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What is an isolated system? Can internal energgy change?
An isolated system is a system that is incapable of exchanging energy or matter with its surroundings. It follows that the total change in internal energy in an isolated system will be equal to 0.
What is Newton's First Law?
An object at rest or in motion with constant velocity will remain that way unless a force acts on it.
What is Netwon's Second Law?
An object of mass m will accelerate when the vector sum of the forces results in some nonzero resultant force vector.
What is an open system?
An open system is one in which both matter and energy can be exchanged with the surroundings. (ex. boiling pot of water, humans)
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
Any given process must result in an increase in total entropy in the universe. In other words, things cannot go from disordered to more ordered spontaneously. For a specific example, consider heat. Heat will not flow from a cold object to a hot object, decreasing entropy. Instead, heat will always from a hot object to a cold object in thermal contact until the temperatures of the objects are equal and the entropy of the universe is higher.
How does one approach a projectile motion problem?
Split all motion into x and y components.
How does one calculate the magnitude of a vector from its components?
Square both component vector magnitudes, add them, and square root the sum.
What is displacement?
Displacement is a vector quantity that describes an objects change in position in space. It is an arrow from initial position to final position.
What is distance?
Distance is a scalar quantity that describes the length that an object has traveled. It is a tallying of the total length an object has moved to get from its initial position to its final position.
What is the first law of thermodynamics?
Energy is never created nor destroyed, only transferred from one form to another. In other words, the total energy at the beginning of a problem must equal the total energy at the end of a problem.
What is potential energy?
Energy of an object by virtue of its position in a system or some other intrinsic quality.
How does one calculate the work done by a gas using a P-V graph?
Take the area within the curve
How does one calculate the average velocity of an object?
Take the change in (displacement) and divide it by the change in time.
What is temperature proportional to and founded upon?
The average kinetic energy of the particles that make up a substance.
What is the first law of thermodynamics in the context of Thermodynamics problems?
The change in the total internal energy of a system must be equal to the change in heat and work (because energy must be conserved). Q-W energy transfered in as heat minus work done by the system
How do the components of vectors add when two overall vectors are summed?
The components themselves simply sum.
What is a system in the context of thermodynamics?
The portion of the universe we are interested in observing or manipulating. The rest of the universe is the surroundings.
Explain how something like pressure is a state function.
The pressure in a system is defined only by the current equilibirum state of the gas particles. Take for instance, 2 balloons with a pressure of 1 atm each. The pressures in these balloons are identical. It does not matter if the first balloon came to 1atm from 10atm and the second balloon came to 1 atm from .01atm. The fact of the matter is that, right now, their pressures are both 1atm.
What is a dot product?
The product of the magnitudes of two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them.
How does one approach torque problems?
Identify all counterclockwise and clockwise torques and then identify all forces.
Which variable links the horizontal and vertical aspects of projectile motion?
Time. Once the ball hits the ground, the motion stops, both horizontal and vertical. Therefore, time is the one variable that you can solve for in one dimension and then use in another. This fact will often provide the necessary variables for solving certain kinematics problems.
What is the purpose of the right hand rule?
To determine the direction of the resultant vector of a cross product.
What is Newton's Third Law?
To every action(force), there is always an opposed but equal reaction.
When do we assign positive or negative values to work?
Neg. when work is being done on the system (compression) pos. when work is being done by the system (expansion). applies to Q-W version so if system compresses it becomes Q+W because neg times neg equals pos
What does it mean to be in thermal equilibrium?
No net heat is flowing between objects in thermal contact.
Do two objects need to be in physical contact to be in thermal contact.
No, it is possible for objects to be in thermal contact without touching one another, although, objects in thermal contact are usually in physical contact too.
What are non-conservative forces?
Non conservative forces dissipate energy into the form of heat/light/sound. e.g. Friction, air resistance, etc. PATH DEPENDENT
What is work?
Work is the mechanical transfer of energy from one object to another. Change in energy (can be potential or kinetic, think charge problem from class)
How does one use the right hand rule?
for C = A x B 1. Point thumb in the direction of vector A 2. Point fingers in the direction of vector B 3. The direction your palm is facing is the direction of vector C
What is the formula to calculate efficiency?
load equals weight
What is dispersion?
"Dispersion is when various wavelengths of light separate from one another. Commonly seen in prisms Explanation: When light travels through a medium, different wavelengths travel at different speeds. SInce index of refraction is related to speed (n=c/v), different wavelengths have different indexes of refraction. So when white light enters a prism, each wavelength will be refracted by a different amount. Red is always least (so it is on top) and violet is always most refraction (on bottom). THis makes sense because violet has the shortest wavelength. Larger wavelengths have smaller refractive indices while smaller wavelengths have larger refractive indices as predicted by the above equation Note: wavelength and speed changes but frequency does not when light enters a medium with a different index of refraction Violet light is refracted more than red light because violet light has a higher frequency/lower wavelength. Violet light is slowed down to a greater extent so it will bend more as it exits a glass prism. The order of bending from least bending to most bending based off color and wavelength is ROYGBIV ""Instead, the index of refraction is greater for shorter wavelengths (proportionate to frequency), so the index of refraction of most glasses is normally higher at shorter wavelengths, while the refractive index of air is more uniform. This is what causes light at the violet/blue end of the spectrum to bend more, entering and leaving the prism than red light, and each successively longer wavelength bends less, causing the fanout of colors."" Note: violet will refract least through diffraction grating Deflection angle due to a diffraction grating depends on the spacing between the grating lines, and not on the index of the grating (assuming air-grating-air). Longer wavelengths are deflected through larger angles by a diffraction grating"
What is gauge pressure?
"Gauge pressure is the difference between the absolute(hydrostatic) pressure in/on something and the atmospheric pressure that the object always feels. Essentially, the gauge pressure is how much ""extra"" pressure is on something. Pgauge=P-Patm=(P0+Rho(g)(z))-Patm =Rhofluid(g)(z) when P0=Patm"
What is Gibbs free energy?
"Gibbs Free energy is the amount of ""available"" energy associated with a reaction. When Gibbs energy is positive, it means the reaction needs energy made available by the environment to drive the reaction. When Gibbs energy is negative, it means the reaction makes the energy it releases during the reaction available for the environment."
What is Na+/K+ ATPase?
"Na+/K+ ATPase, aka ""The Sodium Potassium Pump"" is an enzyme in the membrane of cells that uses ATP to actively transport Sodium and Potassium against their gradients. This pumping plays an important role in the generation of action potentials."
What is Osmotic Pressure?
"Osmotic pressure is the ""sucking"" pressure generated by solutions that draw water into themselves because of the concentration gradient."
What is stabilizing selection?
"Stabilizing selection is when a population responds to selection pressures by stabilizing that gene in their population. For example, the human body has issues associated with being very short and with being very tall. Therefore, natural selection has selected for people within a stable range of, ""normal"" heights to avoid pathology on both ends of the spectrum."
How deep is the Ectoderm in the Gastrula and what tissues are derived from it?
"The Ectoderm is the outermost germ layer. It develops into skin (epidermis), hair, nails, the lens of the eye, the entire nervous system, the inner ear, the adrenal medulla, pituitary gland, and the epithelial linings of the mouth and anus. MNEMONIC: Ectoderm = ""Attracto"" derm. We are attracted to good skin, good brain, and pretty eyes."
How deep is the Endoderm in the gastrula and what tissues are derived from it?
"The Endoderm is the innermost of the three germ layers. It develops into the epitelial lining of the digestive tract (except for the mouth and the anus) and the lungs. It also develops into the pancreas, thyroid, bladder, distal urinary tracts, and part of the liver. MNEMONIC: Endoderm = linings of the ""endernal"" organs (digestive and respiratory tract) and the accessory organs attached to these systems (such as the pancreas, thyroid, bladder, and liver.)"
How deep is the Mesoderm in the Gastrula and what tissues are derived from it?
"The Mesoderm is in between the outermost Ectoderm and the innermost Endoderm. The Mesoderm develops into the musculoskeletal system, the circulatory system, the heart, the spleen, the kidney, bone, connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory system, the gonads, and the adrenal cortex. MNEMONIC: Mesoderm = ""means"" oderm. These tissues provide us the means to move around (musculoskeletal), the means to move things within our body (circulatory system), the means to get rid of things (kidneys), and the means to have sex (the gonads)."
How do the kidneys affect the body's maintenance of blood pH?
"The kidneys can selectively secrete Hydrogen Ions or Bicarbonate ions, altering the equilibrium of the bicarbonate buffer equation and thereby affecting our blood pH. When blood pH is low kindey excrete more H+ and reabsorb more bicarbonate When blood pH is high kidneys excrete more bicarbonate and increase rebsorption of hyrdogen ions Slower than lung response but highly effective for long term regulation bicarbonate is pictured below. Note: It is NOT carbonic acid (which is the protonated version) ""ate"" always means non protonated"
What are the possible values of ms?
+1/2 if the electron is spinning up and -1/2 if the electron is spinning down.
What suffixes are usually associated with peptide or amino acide derivative hormones?
-in or ine Examples: Insulin, vasopressin, thyroxine, epinephrine, etc.
What are the possible values of Magnetic quantum number?
-l to +l
What is pH?
-log[H+]
What is pOH?
-log[OH]
What suffixes are usually associated with steroid hormones?
-one, -ol, or -oid Ex. Testosterone, aldosterone, mineralcorticoids, cortisol, estradiol, etc.
