nebraska in the north and Kansas in the south. -If passed, it would repeal the Missouri Compromise and establish popular sovereignty for both territories. -Some Northern congressmen saw the bill as part of a plot to turn the territories into slave states; but nearly 90 percent of Southern congressmen voted for the bill. -The bitterness spilled over into the general population, which deluged Congress with petitions both for and against the bill. -In the North, Douglas found himself ridiculed for betraying the Missouri Compromise. -Douglas believed strongly that popular sovereignty was the democratic way to resolve the slavery issue. -With the help of President Franklin Pierce, a Democrat elected in 1852, Douglas steered his proposal through the Senate. -The Kansas-Nebraska Act became law in May 1854. (All eyes turned westward as the fate of the new territories hung in the balance)

11.5 Civilians Follow New Paths

-Some war leaders continued their military careers, while others returned to civilian life. -William Tecumseh Sherman remained in the army and spent most of his time fighting Native Americans in the West. Robert E. Lee lost Arlington, his plantation, which the Secretary of War of the Union had turned into a cemetery for Union dead. -Lee became president of Washington College in Virginia, now known as Washington and Lee University. -Many veterans returned to their small towns and farms after the war. -May moved to the burgeoning cities or went west in search of opportunity. -Others tried to turn their wartime experience to good. -The horrors that Union nurse Clara Barton witnessed during the war inspired her to spend her life helping others. -Returning to the United States, Barton helped found the American Red Cross in 1881.

11.4 Gettysburg (2nd Day)

-On July 2, almost 90,000 Yankees and 75,000 Confederates stood ready to fight for Gettysburg. -Lee ordered General James Longstreet to attack Cemetery Ridge, which was held by Union troops. -At about 4:00 P.M., Longstreet's troops advanced from Seminary Ridge, through the peach orchard and wheat field that stood between them and the Union position. -The yelling Rebels overran Union troops who had mistakenly left their positions on Little Round Top, a hill that overlooked much of the southern portion of the battlefield. -Colonel Joshua L. Chamberlain, who had been a language professor before the war, led his Maine troops to meet the Rebels, and succeeded in "repulsing repeated Confederate attacks. -When his soldiers ran short of ammunition and more than a third of the brigade had fallen, Chamberlain ordered a bayonet charge at the Confederates. -The Rebels, exhausted by the uphill fighting and the 25-mile march of the previous day, were shocked by the Union assault and surrendered in droves. -Chamberlain and his men succeeded in saving the Union lines from certain rebel artillery attacks from Little Round Top.

10.2 Violence in the Senate

-On May 19, Massachusetts senator Charles Sumner delivered in the Senate an impassioned speech later called "The Crime Against Kansas." -For two days he verbally attacked his colleagues for their support of slavery. -Sumner was particularly abusive toward the aged senator Andrew P. Butler of South Carolina, sneering at him for his proslavery beliefs and making fun of his impaired speech. -On May 22, Butler's nephew, Congressman Preston S. Brooks, walked into the Senate chamber and over to Sumner's desk. -With that, he lifted up his cane and struck Sumner on the head repeatedly before the cane broke. -Sumner suffered shock and apparent brain damage and did not return to his Senate seat for over three years. -Northerners condemned the incident as yet another example of Southern brutality and antagonism toward free speech. -The compromises that had been tried from the time of the Wilmot Proviso until the Kansas-Nebraska Act could not satisfy either the North or the South. (The tensions that resulted led to new political alliances as well as to violence.) -The old national parties were torn apart and new political parties emerged. 

10.3 Nativism

-One alternative was the American Party which had its roots in a secret organization known as the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. -Members of this society believed in nativism, the favoring of native-born Americans over immigrants. (Using secret handshakes and passwords, members were told to answer questions about their activities by saying, "I know nothing.") -When nativists formed the American Party in 1854, it soon became better known as the Know-Nothing Party. -Primarily middle-class Protestants, nativists were dismayed not only at the total number of new immigrants but also at the number of Catholics among them. -To nativists, the Catholic immigrants who had flooded into the country during the 1830s and 1840s were overly influenced by the Pope and could forma conspiracy to overthrow democracy. -Nativists voted for Know-Nothing candidates. -The Know-Nothing Party, like the Whig Party, split over the issue of slavery in the territories. -Southern Know-Nothings looked for another alternative to the Democrats. -Northern Know-Nothings began to edge toward the Republican Party.

