ID Cards chapters 18-21

liberalism

an ideology based on the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible. Economic liberalism is the government should not interfere in the workings of the economy. Political liberalism is the idea that there should be no restraints on the exercise of power so that people can enjoy basic civil rights.

cottage industry

a system of textile manufacturing in which spinners and weavers worked at home in their cottages using raw materials supplied to them by capitalist entrepreneurs.

water/steam/coal

advancement of power sources going from water to steam to coal

enlightened absolutism

an absolute monarchy in which the ruler follows the principles of the enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society, allowing freedom of speech and the press, permitting religious toleration, expanding education, and ruling in accordance with the laws.

patrician

an aristocrat or nobleman.

trade unions

an association of workers in the same trade, formed to help members secure better wages, benefits, and working conditions.

conservatism

an ideology based on tradition and social stability that favored the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and resisted change, especially abrupt change.

Rousseau

an italian philosoher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the overall development of modern political and educational thought.

natural rights

are those that are not dependent on the laws, customs, or beliefs of any particular culture or government, and therefore universal and inalienable (i.e., rights that cannot be repealed or restrained by human laws).

deism

belief in the existence of a supreme being, specifically of a creator who does not intervene in the universe. The term is used chiefly of an intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that accepted the existence of a creator on the basis of reason but rejected belief in a supernatural deity who interacts with humankind.

checks and balances

counterbalancing influences by which an organization or system is regulated, typically those ensuring that political power is not concentrated in the hands of individuals or groups.

popular culture

culture based on the tastes of ordinary people rather than an educated elite.

Russo-Japanese war

early 20th century. was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt. The complete victory of the Japanese military surprised world observers. The consequences transformed the balance of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan's recent entry onto the world stage.

mass leisure

forms of leisure that appeal to large numbers of people in a society, including the working classes; emerged at the of the 19th century to provide workers with amusements after work and on the weekends. Used by totalitarian states to control their populations in the 20th century.

realpolitique

german. politics of reality; politics based on preactical concerns rather than theory or ethics.

anti-semitsim

hatred toward Jews. sin of usury- lending money for interest.

utopian socialists

intellectuals and theorists in the early nineteenth century who favored equality in social and economic conditions and wished to replace private property and competition with collective ownership and cooperation; deemed impractical and utopian by later socialists.

separation of powers

is a model for the governance of a state. The state is divided into branches, each with separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with the powers associated with the other branches. The typical division of branches is into a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary. The intent is to prevent the concentration of power and provide for checks and balances.

anarchists

is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. considers the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, because anarchists generally believe that human beings are capable of managing their own affairs on the basis of creativity, cooperation, and mutual respect, and when making individual decisions they are taking into account the concerns of others and the well-being of society.

feminsim

is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and social rights for women that are equal to those of men

nationalism

is a shared group feeling in the significance of a geographical and sometimes demographic region seeking independence for its culture or ethnicity that holds that group together. This can be expressed as a belief or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with or becoming attached to one's nation. Nationalism involves national identity

roccoco

is an 18th-century artistic movement and style, affecting many aspects of the arts including painting, sculpture, architecture, interior design, decoration, literature, music, and theatre. It developed in the early 18th century in Paris, France as a reaction against the grandeur, symmetry, and strict regulations of the Baroque, especially of the Palace of Versailles. Rococo artists and architects used a more jocular, florid, and graceful approach to the Baroque. Their style was ornate and used light colours, asymmetrical designs, curves, and gold. Unlike the political Baroque, the Rococo had playful and witty themes.

laissez faire

is an economic system in which transactions between private parties are free from government interference such as regulations, privileges, tariffs, and subsidies

heliocentric theory

is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Solar System.

liberty, equality and fraternity

is the national motto of France and the Republic of Haiti, and is an example of a tripartite motto.

extraterritoriality

is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations. Historically, this applied to individuals. Extraterritoriality can also be applied to physical places, such as foreign embassies, military bases of foreign countries, or offices of the United Nations. The three most common cases recognized today internationally relate to the persons and belongings of foreign heads of state, the persons and belongings of ambassadors and other diplomats, and ships in foreign waters.

declaration of indepence

is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies,[2] then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain, regarded themselves as thirteen newly independent sovereign states, and no longer under British rule. Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. Written by Thomas Jefferson.

high culture

it is the culture of an upper class such as an aristocracy or an intelligentsia, but it can also be defined as a repository of a broad cultural knowledge, a way of transcending the class system.