What is Gibbs free energy equal to at equilibrium?
0
What is the vertical speed when an object reaches its maximum height?
0
What are the possible values for l?
0 to n-1
What is the standard enthalpy of formation of something already in a standard state?
0!
What are the basic structural components of the heart?
1. 2 Atria 2. 2 Ventricles 3. 2 Atrioventricular valves 4. 2 Semilunar valves
What are the basic structural components of an antibody?
1. 2 identical heavy chains 2. 2 identical light chains 3. An antibody binding region 4. A variabe region (variable of heavy and light chain bind to antigen 5. A constant region (constant of heavy involved in cellular recognition)
What are the three ways to calculate work done on or by a system?
1. 2. 3.
What are the standard conditions for measuring equilibrium, kinetics, and thermodynamics problems? (signified by the degree symbol)
1. 25 degrees C or 298 K 2. 1 atm pressure 3. 1 M concentration.
What are the three guidelines with which one can assess the stability of a resonance structure?
1. A Lewis structure with small or no formal charges is more stable than a lewis structure with large formal charges. 2. A Lewis structure with less separation between opposite charges is preferred over a Lewis structure with a large sepearation of opposite charges. 3. A Lewis structure with negative formal charges on electronegative atoms is more stable than a lewis structure with negative formal charges on electropositive atoms, and vice versa.
What happens in Initiation of a muscle contraction?
1. A motor neuron releases acetylcholine into the neuromusclar junction. 2. Acetlycholine binds to receptors on the sarcolemma, causing depolarization of the cell membrane by opening Na+ channels. 3. Depolarization triggers an action potential (from Na+ influx), which spreads down the sarcolemma, to the T-tubules, to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 4. In response to the action potential, the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases its Ca2+ ions. 5. The Ca2+ ions bind to troponin, which causes tropomyosin to change its conformation. 6. This change exposes myosin-binding sites on the actin thin filament.
What are the two main families of antigens found on red blood cells?
1. ABO Antigens 2. Rh factor Antigens
What are the two types of refractory period?
1. Absolute refractory period 2. Relative refractory period
What are the two ways immunity to a disease can be acquired?
1. Active immunity 2. Passive immunity
What are the four tenets of Cell Theory?
1. All Living things are composed of cells. 2. The cell is the basic functional unit of life. 3. Cells arise only from preexisting cells. 4. Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA. This genetic material is passed on from parent to daughter cell.
What are the 7 general solubility rules for water?
1. All salts containing NH4+ and alkali metal cations are water soluble. 2. All salts containing NO3- and CH3COO- anions are water soluble. 3. Halides (Cl, Br, I) excluding fluorides are water soluble, with the exception of those formed with Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+ (heavy metals) 4. All salts containing SO42- are water soluble with the exception of those formed with Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+. 5. All metal oxides are insoluble, with the exception of those formed with CaO, SrO, BaO, the alkali metals, and ammonium. 6. All hydroxies are insoluble, with the exception of those formed with Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, the alkali metals, and ammonium. 7. All salts containing CO32-, PO43-, S2-, and SO32- are insoluble, with the exception of those formed with the alkali metals and ammonium
What are the five kinds of radioactive decay?
1. Alpha Decay 2. Beta minus Decay 3. Beta plus Decay 4. Gamma Decay 5. Electron Capture
What are the three types of cells found in the pancreas?
1. Alpha cells 2. Beta cells 3. Delta cells
In what 3 ways are Archaea similar to Eukarya?
1. Archaea start translation with Methionine like Eukarya 2. Archaea Contain similar RNA polymerases to Eukarya 3. Archaea associate their DNA with histones like Eukarya
What are the three definitions of acids and bases?
1. Arrhenius 2. Bronsted-Lowry 3. Lewis
Describe the characteristics of arteries
1. Arteries are Thick walled 2. Arteries are muscular and provide resistance and therefore pressure. 3. Arteries are elastic 4. Arteries do not have valves
What are the 3 characteristics of arteries?
1. Arteries are highly muscular (smooth muscle) and elastic. 2. They have high resistance, which causes elastic recoil that maintains the pressure in the pipe and pushes the blood forward. 3. Arteries do not have valves.
What are the four segments of the colon?
1. Ascending 2. Transverse 3. Descending 4. Sigmoid
What are the 4 types of neuroglia?
1. Astrocytes 2. Ependymal cells 3. Microglia 4. Oligodendrocytes
What are the 4 ways cells can communicate with chemical signals?
1. Autocrine Signaling 2. Paracrine Signaling 3. Juxtacrine Signaling 4. Endocrine Signaling
What are the two main divisions of the human skeleton?
1. Axial Skeleton 2. Appendicular Skeleton
In general, what are good strategies for balancing equations?
1. Balance the least represented elements first and then move on to the more represented elements. 2. When you get stuck, take a guess for the coefficient of the first reactant and balance the remainder of the reaction appropriately. Afterwards, take out any common factors that are present and you will get the right balanced equation.
What are the 3 unique features of Eryhtrocytes?
1. Biconcave shape to maximize surface area for gas exchange as well as fit through small spaces. 2. Mature Erythrocytes have no membrane bound organelles or DNA (Nucleus, mitochondria, etc.). They destroy them to make room for Hemoglobin. Thus, they can't divide or do oxidative phosphorylation. They rely on glycolysis for ATP 3. They are phagocytized by the liver and spleen after 120 days
Describe the path of blood through the body starting from the right atrium and ending in the right atrium.
1. Blood passes from the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve, into the right ventricle. 2. Blood passes from the right ventricle, through the pulmonary valve, to the pulmonary artery. 3. Bood passes from the pulmonary artery, to the lungs. 4. Blood passes from the lungs to the pulmonary veins. 5. Blood passes from the pulmonary veins to the left atrium. 6. Bood passes from the left atrium into the left ventricle through the bicuspid (mitral) valve. 7. Blood passes from the left ventricle into the aorta through the aortic valve. 8. Blood passes from the aorta to various arteries in the body. 9. Blood passes from the various arteries to the arterioles. 10. Blood passes from the arterioles to the capillaries. 11. Blood passes from the capillaries to the venules. 12. Blood passes from the venules to the veins. 13. Blood passes from the veins to the venae cavae 14. Blood passes from the venae cavae to the right atrium.
What are the two major building blocks of the skeleton?
1. Bone 2. Cartilage
What are 5 big roles of Calcium in the body?
1. Bone structure and strength 2. Release of neurotransmitters from neurons 3. Regulation of muscle contraction 4. Clotting of blood 5. Secondary messenger
What are the three ways Calcitonin decreases calcium concentration in the blood?
1. Calcitonin stimulates calcium excretion from the kidneys. 2. Calcitonin decreases the amount of calcium absorbed by the gut. 3. Calcitonin increases the amount of calcium stored in the bones.
What kinds of things can make it through the glomerular pores and what kinds of things can't?
1. Can - small things like glucose, water, electrolytes, fatty acids, single amino acids, etc. 2. Can't - big things like cells, polypeptide chains, etc.
What are the 8 basic structural components of the neuron?
1. Cell Body (soma) 2. Dendrites 3. Axon Hillock 4. Axon 5. Myelin Sheath 6. Myelin producing cells (Schwann cells in PNS, Oligodendrocytes in the CNS) 7. Nodes of Ranvier 8. Axon Terminals
What are the four divisions of the spinal cord?
1. Cervical 2. Thoracic 3. Lumbar 4. Sacral
What 5 important things happen in Prophase?
1. Chromatin condenses into chromosomes. 2. The centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell. 3. Then the centrioles start to form spindle fibers. 4. The spindle fibers extend throughout the cell, most going towards the middle. 5. The nucleus dissolves and kinetochores appear at the centromere Spindles technically attach during prometaphase but if that isn't an option say prophase**
What are the two ways the Complement system is activated?
1. Classical Pathway 2. Alternate pathway
What are the 6 major kinds of reactions seen on test day?
1. Combination 2. Decomposition 3. Combustion 4. Single Displacement 5. Double Displacement 6. Neutralization
What are the two types of bone?
1. Compact Bone 2. Spongy Bone
What are the main differences between compact bone and spongy bone?
1. Compact Bone is very dense and hard, spongy bone is not as dense and not as hard. 2. Compact bone is on the exterior of the bone, spongy bone comprises the interior of the bone.
What are the three patterns of dominance?
1. Complete Dominance 2. Codominance 3. Incomplete Dominance
What are the 4 things that can affect the rate of a reaction?
1. Concentration of reactants 2. Temperature 3. The medium (solvent) in which the reaction takes place (generally polar solvents preferred) 4. Catalysts
What are the three types of heat transfer?
1. Conduction 2. Convection 3. Radiation
What are the two types of calorimetry?
1. Constant Pressure 2. Constant Volume
What are some common second messengers?
1. Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP) 2. Inositol Triphosphate (IP3) 3. Calcium
Briefly describe the steps of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
1. Decrease in blood pressure activates the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney to secrete renin. 2. Renin cleaves Angiotensinogen into Angiotensin I, its active form. 3. Angiotensin I is converted into Angiotensin II by Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE). This happens in the lungs! 4. Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone. 5. Blood pressure increases
What are the 5 types of chromosomal mutation?
1. Deletion 2. Duplication 3. Inversion 4. Insertion 5. Translocation
Describe in detail the entirety of muscle contraction, starting with inititiation and ending with relaxation.