11.3 Northern Economic Growth

-Overall, the war's effect on the economy of the North was much more positive. -Although a few industries, such as cotton textiles, declined, most boomed. -The army's need for uniforms, shoes, guns, and other supplies supported woolen mills, steel foundries, coal mines, and many other industries. -Because the draft reduced the available work force, western wheat farmers bought reapers and other labor-saving machines, which benefited the companies that manufactured those machines. -Wages did not keep up with prices, and many people's standard of living declined. -When white male workers went out on strike, employers hired free blacks, immigrants, women, and boys to replace them for lower pay. -Northern women—who like many Southern women replaced men on farms and in city jobs—also obtained government jobs for the first time. -They worked mostly as clerks, copying ledgers and letters by hand. -Although they earned less than men, they remained a regular part of the Washington work force after the war. -They supplied uniforms and blankets made of "shoddy"—fibers reclaimed from rags—that came apart in the rain. -They passed off spoiled meat as fresh and demanded twice the usual price for guns. -This corruption spilled over into the general society. Congress decided to help pay for the war by tapping its citizens' wealth. -In 1863 Congress enacted the tax law that authorized the nation's first income tax, a tax that takes a specified percentage of an individual's income.

11.1 New Weapons

-Rifles were more accurate than old-fashioned muskets, and soldiers could load rifles more quickly and therefore fire more rounds during battle. -The minié ball was a soft lead bullet that was more destructive than earlier bullets. (Troops in the Civil War also used primitive hand grenades and land mines.) -Because the rifle and the minié could kill far more people than older weapons, soldiers fighting from inside trenches or behind barricades had a great advantage in mass infantry attacks.

10.3 Slavery Divides Whigs

-Scott owed his nomination to Northern Whigs who opposed the Fugitive Slave Act and gave only lukewarm support to the Compromise of 1850. -Southern Whigs, however, backed the compromise in order to appear both proslavery and pro-Union. -Because of Scott's position, the Whig vote in the South fell from 50 percent in 1848, to 35 percent in 1852, handing the election to the Democratic candidate Franklin Pierce. -In 1854 the Kansas-Nebraska Act brought about the demise of the Whigs, who once again took opposing positions on legislation that involved the issue of slavery. -The Southern faction splintered as its members looked for a proslavery, pro-Union party to join, while Whigs in the North sought a political alternative.

10.1 Differences Between North and South

-Senator Calhoun argued that although the North and South has been politically equal when the Constitution was adopted, the "perfect equilibrium" between the two no longer existed. -The two sections developed different ways of life by the 1850s.

10.4 Seward and Lincoln

-Senator William H. Seward has all the necessities of being a successful president like: the credential of having led antislavery forces in Congress, the financial support of New York political organizations—and a desire to be the center of attention. -Seward's well-known name and his reputation may have worked against him, however. (Abraham Lincoln's being relatively unknown probably won him the nomination.) -Unlike Seward, Lincoln had not had much chance to offend his fellow Republicans. -The delegates rejected Seward and his talk of an "irrepressible conflict" between North and South. -On the third ballot, they nominated Lincoln, who seemed more moderate in his views. -Lincoln's reassurances fell on deaf ears. In Southern eyes, he was a "black Republican," whose election would be "the greatest evil that has ever befallen this country.

11.3 Civil War Medicine

-Soon after Fort Sumter fell, the federal government set up the United States Sanitary Commission. -Its task was twofold: to improve the hygienic conditions of army camps and to recruit and train nurses. -The "Sanitary" proved a great success. It sent out agents to teach soldiers such things as how to avoid polluting their water supply. -It developed hospital trains and hospital ships to transport wounded men from the battlefield. -At the age of 60, Dorothea Dix became the nation's first superintendent of women nurses. -Dix insisted applicants be at least 30 and "very plain-looking." -The surgeon general required that at least one-third of Union hospital nurses be women; some 3,000 served. -Union nurse Clara Barton often cared for the sick and wounded at the front lines. (known as "angel of the battlefield.") -The confederacy didn't have a Sanitary Commission, but thousands of Southern women volunteered as nurses.