Philosophes

(French for "philosophers") were the intellectuals of the 18th-century Enlightenment. Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics, and social issues.

19th century inventions

1804: The steam locomotive is invented by Richard Trevithick François Isaac de Rivaz designs the first automobile powered by an internal combustion engine fuelled by hydrogen. Thomas Eddison 1880s light by electricity.

joint stock investment bank

18th to 19th century. A bank which is a public company with shares owned by investors rather than a government

natural selection

Darwin's idea that organisms that are most adaptable to their environment survive and pass on the variations that enabled them to survive while less adaptable organisms become extinct. Also known as survival of the fittest.

organic evolution

Darwin's principle that all plants and animals have evolved over a long period of time from earlier and simpler forms of life.

Cartesian dualism

Descartes held that the immaterial mind and the material body are two completely different types of substances and that they interact with each other. He reasoned that the body could be divided up by removing a leg or arm, but the mind or soul were indivisible.

concentration camps

places that the British and Spanish kept women, children and the elderly to control them but not to kill them.

World machine

First Cause that started the world- machine going but then did not interfere with its operation.

Albert Saurrats

He was Governor-General of French Indochina (Vietnam), from 1912 to 1914 and from 1917 to 1919. On 18 January 1920 he replaced Henry Simon as Minister of the Colonies. n 10 July 1940, Sarraut voted in favour of granting the Cabinet presided over by Marshal Philippe Pétain authority to draw up a new constitution, thereby effectively ending the French Third Republic and establishing Vichy France. Thereafter Sarraut retired from politics

proletariat

workers or working-class people, regarded collectively (often used with reference to Marxism).

revolutionary socialism

the socialist doctrine espoused by Georges Sorel who held that violent action was the only way to achieve the goals of socialism.

Geocentric theory

In astronomy, the Geocentric theory is a superseded description of the universe, where the Earth is at the center of all the celestial bodies. This model served as the predominant cosmological system in many ancient civilizations such as ancient Greece including the noteworthy systems of Aristotle (see Aristotelian physics) and Ptolemy. As such, they believed that the Sun, Moon, stars, and naked eye planets circled Earth

Neo-Imperialism/colonialism

the use of economic rather than political or military means to maintain Western domination of developing nations.

Robert Owen/New harmony, IN

Robert Owen, a Welsh industrialist and social reformer, purchased the town in 1825 with the intention of creating a new utopian community and renamed it New Harmony. While the Owenite social experiment was an economic failure just two years after it began, the community made some important contributions to American society. New Harmony became known as a center for advances in education and scientific research. New Harmony's residents established the first free library, a civic drama club, and a public school system open to men and women. Failed experiment at a socialism or communism.

slavophiles

Slavophilia was an intellectual movement originating from 19th century that wanted the Russian Empire to be developed upon values and institutions derived from its early history. Slavophiles opposed the influences of Western Europe in Russia

Philippine War

The conflict arose when the First Philippine Republic objected to the terms of the Treaty of Paris under which the United States took possession of the Philippines from Spain, ending the Spanish-American War. The war was a continuation of the Philippine struggle for independence that began in 1896 with the Philippine Revolution.

ausgleich

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. But all under one monarch.

rentiers

a person living on income from property or investments

theory of relativity

The theory of relativity transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century. The theory of relativity usually encompasses two theories by Albert Einstein: special relativity and general relativity. Concepts introduced by the theories of relativity include spacetime as a unified entity of space and time, relativity of simultaneity, kinematic and gravitational time dilation, and length contraction.

socialism

a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. (in Marxist theory) a transitional social state between the overthrow of capitalism and the realization of communism.

mass politics

a political order characterized by mass political parties and universal male and eventually female suffrage.