1. Depolarization of the sarcolemma caused by acetylcholine is conducted to the sarcoplasmic reticulum through t-tubules (Na+ depolarizaion), which causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions. These calcium ions bind to troponin, which induces tropomyosin to reveal the myosin binding sites. 1. The free globular heads of the myosin molecules, which are bound to ADP (a hydrolyzed ATP) move towards the exposed sites on actin and bind to it. 2. The ADP on the myosin heads dissociates, which causes the myosin molecule to contract and pull the actin filament inwards towards the M-line, shortening the sarcomere. Power stroke is caused by dissociation of ADP and Pi 3. A new ATP will bind to Myosin, which causes the Myosin to deatch from the actin filament. Soon after, the ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP and pi, which causes the Myosin head to recock back into its uncontracted conditiion. At this point the calcium ions liberated in initiation dissociate as well. 4. And you're back to being relaxed. You have a cocked ADP-myosin head just like before and all you need is some calcium to bind troponin to reveal the myosin binding sites and start all over again.
What occurs in Ovulation?
1. Developing follicles release Estrogen. As the follicles grow they eventually get so big they are releasing a lot of Estrogen. Estrogen is interesting because it negatively inhibits the hypothalamus at low concentrations, but after a certain concentration is surpassed, it will conduct positive feedback on the hypothalamus. 2. This increase in GnRH by the hypothalamus leads to a spike in FSH and LH levels. 3. The spike in LH levels induces ovulation.
How do we inhale?
1. Diaphragm flattens (contracts) and the volume in the thoracic cavity increases (intrathroacic volume). (external intercostal mucles also used) 2. The intrapleural space increases as the outer parietal membrane is pulled down with the diaphragm but the visceral membrane stays attached to the lungs. 3. Because the intrapleural space's volume increases, its pressure decreases, which lowers the amount of external pressure compressing the lungs. 4. With the compression pressure reduced, the lungs can expand, pushing the pleurae further outward. 5. Because the lung's voume increases, its pressure decreases, which creates a pressure gradient from the atmospheric pressure outside to the lowered pressure in the lungs. 6. Air rushes into the lungs from the outside down the pressure gradient and the alveoli are filled for gas exchange.
What are the two classifications of hormone based on what type of tissue they effect?
1. Direct 2. Tropic
What are the three patterns of evolution?
1. Divergent Evolution 2. Parallel Evolution 3. Convergent Evolution
What are the two types of twins?
1. Dizgotic, or Fraternal 2. Monozygotic, or Identical
What are the three segments of the small intestine and are they used for digestion or absorption primarily?
1. Duodenum (digestion) 2. Jejunum (absorption) 3. Ileum (absorption) MNEMONIC: Dow Jones Industrial
What are the basic roles of the three segments of the small intestine?
1. Duodenum, contains brush-border enzymes to break down various molecules. Releases enteropeptidase to activate other digestive enzymes. Releases Secretin and Cholecystokinin (CKK) into blood. 2. Jejenum and Ileum, Absorb the monomers.
What are the two types of equilibria?
1. Dynamic 2. Static
What are the three types of neurons?
1. Efferent Neurons (Motor Neurons) 2. Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons) 3. Interneurons
What are the two types of skeletons?
1. Endoskeleton 2. Exoskeleton
What are 4 of the most common amino acid derivative hormones and state whether they are peptide-like or steroid-like in their timing and mechanism
1. Epinephrine - Peptide like 2. Norepinephrine - Peptide like 3. Thyroxine - Steroid like 4. Triiodothyronine - Steroid like
What are the four tissue types?
1. Epithelial Tissue 2. Connective Tissue 3. Muscle Tissue 4. Nervous Tissue
What are the three cellular components of blood?
1. Erythrocytes 2. Leukocytes 3. Thrombocytes
What 3 things does Estrogen do in females?
1. Estrogens result in the development of secondary sex characteristics for adult females. 2. In the embryo, estrogen stimulates the development of the female reproductive track. 3. Finally, estrogens also lead to the initial thickening of the endometrium each month in preparation for implantation of a zygote.
What are the two types of glands?
1. Exocrine 2. Endocrine
What are the two main structural classes of proteins?
1. Fibrous Proteins 2. Globular proteins
What are three processes by which the Kidney filters the blood and maintains blood concentration and volume?
1. Filtration 2. Secretion 3. Reabsorption
How do you solve for the concentration of products for a reaction given an equilibrium expression?
1. First, write the equilibrium expression for the reaction. Let's use the reaction A <> B + C for an example. 2. Second, if the reaction is 1 to 1, like this one is, the amount of reactant lost, x, will be equal to the amount of product gained, x. If the reaction is not 1 to 1, figure out how many moles of product you'd get for each mole of reactant using the stoichiometric coefficients. 3. Next, plug in the Equilibrium constant, in this example, 10-12 and the unknown concentrations of the reactants and products. 4. Finally, if Keq is more than 2 orders of magnitude less than the concentration of the reactants, then the x at the bottom of the equation can be ignored. 5. Solve for x!
What are the 7 hormones of the Anterior Pituitary?
1. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) 2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) 3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) 4. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) 5. Prolactin 6. Endorphins 7. Growth Hormones MNEMONIC: FLAT PEG of note, the FLAT hormones are tropic and the PEG hormones are direct.
What are the 4 stages of menstruation?
1. Follicular Phase 2. Ovulation 3. Luteal Phase 4. Menstruation
Describe the path of a fertilized egg, starting from the ovary and ending with implantation.
1. From the supply with which females are born, a primary oocyte will be allowed to develop into a secondary oocyte. 2. The secondary oocyte will burst forth from the follicle, leave the ovary, and enter the abdominal cavity. 3. The secondary oocyte is taken up by the Fallopian tube with the help of cilia. 4. The secondary oocyte is fertilized by sperm at some point in the fallopian tube. 5. After fertilization, the zygote continues its path through the fallopian tube. 6. As the zygote travels through the fallopian tube, it undergoes blastulation, eventually forming a blastocyst (blastula). 7. The blastocyst implants in the thickened endometrium and begins secreting hCG, a hormone that mimics LH.
Where are the three quality control checkpoints in the cell cycle and for what are they checking?
1. G1 to S, is the cell ready to synthesize new DNA and does the DNA need to be repaired before synthesis? (Restriction Point) (p53 plays big role) 2. G2 to M, was the DNA replicated correctly and is the cell ready to divide? (p53 also plays a role) 3. Metaphase to Anaphase, have all the chromosomes been attached to the spindle?
What are the two types of electrochemical cell?
1. Galvanic (Voltaic) cell 2. Electrolytic cell
What are the 5 assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory?
1. Gases are made up of particles with negligible volumes compared to the container. 2. Gas atoms exhibit no intermolecular attractions or repulsions. 3. Gas particles are in continuous random motion, undergoing collisions. 4. Collisons between gas molecules are elastic, meaning energy and momentum are conserved. 5. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas (in K), and this KE is the same for all gases (As a whole, KE not the same for each individual gas particle as seen in maxwell boltzmann distribution curve), at any given temp, regardless of chemical identity.
What is Mendel's first law (of segregation)?
1. Genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) 2. An organism has two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. 3. The two alleles segregate during meiosis (in Anaphase 1 specifically!) resulting in gametes that carry only one allele for an inhereted trait. 4. If two alleles of an organism arer different, only one will be fully expressed and the other will be silent. The expressed allele is called dominant, the silences allele is called recessive. Seen in anaphase 1 NOTE: Keep in mind that Mendel did great work, but he didn't get the rules 100% correctly. For example, the 4th tenet of this law does not account for co-dominance or incomplete dominance.
What are the components of viruses?
1. Genetic Material 2. Protein Coat, also known as Capsid 3. Envelope (Optional)
What are the structures of the Nephron, in order?
1. Glomerulus/Bowman's capsule 2. Proximal Convoluted Tubule 3. Descending limb of the loop of Henle 4. Ascending limb of the loop of Henle 5. Distal Convuluted Tubule 6. Collecting Duct MNEMONIC: Bad Penguins Do Act Depressed and Cold
What are the 3 ways Glucagon increases blood glucose?
1. Glucagon stimulates degradation of protein and fat into glucose. 2. Glucagon stimulates conversion of Glycogen to Glucose 3. Glucagon stimulates production of new glucose via Gluconeogenesis.
What are the three classifications of corticosteroids?
1. Glucocorticoids 2. Mineralcorticoids 3. Cortical Sex hormones
What are the 5 hypothalmic hormones? tropic or direct?
1. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) 2. Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH) 3. Prolactin-inhibiting factor (dopamine) 4. Thyroide Releasing Hormone (TRH) 5. Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH) Tropic except dopamine
What are the two classes of Leukocytes?
1. Granulocytes 2. Agranulocytes
What are the 4 types of potential energies?
1. Gravitational 2. Elastic 3. Chemical 4. Electrical
What are the three components of a mature sperm cell and what are their functions?
1. Head, where the genetic info is. 2. Midpiece, which is filled with mitochondria to generate energy for the flagellum. 3. Flagellum or tail, which spins to generate force for motility.
What are common ways to denature a protein?
1. Heat. As temp increases, hydrogen bonds and salt bridges destabilize. 2. Solutes such as urea and beta mercaptoethanol can disrupt disulfide bridges, causing denaturation. 3. Detergents can solubilize proteins, which disrupts noncovalent bonds and therefore promotes denaturation.