10.1 The Senate Debate

-The 31st Congress opened in December 1849 in an atmosphere of distrust and bitterness (The question of California statehood topped the agenda). -Of equal concern was the border dispute in which the slave state of Texas claimed the eastern half of New Mexico Territory, where the issue of slavery had not yet been settled. -Northerners demanded the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, while Southerners accused the North of failing to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. -Some Southerners threatened secession, the formal withdrawal of a state from the Union.

11.5 Economic Changes

-The Civil War had a profound impact on the nation's economy. -Between 1861 and 1865, the federal government did much to help business, in part through subsidizing construction of a national railroad system. -The government also passed the National Bank Act of 1863, which set up a system of federally chartered banks, set requirements for loans, and provided for banks to be inspected. (These measures helped make banking safer for investors.) -The economy of the Northern states boomed. Northern entrepreneurs had grown rich selling war supplies to the government and thus had money to invest in new businesses after the war. -As army recruitment created a labor shortage in the North, the sale of labor-saving agricultural tools such as the reaper increased dramatically. -By war's end, large-scale commercial agriculture had taken hold. -The war devastated the South economically. -It took away the South's source of cheap labor—slavery—and also wrecked most of the region's industry. It wiped out 40 percent of the livestock, destroyed much of the South's farm machinery and railroads, and left thousands of acres of land uncultivated. -The economic gap between North and South had widened drastically. -Before the war, Southern states held 30 percent of the national wealth; in 1870 they held only 12 percent. -In 1860, Southerners earned about 70 percent of the Northern average; in 1870, they earned less than 40 percent.

10.4 The Election of 1860

-The Democratic Party split over the issue of slavery. -Northern Democrats backed Stephen Douglas and his doctrine of popular sovereignty. -Southern Democrats backed Vice-President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. -Former Know-Nothings and Whigs from the South, along with some moderate Northerners, organized the Constitutional Union Party, which ignored the issue of slavery altogether. -They nominated John Bell of Tennessee. -Lincoln emerged as the winner, but like Buchanan in the previous election, he received less than half the popular vote. -Although Lincoln defeated his combined opponents in the electoral vote by 180 to 123, he received no electoral votes from the South. -Unlike Buchanan, Lincoln had sectional rather than national support, carrying every free state but not even appearing on the ballot in most of the slave states.

11.5 New Birth of Freedom

-The Emancipation Proclamation, which Lincoln had issued under his war powers, freed only those slaves who lived in the states that were behind Confederate lines and not yet under Union control. -The president believed that the only solution would be a constitutional amendment abolishing slavery. -The Republican-controlled Senate approved an amendment in the summer of 1864, but the House, with its large Democratic membership, did not. -After Lincoln's reelection, the amendment was reintroduced in the House in January of 1865. -This time the administration convinced a few Democrats to vote in its favor with promises of government jobs after they left office. -The amendment passed with two votes to spare. -Spectators—many of them African Americans who were now allowed to sit in the congressional galleries—burst into cheers, while Republicans on the floor shouted in triumph. -By year's end 27 states, including 8 from the South, had ratified the Thirteenth Amendment.

11.4 Armies Clash at Gettysburg

-The July 3 infantry charge was part of a three-day battle at Gettysburg, which many historians consider the turning point of the Civil War. -The battle of Gettysburg crippled the South so badly that General Lee would never again possess sufficient forces to invade a Northern state.

10.3 The 1856 Election

-The Republicans chose John C. Frémont, the famed "Pathfinder" who had mapped the Oregon Trail and led U.S. troops into California during the war with Mexico, as their candidate in 1856. - The Know-Nothings split their allegiance, with Northerners endorsing Frémont and Southerners selecting former U.S. president Millard Fillmore. -The Democrats nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. (Although he was a Northerner, most of his Washington friends were Southerners. Furthermore, as minister to Great Britain he had been out of the country during the disputes over the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854.) -Buchanan was the only truly national candidate. -To balance support between the North and the South, the Democrats chose John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky as Buchanan's running mate. -Although he (Buchanan) received only 45 percent of the popular vote, he won the entire South except for Maryland. -Frémont, who carried 11 of the 16 free states, came in a strong second with 33 percent, while Fillmore brought up the rear with 22 percent. -First, the Democrats could win the presidency with a national candidate who could compete in the North without alienating Southerners. -Second, the Know-Nothings were in decline. -Third, the Republicans were a political force in the North.