Continental system

a response to British naval blockade of the french coasts. Napoleon's effort to bar British goods from the European continent in the hope of weakening Britain's economy and destroying its capacity to wage war.

revisionism

a socialist doctrine that rejected Marx's emphasis on class struggle and revolution and argued instead that workers should work through political parties to bring about gradual change.

mass society

a society in which the concerns of the majority, the lower classes, play a prominent role; characterized by extension of voting rights, an improved standard of living for the lower classes and mass education.

mass education

a state run educational system usually free of charge and compulsory, that aims to ensure that all children in society have at least a basic education.

Estates General

a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate). Summoned by King Louis XVI to propose solutions to his government's financial problems, the Estates-General sat for several weeks in May and June 1789 but came to an impasse over the first item on the agenda: whether they should vote by estate, giving the first two estates an advantage, which was the King's choice, or vote all together, giving the Third Estate the advantage. It was brought to an end when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, inviting the other two to join, against the wishes of the King, signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Romanticism

a 19th century intellectual and artistic movement that rejected the emphasis on reason of the enlightenment. Instead Romantics stressed the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing.

indirect rule

a colonial policy of foreign rule in cooperation with local political elites.

direct rule

a concept devised by European colonial governments to rule their colonial subjects without the participation of local authorities.

Gothic literature

a form of literature used by romantics to emphasize the bizarre and unusual, especially evident in horror stories. Edgar Allan Poe is a good example.

nation-states

a form of political organization in which a relatively homogeneous people inhabits a sovereign state as opposed to a state containing people of several nationalities.

Scientific Method

a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

sepoys

local troops who formed the basis of the British Indian army; hired by the east India company to protect British interests in south asia

old order

may refer to Ancien Régime, the French term for the aristocratic, social, and political system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties (14th century to 18th century).

communist manifesto

pamphlet written by Karl Marx in 1840s about maxrism

Scientific Revolution

refers to historical changes in thought & belief, to changes in social & institutional organization, that unfolded in Europe between roughly 1550-1700; beginning with Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), who asserted a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmos

child labor

refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many children aged 5-14 from poorer families still worked in Europe, the United States and various colonies of European powers. These children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining and in services such as news boys.

Pope Leo XIII/Rerum Novarem

reigned as Pope from 20 February 1878 to his death in 1903. He was the oldest pope (reigning until the age of 93). He is well known for his intellectualism, the development of social teachings with his famous papal encyclical Rerum novarum and his attempts to define the position of the Catholic Church with regard to modern thinking. He influenced Roman Catholic Mariology and promoted both the rosary and the scapular. It (Rerum Novarem) discussed the relationships and mutual duties between labor and capital, as well as government and its citizens. Of primary concern was the need for some amelioration of "The misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class." It supported the rights of labor to form unions, rejected socialism and unrestricted capitalism, whilst affirming the right to private property.

westernizers

russian. were a group of 19th century intellectuals who believed that Russia's development depended upon the adoption of Western European technology and liberal government.

Boer War

started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. The United Kingdom, its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal with significant Afrikaner support and native African allies fought the South African Republic (Republic of Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. The British war effort was supported by troops from several regions of the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, Newfoundland, British India, and New Zealand. The war ended in victory for the British and the annexation of both republics. Both would eventually be incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910.

caudillos

strong leaders in 19th century Latin america who were usually supported by the landed elites and ruled chiefly by military force, though some were popular, they included both modernizers and destructive dictators.

Realism

the 19th century school of painting that emphasized the everyday life of ordinary people, depicted with photographic realism.