What are the three major types of T-cells?
1. Helper T-cells 2. Suppressor T-cells 3. Killer (Cytotoxic) T-cells
What are the three portal systems in the adult human?
1. Hepatic portal system 2. Hypophyseal portal system 3. Renal portal system
What are the two kinds of adaptive immunity?
1. Humoral Immunity 2. Cell-mediated immunity
What are the three layers of the skin?
1. Hypodermis 2. Dermis 3. Epidermis
What is the basic approach to a stoichometry problem?
1. Identify and balance the equation associated with the reaction in question. 2. Use whatever information was given (a mass, a pressure, a concentration, etc.) to get moles. 3. Use the mole ratio in the balanced equation to convert from moles of the given to moles of the required. 4. Convert from moles of required into the appropriate unit.
What are the steps for approaching a rate law chart?
1. Identify pairs of trials where one reactant is being varied while the others change. 2. Using one of the pairs of trials, see how the rate changed and compare that to how the reactant changed. 3. The relationship between these changes will give you the rate order according to the equation Xy=Z where X is the ratio of the concentrations, y is the order, and Z is the ratio of the rates. So for example, if you chose a trial where one of the reactants doubled (2x) but the rate quadrupled (4x) you would have 2y=4. And so the order would be 2
What are the 2 functions of the endometrium?
1. In day to day life, the endometrium keeps adjacent walls of the uterus from sticking together, thereby maintainign its patency. 2. During menstruation, the endometrium grows in to a thick blood vessel rich tissue that can optimally support a blastocyst in the case of implantation. If a blastocyst is not implanted, the thickened endometrium will slough off.
What are 7 specific functions of the sympathetic nervous system?
1. Increase heart rate 2. Redistribute blood to muscles of locomotion (movement) (vasodilate to tissues that need blood and vasoconstrict to tissues that dont) 3. Increase blood glucose 4. Relax bronchi 5. Decrease digestion and peristalsis 6. Dilate the eyes to maximize light intake 7. Release epinephrine into the blood MNEMONIC: Fight or Flight
What are the three stages of muscle contraction?
1. Initiation 2. Contraction 3. Relaxation
What are the two divisions of the immune system?
1. Innate Immunity 2. Adaptive Immunity
What are the two types of cleavage?
1. Intermediate 2. Determinate
What are the two types of digestion?
1. Intracellular digestion 2. Extracellular digestion
What are the characteristics of ionic compounds?
1. Ionic compounds have very high melting and boiling points. 2. Ionic compounds dissolve readily in water and other polar solvents. 3. Ionic compounds form crystalline lattice structures so as to maximize the attractive force between atoms of opposite charges and minimize the repulsive force between atoms of same-sign charges.
What are the 4 types of thermodynamic processes?
1. Isothermal 2. Adiabatic 3. Isobaric 4. Isovolumetric
What are the kidney's two main goals in filtering the blood?
1. Keep what the body needs (sugars, amino acids, sometimes water etc.) 2. Lose what the body doesn't need (waste products, sometimes water, etc.)
What are the four stages of bacterial growth?
1. Lag Phase 2. Log Phase 3. Stationary Phase 4. Death Phase
What are the 4 types of intermolecular forces?
1. London Dispersion Forces 2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions 3. Hydrogen Bonding 4. Ionic Bonds
Name the two agranulocytes.
1. Lymphocytes 2. Monocytes
What are the two types of MHC's found in the body?
1. MHC Class 1 2. MHC Class 2
What are some of the professional antigen presenting cells that display class 2 MHC's?
1. Macrophages (this includes the specific macrophages like microglia, langherns cells, etc.) 2. Dendritic cells in the skin 3. Some B-cells 4. Certain activated epithelial cells
What are the 3 functions of the Macrophage?
1. Macrophages activate when foreign invaders enter the tissue in which they reside. Macrophages kill invaders by phagocytocing them and then digesting them with hydrolytic enzymes. 2. After the Macrophage breaks down the invader, it uses a protein called major histocompatibility complex (MHC) to present that invaders antigen to the cells of the adaptive immune system. 3. Macrophages release cytokines in areas that need them.
What are the two criteria that a balanced equation reaction must fulfil?
1. Mass must be conserved (same number and types of elements on both sides of the equation). 2. Charge must be conserved (same overall charge on both sides of the equation).
What are the two ways digestion can be achieved?
1. Mechanical digestion is when large food particels are physically broken down into smaller food particles. 2. Chemical digestion is when enzymes cleave chemical bonds in a food particle in order to break it down into usable nutrients.
In what way 2 ways does the mouth break down food?
1. Mechanically, by chewing the food up and breaking into smaller pieces (Mastication). 2. Chemically, with enzymes in the saliva.
What are the 5 types of sensory neurons found in skin?
1. Merkel Cells 2. Meissner's Corpuscles 3. Ruffini Endings 4. Pacinian Corpuscles 5. Free nerve endings
What are the three structural components of the Cytoskeleton?
1. Microfilaments 2. Microtubules 3. Intermediate Filaments
What are the two types of geometries that VSEPR theory can give you?
1. Molecular Geometry - the shape of the molecule 2. Electronic Geometry - the distribution of electrons in a molecule NOTE: 2 different molecules can have equivalent electronic geometry but have differerent molecular geometry. This is because, although two molecules can have equivalent electronic geometry, some of those electrons might be bound to atoms in bonds while others may just be free floating as non-bonding pairs.
What are the three types of cells associated with the gastric glands?
1. Mucous Cells 2. Chief Cells 3. Parietal Cells
Describe the path of air starting from the outside of our body to the location of gas exchange inside our body.
1. Nares or Mouth 2. Pharynx 3. Larynx 4. Trachea 5. Bronchi 6. Bronchioles 7. Alveoli
Name the three granulocytes
1. Neutrophils 2. Eosinophils 3. Basophils (mast cells too)
How does one find the overall enthalpy of a multistep reaction?
1. Note the enthalpies of each step. 2. Combine the steps in such a way so as to only express the first step and the last step. This is done by flipping equations or multiplying them by numbers so that everything except the first reactant and the last product cancel out. 3. If an equation was flipped, change the sign of its enthalpy. If an equation was multiplied by a number, multiply the enthalpy by the same number. 4. Add the enthalpies up, and you will get the enthalpy of the overall reaction.
What are the three types of anaerobes?
1. Obligate anearobe 2. Facultative anaerobe 3. Aerotolerant anaerobe
From start to finish, name the organs of the digestive tract.
1. Oral cavity 2. Pharanx 3. Esophagus 4. Stomach 5. Small intestine 6. Large intestine 7. Rectum
What are some basic tenets of Natural Selection theory?
1. Organisms produce offspring, very few of which survive to reproductive maturity. 2. Chance variations within individuals may be heritable. If the variation gives an organism a survival advantage of any sort, it is deemed favorable. 3. Individuals with more favorable variations are more likely to survive to reproductive age and produce offspring, thererby passing their genes into the next generation.
What are the two types of cell responsible for the building and maintaining of bone?
1. Osteoblasts 2. Osteoclasts
What two hormones does the posterior pituitary release?
1. Oxytocin 2. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH or Vasopressin)
What are the two effects of PTH on phosphorus homeostasis?
1. PTH Increases absorption of phosphorus by the gut (by activating vitamin D) 2. PTH decreases reabsorption of phosphate by the kidneys Notice that the first effect increases phosphorus in the blood, but the second decreases it. PTH has little effect on phosphorus homeostasis because its dual effects mostly cancel out.
What are the two layers of the Dermis?
1. Papillary Layer 2. Reticular Layer
What are the three types (in terms of chemical derivative) of hormones?
1. Peptide Hormones 2. Steroid Hormones 3. Amino Acid Derivatives
What are the characteristics of peptide hormones?
1. Peptide hormones are made up of amino acids. 2. Peptide hormones can range in size from very small to very large. 3. Peptide hormones are polar/charged hormones. 4. Peptide hormones are hydrophilic.
What are the 5 ways to express concentration?
1. Percent composition by mass 2. Molarity 3. Molality 4. Normality 5. Mole fraction
List the major endocrine organs/glands in the human body
1. Pineal Gland 2. Pituitary Gland 7. Pancreas 4. Parathyroid Glands 3. Hypothalamus 6. Adrenal Glands 9. Testes 5. Thyroid Glands 8. Ovaries MNEMONIC: PPPPHATTO, a name you might call an overweight person if you were mean.
What are the various types of mutations?
1. Point mutations, which are sub categorized as... a. Silent Mutations b. Missense Mutations c. Nonsense Mutations 2. And Frameshift mutations, which are sub categorized as... a. Insertion b. Deletion
How does one use the modified right hand rule for current in wires?
1. Point your thumb in the direction of the current. 2. Wrap your fingers around the current carrying wire. 3. Your fingers now represent the direction of the magnetic field curlng around the wire.
What are the names of the individual nerves in the two-nerve path motif in the autonomic nervous system?
1. Preganglionic neuron, the first neuron 2. Postganglionic neuron, the second neuron that actually affects the target tissue.
What is the function of progesterone?
1. Progesterone contributes to the development and maintenance of the endometrium, but not its original thickening (That's estrogen's job!)
What are the placenta's two functions in fetal development?
1. Provide a permeable barrier across which maternal and fetal nutrients and materials can cross. 2. Protect the baby from pathogens and supply antibodies if necessary.