10.1 The Compromise of 1850 is Adopted

-The Senate rejected the proposed compromise in July. -Discouraged, Clay left Washington. Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois picked up the pro-compromise reins. -Douglas developed a shrewd plan. He unbundled the package of resolutions and reintroduced them one at a time, hoping to obtain a majority vote for each measure individually. -Thus, any individual congressman could vote for the provisions that he liked and vote against, or abstain from voting on, those that he disliked. -Taylor's successor, Millard Fillmore, made it clear that he supported the compromise (In the meantime, the South was ready to negotiate). -Southern leaders came out in favor of Clay's individual proposals as being the best the South could secure without radical action. -After eight months of effort, the Compromise of 1850 was voted into law.

10.1 Agriculture and Slavery in the South

-The South remained a rural society with many small farms and plantations. -South produced under 10% of the nation's manufactured goods. -Southerners were using rivers for good transport. -Few immigrants settled in the South because of African Americans (enslaved and freed) met most of the available need for artisans, mechanics, and laborers. -Immigrants who settled in the South displayed significant opposition for slavery. -Many southern whites feared that any restriction of slavery would lead to social and economic revolution.

11.1 Union and Confederate Strategies

-The Union enjoyed enormous advantages in resources over the South—more fighting power, more factories, greater food production, and a more extensive railroad system. -In addition, Lincoln proved to be a decisive yet patient leader, skillful at balancing political factions. -The Confederacy likewise enjoyed some advantages, notably "King Cotton" (and the profits it earned on the world market), first-rate generals, a strong military tradition, and soldiers who were highly motivated because they were defending their homeland. -However, the South had a tradition"of local and limited government, and there was resistance to the centralization of government necessary to run a war. -Several Southern governors were so obstinate in their assertion of states' rights that they refused to cooperate with the Confederate government. -The Union, which had to conquer the South to win, devised a three-part plan: (1) the Union navy would blockade Southern ports, so they could neither export cotton nor import much-needed manufactured goods, (2) Union riverboats and armies would move down the Mississippi River and split the Confederacy in two, and (3) Union armies would capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia. Northern newspapers dubbed the strategy the Anaconda plan, after a snake that suffocates its victims in its coils. -Because the Confederacy's goal was its own survival as a nation, its strategy was mostly defensive. -However, Southern leaders encouraged their generals to attack—and even to invade the North—if the opportunity arose.

10.4 The Republican Convention

-The convention took place in Chicago, which had quickly transformed itself into a convention city with more than 50 hotels and an 18,000-square-foot wooden meeting center named the Wigwam. -Republicans flooded into the frontier city in such crowds that despite the preparations, many ended up sleeping on pool tables in the hotels. -The convention opened to a surging crowd of delegates, newsmen, and spectators. -The first day of the convention was passed in forming committees, listening to prayers, and gossiping about politics. -As events came to a close, campaign managers for the candidates retreated to their headquarters and began bargaining for delegates' votes, some working late into the night.

11.3 The War Affects Regional Economies

-The decline of the plantation system was not the only economic effect that the Civil War caused. -Other effects included inflation and a new type of federal tax. -In general, the war expanded the North's economy while shattering that of the South. -The Confederacy soon faced a food shortage due to three factors: the drain of manpower into the army, the Union occupation of food-growing areas, and the loss of slaves to work in the fields. -Meat became a once-a-week luxury at best, and even such staples as rice and corn were in short supply. -Food prices skyrocketed. -In 1861 the average family spent $6.65 a month on food. -By mid-1863, it was spending $68 a month—if it could find any food to buy. -In 1863 hundreds of women and children—and some men—stormed bakeries and rioted for bread. -The mob broke up only when President Jefferson Davis climbed up on a cart, threw down all the money he had, and ordered the crowd to disperse or be shot. -The next day, the Confederate government distributed some of its stocks of rice. -The Union blockade of Southern ports created shortages of other items, too, including salt, sugar, coffee, nails, needles, and medicines. -One result was that many Confederates smuggled cotton into the North in exchange for gold, food, and other goods.