Raj

the British colonial regime in India

social darwinism

the application of Darwin's principle of organic evolution to the social order; led to the belief that progress comes from the struggle of survival as the fittest advance and the weak decline.

class struggle

the basis of the Marxist analysis of history, which says that the owners of the means of production have always oppressed the workers and predicts an inevitable revolution.

association

the concept developed by the french colonial officials that the colonial peoples should be permitted to retain their precolonial cultural traditions.

assimilation

the concept, originating in France, that the colonial peoples should become more like the french culture. The native peoples should give up their languages, traditions and culture to be more like the mother country.

intervention

the idea after the congress of Vienna that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries experiencing revolution to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

legitimacy

the idea that after the Napoleonic wars peace could best be reestablished in Europe by restoring legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions.

high colonialism

the more formal phase of European colonial policy in Africa after world war one when the colonial administrative network was extended to outlying areas and more emphasis was placed on improving social services and fostering economic development, especially the exploitation of natural resources to enable the colonies to achieve self-sufficiency.

imperialism

the policy of extending one nation's power either by conquest or by establishing direct or indirect economic or cultural authority over another. generally driven by economic self interest or it can be motivated by a sincere (if not misguided) sense of obligation.

Marxism

the political, economic, and social theories of Karl Marx, which included the idea that history is the story of class struggle and that ultimately the proletariat will overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a dictatorship en route to a classless society.

Secularization

the process of becoming more concerned with material, worldly, temporal things and less with spiritual and religious things.

Social Contract

the social contract or political contract is a theory or model, originating during the Age of Enlightenment, that typically addresses the questions of the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Social contract arguments typically posit that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of the ruler or magistrate (or to the decision of a majority), in exchange for protection of their remaining rights.

louis XVI

was King of France from 1774 until his deposition in 1792. The first part of Louis' reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideas. These included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the proposed reforms with hostility, and successfully opposed their implementation. From 1776 Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. Last french king before the french revolution.

Emilio Aguinaldo

was a Filipino revolutionary, politician, and a military leader who is officially recognized as the First President of the Philippines. He led Philippine forces first against Spain in the latter part of the Philippine Revolution (1896-1898), and then in the Spanish-American War (1898), and finally against the United States during the Philippine-American War (1899-1901). He was captured in Palanan, Isabela by American forces on March 23, 1901, which brought an end to his presidency.

Voltaire

was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state. mid 1700s

Ferdinand de Lesseps/Suez Canal

was a French diplomat and later developer of the Suez Canal, which in 1869 joined the Mediterranean and Red Seas, substantially reducing sailing distances and times between Europe and East Asia. He attempted to repeat this success with an effort to build a Panama Canal at sea level during the 1880s, but the project was devastated by epidemics of malaria and yellow fever in the area, as well as beset by financial problems, and the planned de Lesseps Panama Canal was never completed.

Robespierre

was a French lawyer and politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution, the defence of the Republic, and the Reign of Terror. As a member of the Estates-General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobin Club, Robespierre was an outspoken advocate of the poor and of democratic institutions. Middle to late 1700s.

Baron de Montesquieu

was a French lawyer, man of letters, and political philosopher who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world.

Napoleon Bonaparte

was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, and again in 1815. Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815. One of the greatest commanders in history

Diderot

was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopédie. Collected numerous writings from the enlightenment and placed them in an encyclopedia. Diderot's literary reputation during his lifetime rested primarily on his plays and his contributions to the Encyclopédie. Late 1700s.

Rene Descarte

was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Dubbed the father of modern western philosophy, much of subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings. his best known philosophical statement is "Cogito ergo sum" ( I think, therefore I am). basically thinking was valuable. The world that Descartes reconstructed proved to be two separate worlds—that of mind and soul, on the one hand, and that of body and matter, on the other.

Johannes Kepler

was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion.

Albert Einstein

was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his "services to theoretical physics", in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory. Father of modern physics, helps develop the atom bomb.