What are the two different circulations supported by the heart?
1. Pulmonary Circuit, the flow of blood to and from the lungs 2. Systemic Circuit, the flow of blood to and from the rest of the tissues of the body.
What roles can the formation of quaternary structure serve?
1. Quaternary structure can stabilize a protein 2. Quaternary structure can reduce the amount of DNA needed to encode a protein complex 3. Quaternary structure can bring catalytic sites together, which allows intermediates to be shuttled directly to the next step. 4. Quaternary structure can induce cooperativity, also known as allosteric effects.
What are some common causes of mutation?
1. Radiation, such as ultraviolet rays, can change base pairs. 2. Certain Chemical exposure can alter the base pairs in the DNA. 3. Our own replication machinery can make mistakes and change the base pairs in our DNA, causing mutations. 4. Transposons can insert and remove themselves from the genome. If they insert themselves in the middle of a gene, they will alter the gene and therefore the allele.
List the 7 types of electromagnetic radiation represented in the electromagnetic spectrum from lowest energy to highest energy.
1. Radio Waves 2. Microwaves 3. Infrared Waves 4. Visible Waves 5. UV rays 6. X-Rays 7. Gamma Rays
What are the two types of Bone Marrow?
1. Red Marrow 2. Yellow Marrow
What are the two types of Eo's?
1. Reduction Potential 2. Oxidation Potential
What are the stages of the action potential?
1. Resting stage, when stimuli are trying to depolarize the membrane potential to the threshold. 2. Depolarization, the sharp increase in potential that occurs when the voltage gated sodium channels open. 3. Repolarization, the sharp decrease in potential that occurs when the voltage gated sodium channels close and the voltage gated potassium channels open. 4. Hyperpolarization, when the memrbane potential is even more negative than it usually is due to the efflux of potassium ions. This is when the potassium voltage gated channels close.
What are the 2 key enzymes in saliva and what do they break down?
1. Salivary Amylase, capable of hydrolyzing starch into smaller sugars. 2. Lipase, capable of catalyzing the hydrolysis of lipids. Note: This means no protein digestion occurs in the mouth. Minimal lipid digestion as well
What are the cellular components of a muscle cell (myocyte)
1. Sarcomeres 2. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum 3. Sarcoplasm 4. Sarcolemma 5. T-tubules 6. Peripherally pushed Nuclei
What three tissues contribute to the seminal fluid and what do they contribute?
1. Seminal vesicles contribute Fructose to nourish sperm and alkali products to protect the sperm in the acidic female reproductive tract. 2. The prostate gland makes more alkali products to further protect the sperm in the acidic female reproductive tract. 3. The bulbourethral (Cowper's) gland produces a clear viscous fluid that cleans out remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal.
What are the two functional components of the Testes?
1. Seminiferous Tubules 2. Interstitial cells (of Leydig)
What is the path sperm takes as it leaves the body?
1. Seminiferous Tubulues 2. Epididymis 3. Vas Deferens 4. Ejaculatory Duct 5. Urethra 6. Penis MNEMONIC: SEVE(N) UP
What are the three types of nerves?
1. Sensory 2. Motor 3. Mixed
What are the three types of layering found in epithelial cells?
1. Simple 2. Stratified 3. Pseudostratified
Describe the path of electrical conduction in the heart.
1. Sino-atrial Node (SA Node) 2. Atrioventricular Node (AV Node) 3. Bundle of His (AV bundle) 4. Bundle Branches 5. Purkinje Fibers
What are the three types of muscle in the body?
1. Skeletal Muscle 2. Cardiac Muscle 3. Smooth Muscle
What are the three stages of cell specialization?
1. Specification 2. Determination 3. Differentiation
What are the 5 steps of sperm development from stem cell to sperm?
1. Spermatogonium (stem cell) 2. Primary Spermatocyte 3. Secondary Spermatocyte 4. Spermatid 5. Spermatozoa (sperm)
What are the three shapes of epithelium?
1. Squamous 2. Cuboidal 3. Columnar
What are the three patterns of natural selection?
1. Stabilizing Selection 2. Directional Selection 3. Disruptive Selection
What are the four steps of a Gram Stain?
1. Stain the bacterium with Crystal Violet 2. Add Iodide, which binds the crystal violet and traps it in the cell. 3. Ethanol is added to disrupt the membrane and wash the crystal violet out. In Gram Positive cells, the thick layer of peptidoglycan will withstand the ethanol and keep the violet in. In Gram Negative cells, the thin layer of peptidoglycan will be washed away, along with the violet color. 4. The bacterium is counterstained with Safranin (Pink).
What are the 2 important differences between static friction and kinetic friction
1. Static friction takes a range of values. Kinetic friction, on the other hand, is constant and does not depend on contact area, velocity of sliding objects, etc. ***fact check 2. The coefficient of static friction is always higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. This means accelerating a static object takes more force than accelerating an already moving object. Furthermore, the maximum static frictional force will always be larger than the kinetic frictional force.
What are the 3 functions of Oxytocin?
1. Stimulate uterine contractions during child labor 2. Stimulate milk ejection due to baby latching 3. Stimulate the formation of emotional bonds
What are the 5 layers of the epidermis from deepest to superficial.
1. Stratum Basale 2. Stratum Spinosum 3. Stratum Granulosum 4. Stratum Lucidum 5. Stratum Corneum MNEMONIC: Big Spiders Grab Little Children
What are the four fundamental forces?
1. Strong Nuclear Force 2. Weak Nuclear Force 3. Gravitational Force 4. Electromagnetic Force
Describe the appearance of a strong acid and strong base titration curve?
1. Strong acid starts at near 0 pH. 2. Little effect on pH at low volumes of base. 2. As base volume starts to match acid volume, sharp rise. 3. Equivalence point is at 7 because a strong acid and a strong base neutralize completely. 4. As you add more base, the curve flattens out.
What are the four ways the skin can thermoregulate the body?
1. Sweating 2. Piloerection 3. Vasodilation 4. Vasoconstriction
How does sweating cool us down?
1. Sweating causes water to appear on the surface of our skin. 2. The water, now in contact with the hot skin, enters into thermal exchange, with heat going from the skin to the water. 3. The water gets so hot that it evaporates, which also sucks heat from the skin.
What are the two types of summation?
1. Temporal Summation 2. Spatial summation
What are the two main layers of the adrenal gland and from what germ layers are they derived?
1. The Adrenal Cortex, derived from the Mesoderm 2. The Adrenal Medulla, derived from the Ectoderm
What are the three major segments of the large intestine?
1. The Cecum 2. The Colon 3. The Rectum
What are the two divisions of the Kidney?
1. The Cortex (outer) 2. The Medulla (inner)
What are the three components of bacterial flagella?
1. The Filament 2. The Basal Body (Apparatus) 3. The Hook
Name the three fetal shunts?
1. The Foramen Ovale 2. The Ductus Arteriosus 3. The Ductus Venosus
What are the anatomical points on the stomach?
1. The Fundus 2. The Body 3. The antrum 4. The pylorus 5. The lesser curvature 6. The greater curvature
What are the various zones and bands of the Sarcomere?
1. The I Band 2. The Z Line 3. The M Line 4. The H Zone 5. The A Band1.
Describe the contraction of the heart in a heartbeat.
1. The atria contract (from SA node signal) 2. There is a short pause while the ventricles fill (delayed at AV node) 3. The ventricles contract (from purkinje fiber signal)
How do we exhale?
1. The contracting diaphragm is allowed to relax 2. The chest cavity decreases in size, increasing its pressure. 3. The higher external pressure causes the lungs to decrease in size, increasing their pressure. 4. The higher pressure air in the lungs travels down its pressure gradient to the outside world. Note, this is just the reverse of inhalation. This is also a passive process, muscles are being allowed to passively relax instead of being actively contracted.
What are the 3 functions of the endothelial cells?
1. The endothelial cells help the blood vessels adapt by secreting vasodilators and vasoconstrictors. 2. The endothelial cells can allow white blood cells to pass through vessel walls into tissue during an inflammatory response. 3. The endothelial cells release certain chemicals in response to damage of the blood vessel that are necessary in the formation of blood clots and repair of the vessel.
What are the two differences in the ways the lungs compare to one another?
1. The left lung is smaller than the right lung owing to the indentation in its right side. This is a space for the heart. 2. The left lung only has 2 lobes, the right lung has 3.
What are the functions of the lymphatic system as a secondary circulatory system?
1. The lymphatic system assists in fluid distribution. The lymphatic system can take fluid into itself when there is too much in the tissues due to the fact that the venous end of the capillary bed can't absorb enough fluid to makeup for that which was secreted at the arteriole end (there is a net flow of fluid from the capillary bed into the tissue, this fluid is picked up by lymph sysem). This fluid is returned to the bloodstream. When albumin is low, oncotic pressure decreases, meaning there is even MORE fluid loss from the capillary bed than normal, so the lymph system has to save this fluid. When the lymph system is overwhelmed, edema occurs. 2. The lymphatic system assists in fat distribution. In the small intestine, there are structures called lacteals. Lacteals are small lymphatic vessels that transport packaged fats to the rest of the body. 3. The lymphatic system gives a place for antigen presenting cells and lymphocytes to interact. Mature lymph nodes have germinal centers, which are collections of immune cells.
What are the two functions of the mitochondria?