11.1 Bull Run

-The first major bloodshed occurred on July 21, about three months after Fort Sumter fell. -An army of 30,000 inexperienced Union soldiers on its way toward the Confederate capital at Richmond, only 100 miles from Washington, D.C., came upon an equally inexperienced Confederate army encamped near the little creek of Bull Run, just 25 miles from the Union capital. -Lincoln commanded General Irvin McDowell to attack. -In the morning the Union army gained the upper hand, but the Confederates held firm, inspired by General Thomas J. Jackson. -"There is Jackson standing like a stone wall!" another general shouted, originating the nickname Stonewall Jackson. -In the afternoon Confederate reinforcements arrived and turned the tide of battle into the first victory for the South. -The routed Union troops began a panicky retreat to the capital. -Fortunately for the Union, the Confederates were too exhausted and disorganized to attack Washington. (Still, Confederate morale soared.)

11.3 African American Soliders

-The mortality rate for African-American soldiers was higher than that for white soldiers, primarily because many African Americans were assigned to labor duty in the garrisons, where they were likely to catch typhoid, pneumonia, malaria, or some other deadly disease. -Then, too, the Confederacy would not treat captured African-American soldiers as prisoners of war. -Many were executed on the spot, and those who were not killed were returned to slavery. -A particularly gruesome massacre occurred at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, in 1864. -Confederate troops killed over 200 African-American prisoners and some whites as they begged for their lives. -The Confederacy did consider drafting slaves and free blacks in 1863 and again in 1864. -One Louisiana planter argued that since slaves "caused the fight," they should share in the burden of battle.

11.4 Gettysburg

-The most decisive battle of the war was fought near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. (The town was an unlikely spot for a bloody battle—and indeed, no one planned to fight there._ -Confederate soldiers led by A. P. Hill, many of them barefoot, heard there was a supply of footwear in Gettysburg and went to find it, and also to meet up with forces under General Lee. -When Hill's troops marched toward Gettysburg, they ran into a couple of brigades of Union cavalry under the command of John Buford, an experienced officer from Illinois. -Buford ordered his men to take defensive positions on the hills and ridges surrounding the town, from which they engaged Hill's troops. -The Northern armies, now under the command of General George Meade, that were north and west of Gettysburg began to fall back under a furious rebel assault. -The Confederates took control of the town. -Lee knew, however, that the battle would not be won unless the Northerners were also forced to yield their positions on Cemetery Ridge, the high ground south of Gettysburg.

10.2 "The Pottawatomie Massacre"

-The news from Lawrence soon reached John Brown, an abolitionist. -Brown believed that God had called on him to fight slavery. -He also had the mistaken impression that the proslavery posse in Lawrence had killed five men. Brown was set on revenge. -On May 24th, he and his followers pulled five men from their beds in the proslavery settlement of Pottawatomie Creek, hacked off their hands, and stabbed them with broadswords. -This attack became famous as the "Pottawatomie Massacre" and quickly led to cries for revenge. -It became the bloody shirt that proslavery Kansas settlers waved in summoning attacks on Free-Soiler. -The massacre triggered dozens of incidents throughout Kansas. (Some 200 people were killed). -John Brown fled Kansas but left behind men and women who lived with rifles by their sides. -People began calling the territory Bleeding Kansas, as it had become a violent battlefield in a civil war.

11.1 Confederates Fire on Fort Sumter

-The seven southernmost states that had already seceded formed the Confederate States of America on February 4, 1861. -Confederate soldiers immediately began taking over federal installations in their states—courthouses, post offices, and especially forts. -The more important was South Carolina's Fort Sumter, on an island in Charleston harbor. -The day after his inauguration, the new president received an urgent dispatch from the fort's commander, Major Anderson. -The Confederacy was demanding that he surrender or face an attack, and his supplies of food and ammunition would last six weeks at the most.