Joseph Conrad/Heart of Darkness

was a Polish-British writer regarded as one of the greatest novelists to write in the English language. Conrad is considered an early modernist, though his works still contain elements of 19th-century realism. is a novella by Polish-British novelist Joseph Conrad, about a voyage up the Congo River into the Congo Free State, in the heart of Africa, by the story's narrator Marlow.[1] Marlow tells his story to friends aboard a boat anchored on the River Thames, London, England. This setting provides the frame for Marlow's story of his obsession with the ivory trader Kurtz, which enables Conrad to create a parallel between London and Africa as places of darkness. Central to Conrad's work is the idea that there is little difference between so-called civilised people and those described as savages; Heart of Darkness raises questions about imperialism and racism.

nicolaus copernicus

was a Prussian Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe. mid 1500s

David livingstone

was a Scottish Congregationalist pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and an explorer in Africa, one of the most popular national heroes of late-19th-century in Victorian Britain. His fame as an explorer and his obsession with discovering the sources of the River Nile was founded on the belief that if he could solve that age-old mystery, his fame would give him the influence to end the East African Arab-Swahili slave trade. "The Nile sources," he told a friend, "are valuable only as a means of opening my mouth with power among men. It is this power which I hope to remedy an immense evil."

Picasso

was a Spanish artist that lived in the early 1900s. Regarded as one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th century.

Simon Bolivar

was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a leading role in the establishment of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Panama as sovereign states. Bolívar began his campaign for independence in 1808, appealing to the wealthy Creole population through a conservative process,[2] and established an organized national congress within three years. Despite a number of hindrances, including the arrival of an unprecedentedly large Spanish expeditionary force, the revolutionaries eventually prevailed, culminating in a patriot victory at the Battle of Carabobo in 1821, which effectively made Venezuela an independent country.

Spanish American War

was a conflict fought between Spain and the United States in 1898. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor leading to American intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. American acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions led to its involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately in the Philippine-American War. For Cuban independence it was a ten week war.

Otto von Bismarck

was a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. In 1871 he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor, while retaining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the "Iron Chancellor." German unification and its rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy.

Reign of terror

was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between two rival political factions, the Girondins and The Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution". The death toll ranged in the tens of thousands.

Karl Marx

was a philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Prussia. As an adult, Marx became stateless and spent much of his life in London, England, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German thinker Friedrich Engels and published various works, the most well-known being the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. His work has since influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history.

Sir Issac Newton

was an English physicist and mathematician, who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution.Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. He also confirmed that the heliocentric theory was correct.

dreyfuss trial

was a political scandal that divided France from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice,[1] and remains one of the most striking examples of a complex miscarriage of justice, where a major role was played by the press and public opinion. he scandal began in December 1894, with the treason conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of Alsatian and Jewish descent. Sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris, Dreyfus was imprisoned on Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent nearly five years.

Triple Alliance

was a secret agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed on 20 May 1881 and renewed periodically until World War I. Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879. Italy sought support against France shortly after it lost North African ambitions to the French. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power.

Haitian Revoltuion/toussaint L'Ouverture

was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place in the former French colony of Saint Domingue that lasted from 1791 until 1804. It impacted the institution of slavery throughout the Americas. Self-liberated slaves destroyed slavery at home, fought to preserve their freedom, and with the collaboration of mulattoes, founded the sovereign state of Haiti. was the best-known leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military and political acumen saved the gains of the first Black insurrection in November 1791. Fought for Saint-Domingue (modern Haiti)'s colonial sovereignty against Napoleonic France. He then helped transform the insurgency into a revolutionary movement, which by 1800 had turned Saint-Domingue, the most prosperous slave colony of the time, into the first free colonial society to have explicitly rejected race as the basis of social ranking.

Boxer rebellion

was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. It was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness (Yihetuan), known in English as the "Boxers", and was motivated by proto-nationalist sentiments and opposition to imperialist expansion and associated Christian missionary activity. Boxer fighters, convinced they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing with the slogan "Support Qing government and exterminate the foreigners."

7 years war/French and Indian War

was a world war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire, spanning five continents, and affected Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by Great Britain on one side and France on the other. For the first time, aiming to curtail Britain and Prussia's ever-growing might, France formed a grand coalition of its own, which ended with failure as Britain rose as the world's predominant power, altering the European balance of power. French and Indian war is the American subset of 7 year war

Thomas Jefferson

was an American Founding Father and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). He was elected the second Vice President of the United States (1797-1801), serving under John Adams and in 1800 was elected the third President (1801-09). Jefferson was a proponent of democracy, republicanism, and individual rights, which motivated American colonists to break from Great Britain and form a new nation. He produced formative documents and decisions at both the state and national level. Jefferson was born and educated in Virginia. During the American Revolution, he represented Virginia in the Continental Congress that adopted the Declaration, drafted the law for religious freedom as a Virginia legislator, and served as a wartime governor (1779-1781).