1. The mitochondria produce useful chemical energy in the form of ATP through the Citric Acid Cycle and the Electron Transport Chain 2. Mitochondria can induce apoptosis by releasing Electron Transport Chain enzymes.
What are the three ways that neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft after they have exerted their effects?
1. The neurotransmitter can be broken down by an enzyme. 2. The neurotransmitter can be re-absorbed by reuptake carriers (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine use this). 3. The neurotransmitter can simply diffuse out of the synaptic cleft on its own (Nitric Oxide).
What are the important points and lines of the phase diagram?
1. The solid<>gas equilibrium line 2. The solid<>liquid equilibrium line 3. The gas<>liquid equilibrium line 4. The triple point 5. The critical point
What are the two notweorthy cell groups in a blastocyst?
1. The trophoblast cells 2. The inner cell mass
What are the two layer surrounding Oocytes?
1. The zona pellucida 2. Corona radiata
In what 3 ways are oogenesis different than spermatogenesis?
1. There are a finite amount of eggs in a female and the number of eggs is determined at birth. Sperm cells, on the other hand, can be produced indefinitely. 2. By birth, all of the oogonia have already undergone DNA replication and thus are already primary oocytes. These primary oocytes are frozen in Prophase I. 3. Oogenesis halts secondary oocytes at Metaphase II. The secondary oocyte will wait to be fertilized before completing Meiosis II.
What are the three places an endosome can transport material to?
1. To and from the Plasma Membrane 2. To the lysosomes 3. To the trans-Golgi
What are the six lung volumes of clinical significance?
1. Total Lung Capacity (TLC) Cannot be measured by spirometer 2. Residual Volume (RV) Cannot be measured by spirometer 3. Vital Capacity (VC) 4. Tidal Volume (TV) 5. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) 6. Insipratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
What are the three levels of potency in stem cells?
1. Totipotent 2. Pluripotent 3. Multipotent
What are the three forms of genetic recombination seen in Bacteria?
1. Transformation 2. Conjugation 3. Transduction
What are the three thyroid hormones?
1. Triiodothyronine (T3) 2. Thyroxine (T4) 3. Calcitonin
What are the 4 colligative properties?
1. Vapor pressure 2. Boiling point 3. Freezing point 4. Osmotic Pressure
How do cyclins control the timing of the cell cycle?
1. Various cyclins rise and fall in concentration at various stages of the cell cycle. 2. As these concentrations rise and fall, certain Cyclin Dependent Kinases (CDKs) are activated and deactivated. 3. Active CDK's activate transcription factors that activate genes that let the cell move on to the next stage of the cell cycle.
What are the three components of the vasculature?
1. Veins 2. Arteries 3. Capillaries
What are the three characteristics of veins?
1. Veins are thin walled, not very muscular, and inelastic. Thin wall and low smooth muscle means they can expand and take on more blood 2. Veins are not resistive, and will therefore take a larger amount of volume at a slower rate. 3/4s of the blood in our body is usually accumulated in our veins. 3. Veins have valves to prevent the backflow of blood.
What are the two divisions of the pleurae?
1. Visceral Pleura 2. Parietal Pleura
Describe the appearance of a weak acid and strong base titration curve?
1. Weak acid will start around a 2 pH. 2. Moderate effect on pH at low volumes because base is strong and acid is weak. 3. Sharp rise as base starts to match weak acid. 4. Equivalence point is always more than 7 because a weak acid and a strong base combine to make a slightly basic solution. 5. Curve flattens out as you add more base.
Describe the appearance of the titration curve of a weak base titrated with a strong acid?
1. Weak base starts at a 10-ish pH. 2. Moderate effect on pH as you add acid because its strong compared to the weak base. 3. Sharp drop as acid starts to match base. 4. Equivalence point is always less than 7 because a strong acid and a weak base combine to make a slightly acid solution. 5. As you add more acid, the curve flattens out.
From Zygote to Gastrula, what are the stages of development?
1. Zygote 2. 2 Cell embryo 3. 4 Cell embryo 4. 8 Cell embryo 5. 16 Cell embryo 6. Morula 7. Blastula (Blastocyst in mammals) 8. Gastrula
Describe the characteristics of veins
1. veins are thin walled 2. veins are not very muscular and have low resistance 3. veins are inelastic 4. veins have valves
If the equilibrium constant for a reaction written in one direction is Keq, what is the equilibrium constant of the reverse reaction?
1/Keq
ABC
123
How many sphincters does the anus have?
2. An internal and an external sphincter.
How many sphincter's does the urinary bladder have?
2. An internal sphincter and an external sphincter.
How much volume does one mole of an ideal gas take up at STP?
22.4 Liters
How many chromosomes is the human genome composed of?
23 homologous pairs. (46 chromosomes)
By what factor does the number of cells increase after each cleavage?
2x
What is the shape of the P orbital?
3 lobes that share a center but extend across three different axes.
How do the number of sodium and potassium ions change in the cell with 1 pump of the Sodium Potassium Pump?
3 sodium are pumped out of the cell while 2 potassium are pumped in.
What is the speed of light equal to in a vacuum?
3*108m/s
What is the speed of light in air equal to?
3.00*108 m/s
What is body temperature in celsius and farenheit?
37, 98.6
What wavelength is associated with the color violet?
380ish nm
What is Planck's constant equal to with units
6.626*10-34 J*s
What wavelength is associated with the color Red?
750ish nm
What is the value and units of Coulomb's constant?
9.0*109 (N*m2)/C2
How does one convert from atm to mmHg or torr to pascals to bar?
=1.013bar=1.013E5pascals
What is the equation for the distances of objects and images in optics?
=2/r where f is the focal length, o is the length at which the actual object is, and i is the length at which the image of the object is. NOTE: Different types of optics will have different sign conventions. It's extremely important you remember the sign conventions for the different optics and assign them correctly.
How does one relate standard gibbs free energy of a reaction and non standard gibbs free energy of a reaction?
=RTln(Q/Keq) (if Q/Keq is less than 1 then ln(Q/Keq) will be neg making all free energy neg making it spontaneous and viceversa) where R is the ideal gas constant 8.314 and Q is the reaction quotient of the reaction (concentration of products raised to their coefficients divided by concentration of reactants raised to their coefficients).
What is the definition of a Bronsted-Lowry base?
A Bronsted-Lowry base is a molecule that accepts H+ ions from another molecule (the Bronsted-Lowry acid).
What is meant by the term C-terminus?
A C-terminus is the free carboxyl group at the very end of a peptide.
What is a G protein-coupled receptor?
A G protein-coupled receptor is the archetypal structure by which signal cascading occurs. It is a large protein that crosses the memrbane 7 times. When the appropriate molecule binds to the G protein-coupled receptor, enzymes that influence the levels of second messengers (almost always cAMP) are activated or deactivated.
What does it mean to be Hypertonic?
A Hyper tonic solution is a solution that is more concentrated than the interior of the cell/tubule/etc. Water follows the concentration of solutes and rushes out of the cell, causing it to dry out and shrivel.
What are the phenotype options for ABO antigens?
A and B are the two alleles, and they are codominant. This means that you can have the A antigen, the B antigen, both, or neither.
What is a barometer?
A barometer is a device that measures the pressure of something.
What is a beta pleated sheet?
A beta pleated sheet is a structure in which peptide chains lie alongside one another, forming rows.
What is a blastocyst?
A blastocyst is a developed zygote with a large fluid filled cavity. This zygote has undergone several rounds of replication and is ready to be implanted in the endometrium.
What is a blastula?
A blastula is a hollow ball of cells with a fluid filled inner cavity know as a blastocoel. MNEMONIC: A Blastula is an embryo with a blast-ed out cavity.
What is an example of a constant volume calorimeter?
A bomb calorimeter is a contstant volume calorimeter. The vessel is rigid and its volume does not change during the chemical reactiion.
What is a bottle neck?
A bottle neck is any event that drastically and suddenly reduces the size of a population for breeding. Examples include catastrophic events, being seperated and isolated from the larger population, etc.
What is the bronsted-lowry definition of an acid?
A bronsted-lowry acid is a molecule that donates a hydrogen to another molecule (the bronsted-lowry base)
What is a buffer solution?
A buffer solution is a mixture of a weak acid and it's conjugate base. (The conjugate base is usually added to the solution in the form of a dissociable salt. This means there will be a random cation on the conjugate base).
What is a capacitor?
A capacitor is an electrical element that can store energy within itself.
What is a carrier in the context of genetics?
A carrier, in genetics, is someone who has one copy of a recessive allele, and can therefore pass a recessive phenotype to their children without having that phenotype themselves.
What is a catalyst?
A catalyst is something that lowers the activation energy of a reaction without being used up in the reaction.
What is a cathode?
A cathode is where reduction occurs.
What is the resting membrane potential? What Ion contributes most?
A cell constantly has electrically charged molecules moving across its membrane. The movement of these charges results in an electrical potential difference between the inside and the outside of the cell. The RMP is the potential when the ions are in an equilibrium state, which is why it is negative. (Potassium flows out of cell because it is more concentrated inside cell, thus taking positive charges, thus making the inside of the cell more negative. Sodium flows in with its concentration gradient, but is far less permeable, so only a bit of sodium can enter the cell. This makes the cell a bit more positive, but not enough to overcome the loss of potassium. Thus, normal cells have a negative RMP) Potassium contributes most
What is a centriole?