11.4 The Confederacy Wears Down

-The twin defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg cost the South much of its limited fighting power. -The Confederacy was already low on food, shoes, uniforms, guns, and ammunition. -No longer able to attack, it could hope only to hang on long enough to destroy Northern morale and work toward an armistice—a cease-fire agreement based on mutual consent—rather than a surrender. -That plan proved increasingly unlikely, however. Southern newspapers, state legislatures, and individuals began to call openly for an end to the hostilities, and President Lincoln finally found not just one but two generals who would fight.

11.5 Costs of War

-They affected almost every American family. -Approximately 360,000 Union soldiers and 260,000 Confederates died, nearly as many as in all other American wars combined. 0Another 275,000 Union soldiers and 225,000 Confederates were wounded. -In addition, military service had occupied some 2,400,000 men—nearly 10 percent of the nation's population of approximately 31,000,000—for four long years. -It disrupted their education, their careers, and their families. -Historians estimate that the Union and the Confederate governments spent a combined total of about $3.3 billion during the four years of war, or more than twice what the government had spent in the previous 80 years! -The costs did not stop when the war ended. -Twenty years later, interest payments on the war debt plus veterans' pensions still accounted for almost two-thirds of the federal budget.

10.1 Terms of the Compromise (Compromise of 1850)

-To satisfy the North, the compromise provided that California be admitted to the Union as a free state. -To satisfy the South, the compromise proposed a new and more effective fugitive slave law. -For example, a provision that allowed residents of the territories of New Mexico and Utah popular sovereignty—the right of residents of a territory to vote for or against slavery—appealed to both North and South. -As part of the compromise, the federal government would pay Texas $10 million to surrender its claim to New Mexico. -Northerners were pleased because, in effect, it limited slavery in Texas to within its current borders. -Southerners were pleased because the money would help defray Texas's expenses and debts from the war with Mexico. -On February 5, Clay defended his resolutions and begged both the North and the South to consider them thoughtfully. -The alternative was disunion—and, in Clay's opinion, quite possibly war.

11.3 African American Soldiers (Part 1)

-When the Civil War started, it was a white man's war. -Neither the Union nor the Confederacy officially accepted African Americans as soldiers. -In 1862, Congress passed a law allowing African Americans to serve in the military. (It was only after the Emancipation Proclamation was decreed, however, that large-scale enlistment occurred.) -Although African Americans made up only 1 percent of the North's population, by war's end nearly 10 percent of the Union army was African American. -The majority were former slaves from Virginia and other slave states, both Confederate and Union. -African Americans suffered discrimination. -They served in separate regiments commanded by white officers. -Usually African Americans could not rise above the rank of captain—although Alexander T. Augustana, a surgeon, did attain the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. -White privates earned $13 a month, plus a $3.50 clothing allowance. -Black privates earned only $10 a month, with no clothing allowance. -Blacks protested, and several regiments served without pay for months rather than accept the lesser amount. -Congress finally equalized the pay of white and African-American soldiers in 1864.

11.4 Grant Wins at Vicksburg

-While the Army of the Potomac was turning back the Confederates in central Pennsylvania, Union general Ulysses S. Grant continued his campaign in the west. -Vicksburg, Mississippi, was one of only two Confederate holdouts preventing the Union from taking complete control of the Mississippi River, an important waterway for transporting goods.

10.1 The Wilmot Proviso

-Wilmot Proviso divided Congress along regional lines. -Northerners were angry over the refusal of Southern congressmen to vote for internal improvements (like buildings of canals, roads, etc.) supported the proviso. -Northerners feared that adding slave territory would give slave states more members in Congress and deny economic opportunity to free workers. -Southerners opposed the proviso because slaves were property and the Constitution protected property. -Southerners fears that if the Proviso became a law, the addition of new free states to the Union would shift the balance of power permanently to the North. -The House of Reps. approved it but the Senate did not.

10.1 Calhoun and Webster Respond (to the Compromise of 1850)

-Within a month after the compromise was proposed, Calhoun had presented the Southern case for slavery in the territories. -He urged Northerners to try to compromise with the South by passing a stricter fugitive slave law, and he warned Southern firebrands to think more cautiously about the danger of secession.

Major Political Parties

Free-Soil -Against extension of slavery -Pro-labor Know-Nothing -Anti-immigration -Anti-catholic Whig -Pro-business -Divided on slavery Republican -Opposed expansion of slavery into territories Democratic -States' rights -Limited government -Divided on slavery