William McKinley

was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 25th President of the United States from March 4, 1897, until his assassination in September 1901, six months into his second term. McKinley led the nation to victory in the Spanish-American War, raised protective tariffs to promote American industry, and maintained the nation on the gold standard in a rejection of inflationary proposals.

Jose de San Martin

was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire. early 1800s.

Sigmund freud

was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Came up with the oedipodius theory and the id, the ego, and the superego. Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, and across the humanities

Rudyard Kipling/White Man' Burden

was an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist. Kipling was one of the most popular writers in the United Kingdom, in both prose and verse, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. "The White Man's Burden: The United States and the Philippine Islands" (1899), by Rudyard Kipling, is a poem about the Philippine-American War (1899-1902). The title and themes of "The White Man's Burden" ostensibly make the poem about Eurocentric racism and about the belief of the Western world that industrialization is the way to civilize the Third World.

Charles darwin

was an English naturalist and geologist,[4] best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.[I] He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors. Origin of Species, 1859, natural selection.

John locke

was an English philosopher and physician in the 17th century, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism". His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.

Herbert Spencer

was an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era. Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. Spencer is best known for the expression "survival of the fittest", which he coined in Principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. In the 19th century.

mary Wollstonecraft

was an English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights in the early 18th century. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

Galileo Galilei

was an Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician who played a major role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Galileo's championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest.

Enlightenment

was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the late 17th century and 18th century. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy

Theodore herzl/ Zionism

was swiss. was an Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer. He was one of the fathers of modern political Zionism. Herzl formed the World Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish migration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state (Israel). a movement for (originally) the re-establishment and (now) the development and protection of a Jewish nation in what is now Israel. It was established as a political organization in 1897 under Theodor Herzl

Kaiser Wilhelm 2

was the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. Crowned in 1888, he dismissed the Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose "New Course" in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914 that led in a matter of days to the First World War.

Marie antoinette

was the last Queen of France prior to the French Revolution. She was born an Austrian archduchess, the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I. Despite her initial popularity, a growing number of the population eventually came to dislike her, accusing her of being profligate, promiscuous, and of harbouring sympathies for France's enemies, particularly her native Austria. The Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. During the Revolution, she became known as Madame Déficit because the country's financial crisis was blamed on her lavish spending and her opposition to the social and financial reforms.

old regime

was the monarchic, aristocratic, social and political system established in the Kingdom of France from approximately the 15th century until the latter part of the 18th century ("early modern France") under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties

Catherine the Great

was the most renowned and the longest-ruling female leader of Russia, reigning from 1762 until her death in 1796 at the age of 67. Born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia. Russia was revitalised under her reign, growing larger and stronger than ever and becoming recognised as one of the great powers of Europe. An admirer of Peter the Great, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and economy continued to depend on serfdom, and the increasing demands of the state and private landowners led to increased levels of reliance on serfs.

Empress Maria Theresa

was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. Maria Theresa was the absolute sovereign who ruled by the counsel of her advisers. Maria Theresa promulgated financial and educational reforms, promoted commerce and the development of agriculture, and reorganised Austria's ramshackle military, all of which strengthened Austria's international standing. However, she refused to allow religious toleration[7] and contemporary travelers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious.

King leopold

was the second King of the Belgians, known for the founding and exploitation of the Congo Free State as a private venture. Leopold was the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State and all its people, a private project undertaken on his own behalf. Leopold ignored these conditions and millions of Congolese inhabitants, including children, were mutilated and killed. He ran the Congo using the mercenary Force Publique for his personal enrichment. He used great sums of the money from this exploitation for public and private construction projects in Belgium during this period.

industrial revoution

was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.[1] The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British.

Triple Entente

was the understanding linking the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente on 31 August 1907.