A centriole is a hollow structure composed of nine triplets of microtubules.
What is a centrosome?
A centrosome is the region of the cell where the centrioles are found.
What is a chondrocyte?
A chondrocyte is a cell that secretes the collection of molecules known as chondrin and thereby forms cartilage.
What is a closed boundary?
A closed boundary is a boundary that does not allow oscillation, and therefore corresponds to a node. A string tied to a brick wall would be a good example of a closed boundary. Also the closed end of a pipe
What is a closed pipe?
A closed pipe is a pipe that is closed at one end and open at the other end, so one end supports a node and the other end supports an antinode.
What is a closed system?
A closed system is one in which energy can be exchanged, but matter cannot. (ex. pistons)
What is an example of a constant pressure calorimeter?
A coffee cup calorimater is a constant pressure calorimeter. The incident pressure is atmospheric pressure, and the pressure is constant throughout the reaction.
What is the archetypal form of the combination reaction?
A combination reaction is when two or more reactants come together to make 1 new product.
What is the archetypal form of the combustion reaction?
A combustion reaction is when a fuel is oxidized to create CO2 and H2O. The fuel will almost always be a hydrocarbon of some sort. The oxidizing agent will almost always be Oxygen.
What is a complete ionic equation?
A complete ionic equation shows a reaction with all of the aqueous reactants and products written as their dissociated ions. Keep solids intact
When will a concave meniscus form?
A concave meniscus forms when the adhesive forces of the liquid are greater than the cohesive forces (the liquid prefers sticking to the wall than to sticking to itself.)
What is a conductor?
A conductor is any material that distributes charge over its surface and transfers charges well. Most metals are conductors. Ionic solutions are also effective conductors. electrons move easily and not as closely associated with nuclei as in insulator
What is a conjugate acid?
A conjugate acid is the acid formed when a base picks up a proton from some other acid.
What is a conjugate base?
A conjugate base is the base formed when an acid gives a proton to some other base.
What is a conjugated protein?
A conjugated protein is a protein that derives part of its function from the presence of proesthetic groups.
When will a convex meniscus form?
A convex meniscus will form when the cohesive forces of the liquid are stronger than the adhesive forces (the liquid prefers sticking to itself over sticking to the walls of the container.)
What is a coordinate covalent bond?
A coordinate covalent bond is when one atom contributes both of the electrons that the atoms will share to form their covalent bond. When given a molecule, consider how it was formed. Ex. how many coordinate bonds in NH4+? We know that NH3 has one lone pair so to make NH4+ that lone pair would contribute both electrons to an H+. It wouldnt split the lone pair with a regular H to make a nitrogen with a free radical
What is a coordination compound and what type of bond allows them to form?
A coordination compound, a.k.a, a complex ion refers to a molecule in which a cation is bonded to at least one electron pair donor (called ligands). This electron pair donor is often the solvent, like water. Held together through coordinate covalent bonds
What is a crest?
A crest is the highest point a wave reaches.
What is a cross product?
A cross product is the product of the magnitude of two vectors and the sin of the angle between them.
What is a crystal lattice?
A crystal lattice is the way the atoms of an ionic bond will situate themselves in a group so as to minimize the energy of the system and stabilize the compound.
What is a meniscus?
A curving of the surface of a liquid in a container that is due to the cohesive and adhesive forces in the liquid.
What is a cytokine?
A cytokine is a chemical substance that stimulates inflammation and recruits additional immune cells to the area.
What is the archetypal form of the decomposition reaction?
A decomposition reaction is when one reactant breaks down into two or more products.
What is a dihybrid cross?
A dihybrid cross is just a punnet square, except that two different genes are being analyzed instead of just one. Since each gene has two alleles, there is a total of 4 alleles from both parents, and therefore 4x4=16 possible combinations of alleles. If the two organisms being crossed are heterozygous for both genes the phenotype ratio will be 9:3:3:1 For each trait individually it will be will still be 3:1 as in a monohybrid cross (12:4)
What is a direct hormone?
A direct hormone is a hormone that is secreted and then acts directly on the target tissue.
What is a Disproportionation Reaction?
A disproportionation reaction is a reaction in which one species is reduced and oxidized simultaneously. Example below. Usually accomplished by enzymes with metal ions such as Cu and Zn that act as reducing agents
What is the archetypal form of a double-displacement reaction?
A double-displacement reaction is when elements from two different compounds swap places with each other to form new compounds.
What is a fibrous protein?
A fibrous protein is a protein that resembles long sheets or strands.
What is a flexor muscle?
A flexor muscle is a muscle that causes flexion, that is to say, a muscle that decreases the angle across the joint.
What is viscosity?
A fluid's resistace to flow. Thick fluids have high viscosity, thin fluids have low viscosity.
What is a galvanic (voltaic) cell?
A galvanic (or voltaic!) cell is an electrochemical cell in which electrons are going from low reduction potential to high (anode to cathode), and releasing energy.
What is a gene pool?
A gene pool is the collection of all the possible alleles within a species. For example, we have blue, green, hazel, and brown eyes in our gene pool, but we don't really have purple or yellow alleles in our gene pool. However, some animals do have these alleles in their gene pool. It changes from species to species.
What is a gland?
A gland is an organ that secretes hormones.
What is a globular protein?
A globular protein is a protein that is spherical and round
What is a glycoprotein?
A glycoprotein is a protein with a carbohydrate based prosthetic group.
What is a group in regards to the periodic table?
A group is a vertical column on the periodic table.
What is a heating curve?
A heating curve is a graph of temperature versus heat added.
What is a heterogenous catalyst?
A heterogenous catalyst is a catalyst that is in a different phase (solid, liquid, gas) than the reactants.
What is a histone?
A histone is a protein in the nucleus around which Eukaryotic DNA winds. This helps organize the DNA.
What is a homogenous catalyst?
A homogenous catalyst is a catalyst that is in the same phase (gas, liquid, solid) as the reactants.
What is a hormone?
A hormone is a signalling molecule that is secreted into the bloodstream to target a distant tissue.
What is a Langerhan's cell?
A langerhan's cell is just the name for a specialized macrophage found in the skin. Capable of presenting antigens to T cells in order to activate the immune system. These cells reside in the stratum spinosum.
What is a Lewis acid?
A lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor.
What is a Lewis base?
A lewis base is an electron pair donor.
What is a ligand?
A ligand is the electron pair donor molecule that attaches to the electron accepting core.
What is an equipotential line?
A line on which the potential at every point is the same. always perpendicular to field lines
What is a lipoproptein?
A lipoprotein is a protein with a lipid based prosthetic group.
What is a locus?
A locus is the particular location of a specific gene on a chromosome.
What is a long bone?
A long bone is a bone characterized by its long shaft and rounded ends.
What is a longitudinal wave?
A longitudinal wave oscillates in the same direction as the movement of the wave. Particles of wave oscillate parallel to the direction of energy transfer
What is a lumen?
A lumen is the inside space of any hollow tubular structure.
What is a map unit or centimorgan?
A map unit is the unit used to describe how far away genes are on a chromosome. One map unit correspons to a 1% chance of recombination occuring between the genes. Recombination frequency is correlated highly with distance.
What is a melanocyte?
A melanocyte is another type of cell found in the epidermis. It is derived from Neural Crest cells and is found in the stratum Basale. These cells produce melanin, which pigments the skin to protect DNA from ultraviolet radiation. (skin color is determine by activity of melanocytes not amount of melanocytes)
What is a memory B-cell? where are they stored?
A memory B cell is one of the product cells of the activation of a naive B cell. Its function is to stay in the lymph node and wait for that antigen in case it ever re-appears. This is good because it takes the B-cell a few days to develop a good anti-body. The memory B-cells save us the trouble of having to re-make functional antibodies.
What is a mixed nerve?
A mixed nerve is a nerve that carries both sensory and motor information.
What is a mixture?
A mixture is some combination of two things, whether or not it is homogenous or heterogenous.
What is a mole?
A mole is a unit we made to conveniently describe the quantity of chemical quantities. One mole is equal to 6.02*10^23 of whatever substance is in question. You could have a mole of cats in the same way you have a dozen eggs. One mole of cat is 6.02*10^23 cats and one dozen of eggs is 12 eggs.
What is a molecular orbital?
A molecular orbital is like an atomic orbital (the area of space where electrons can be found) but for a molecule instead of an atom. Areas of overlap between the atomic orbitals that make up the molecular orbital correspond to bonds in the molecule. top: bonding orbital bottom: antibonding orbital
What is a monosynaptic reflex arc?
A monosynaptic reflex arc is a reflex arc consisting of only one synapse. This one synapse is composed of a sensory neuron that receives information and a motor neuron that affects a motor response to the sensory information.
What is a morphogen?
A morphogen is a molecule secreted by cells that causes nearby cells to follow a particular development pathway.
What is a naive B-cell?
A naive B-cell is a B-cell that has not yet been exposed to an antigen and thus not cranking out antibodies.
What is a nerve?
A nerve is a bundle of multiple neurons in the peripheral nervous system.
What is a net ionic equation?
A net ionic equation is the complete ionic equation minus the spectator ions.
What is a neurotransmitter?
A neurotransmitter is any chemical that can transmit information between neurons.
What is a node?
A node is a point on a standing wave at which there is no amplitude.
What is a normal?
A normal is a line that is perpendicular to a surface.
What is a nucleoprotein?
A nucleoprotein is a protein with a nucleotide based prosthetic group.
What is a peptide?
A peptide is a chain of amino acids.
What is a period in regards to the periodic table?
A period is a horizontal row on the periodic table.
What is a peroxisome?
A peroxisome is a single membrane bound organelle containing Hydrogen Peroxide. This Hydrogen Peroxide is generated with the help of a crystalline core.
What is a photon?
A photon is a massless wave-like and particle-like packet of electromagnetic (light) energy.
Explain why plane mirrors always make virtual images.
A plane mirror is defined as a flat reflective surface. That means that the light rays will always just bounce off of the mirror with the same angle they bounced onto it with (parallel rays wil enter and leave parallel) This means that the light rays don't ever converge, they just get reflected away. Any light we see is just being bounced off the mirror, but our brains are used to tracing light back to its source, so what will happen is instead of really seeing the reflection, our brain treats the reflected rays as if they came from an imaginary source and traces them back to said source. This is why when we look into a mirror, it's like there is a person looking back at us from the other side of the mirror. Our brain thinks that is where the light is coming from. Because the light is actually converging on our side of the mirror, and not where we perceive the image to be, this is a virtual image.
What is a plasma cell?
A plasma cell is one of the product cells of the activation of a naive B cell. It's function is to enter the bloodstream and produce large amounts of antibodies.
What is a polypeptide?
A polypeptide is any chain of amino acids that is longer than 20 amino acids.
What is a polysynaptic reflex arc?
A polysynaptic reflex arc is a reflex arc in which there are multiple synapses due to the presence of at least one interneuron.
What is a portal system?
A portal system is when two capillary beds are wired in series, so blood passes through two differrent capillary beds before returning to the vein highway.
What is a primary spermatocyte?
A primary spermatocyte is a spermatogonium that has undergone the S stage and replicated its genetic information.
What is a prosthetic group?
A prosthetic group is a covalently attached molecule that allows a protein to function. Prosthetic groups can be organic molecules such as vitamins or metal ions, like iron.
What is a provirus or prophage?
A provirus or prophage is a latent piece of viral genome that has been integrated into the host's genome.
What is a scalar?
A quantity with a magnitude only
What is a vector
A quantity with a number and a direction
What is a reduction potential?
A reduction potential is the potential change associated with a reduction reaction. How much something wants to be reduced (more positive means more likely to be reduced)
What is a reflex arc?
A reflex arc is a neural circuit that controls reflexive behavior.
What is a residue?
A residue is just another name for amino acid. It is usually used when referring to amino acids in a peptide.
What is a resistor?
A resistor is an electrical element that resists the flow of electrons through itself.
What is a resonance structure?
A resonance structure is a lewis structure that has the same bond connectivity as another lewis structure for the same molecule, it's just that the electrons are arranged differently. Remember, bonds are made of electrons, so the bond orders can change as well. The arrangement of atoms cannot. if the arrangement of atoms is different, the molecule is a constitutional isomer, not a resonance structure.
What is a reversible reaction?
A reversible reaction is a reaction that will establish an equilibrium and exist in some combination of products and reactants.
What does it mean to be a saturated solution?
A saturated solution is a solution that has the maximum amount of dissolved ions as defined by the ksp. Any solute added to a saturated solution will precipitate.
What is density?
A scalar quantity that describes how much mass is packed into each unit of volume for a given substance.
Describe the graph of a second order reaction
A second order reaction means that the reaction is dependent on the square of 1 reactant or dependent on the product of two reactants. At the start of the reaction there are a lot of reactants, and the reaction goes very fast. This causes the amount of reactants to plummet as they are converted into products. This can be seen on the graph as a steep line downwards at the start of the reaction. As the reaction progresses and there are less reactants, the reaction slows down. This causes the steep dive of the reactants to flatten out, similar to a first order reaction. A second order reaction is just like a first order reaction, it just dives steeper at first and flattens out sooner.
What is a secondary Spermatocyte?
A secondary Spermatocyte is a primary spermatocyte that has undergone the first round of Meiosis and thus has 1 double stranded copy of each chromosome.
What is a sex (F) factor?
A sex factor is a plasmid that allows bacterium to form sex pili with which they can conjugate to other bacteria.
In what 2 ways does LH affect the ovaries?
A sharp spike in LH during menstruation causes ovulation. After ovulation, LH stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone.
What kind of bonds make up a double bond?
A sigma bond and a pi bond perpendicular to the axis of the sigma bond.
What kind of bonds make up a triple bond?
A sigma bond, and 2 pi bonds perpendicular to the axis of the sigma bond and each other.
What is a signalling cascade?
A signalling cascade is the connection between hormones at the surface interacting with receptors and the effects brought about by the second messengers they activate.
What is a simple twitch and what are its 3 periods?
A simple twich is the response of a single muscle fiber to a breif stimulus at or above the threshold. It consists of a latent period, contraction period, and relaxation period.
What is the archetypal form of a single-displacement reaction?
A single-displacement reaction is when an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by an atom or ion of another element.
What is a solution?
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in a single phase (usually liquid).
What is a solvation layer?
A solvation layer is a layer formed around a molecule by nearby solvent molecules. These result as a consequence of electrostatic interactions.
How do we know if something is not a spectator ion?
A species is defined as a non-spectator when it's oxidation number or it's physical state (gas, solid, liquid, etc.) changes.
What is a species?
A species is the largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring. When they can't breed then we have a new species
What is a spectator ion?
A spectator ion is an ion that stays in the aqueous form and keeps its oxidation number after the reaction is complete. In other words, spectator ions don't change during the reaction, they are just spectating.
What is a spermatid?
A spermatid is a secondary spermatocyte that has undergone the second round of Meiosis to result in a cell with one single stranded copy of each chromosome.
What is the shape of the s orbital?
A sphere
What is a sphincter?
A sphincter is a circular collection of muscles around the alimentary canal that can contract to close the canal at some point along its length.
What is a standing wave?
A standing wave is a wave that appears to be stationary because of the interference pattern of the two waves that make it. The only apparent movement of a standing wave will be the fluctuation of the amplitude of the wave. Standing waves can only be observed in closed end wave systems. The gif below illustrates. The top wave is the incident wave, the middle wave shows the reflected wave, and the bottom wave shows the superposition wave of the top and middle wave.
What is a state function?
A state function is a thermodynamic property that is a function of only the current equilibrium state, not the path that was taken there.
Describe the signal conduction of a reflex arc?
A stimulus occurs, and a local circuit, usually in the spinal cord, will receive the stimulus and respond to it, after which the stimulus makes its way up to the brain. This is different than non reflexive situations, where in the sensory information always makes its way up to the brain first before a response occurs.
What does it mean to be a strong acid?
A strong acid is an acid with a high Ka value that dissociates completely.
What is a subunit?
A sub unit refers to one of the functional tertiary peptides comprising the overall quaternary peptide.
What does it mean to be an supersaturated solution?
A supersaturated solution is a solution in which the Ion product of the ions is higher than the ksp. Normally this wouldn't be possible, but with special treatment it can be achieved. First, you saturate a solution, so it's IP = ksp and adding anymore solute will cause precipitation. Then, you heat the solution, so it's ksp increases. You can now add some solute again until you reach the new ksp. Once you've added solute and reached the new ksp, you slowly cool the reaction, lowering the ksp. If you're careful, the extra solute you added will not precipitate and will instead remain suspended in solution. This means that the IP is greater than the Ksp!
What is a synovial capsule?
A synovial capsule is a fluid filled sac composed of ligaments and synovium that connects two bones.
What is a test cross (back cross)?
A test cross is a special circumstance in punnet squares when you are trying to find the genotype of a parent in which you are interested. This is accomplished as follows. An unknown parent is made to breed with a homozygous recessive parent. The offspring are analyzed, and based off of the genotype and phenotype ratio, you can deduce the genotype of the unknown parent.
What is a tract?
A tract is a bundle of neuron's found in the central nervous system.
What is a transverse wave?
A transverse wave oscillates perpendicular to the direction of movement of the wave. Particles in the wave oscillate perpindicular to the direction of energy transfer
What is a tropic hormone?
A tropic hormone is a hormone that acts on a different endocrine gland to cause it to release or withold its hormones. (Ex. GnRH is released which causes release of LH which causes increase in testosterone/estrogen which then has functions)
What is a trough?
A trough is the lowest point a wave reaches.
What is a ventricle?
A ventricle is one of the bigger bottom quarters of the heart. The ventricle receives blood from its respective atrium. The ventricle sends blood to its respective circuit (pulmonary or systemic). More muscular than atria
What does a voltmeter measure?
A voltmeter measures the voltage between two points in a circuit. Measure magnetic properties like ameter. Wired in parallel to the two points it is measuring and has infinite resistence. Circuit needss to be on
Describe the graph of a zeroth order reaction?
A zeroth order reaction means the rate of the reaction is independent of the concentration of the reactants. rate=k[A]0[B]0=k Therefore, the rate of the reaction is constant, and the reactants will be used up over time at a constant rate. I.e. a straight line. k= (-1)slope
What is a zwitterion?
A zwitterion is a molecule with both a positive and a negative charge simultaneously. This is seen in amino acids at neutral and body pH's.
What is a zygote?
A zygote is an ovum that has been successfully fertilized by sperm, has a diploid set of chromosomes, and will replicate over time into the many cells that make up a person.
How do you calculate the atomic weight of an atom with two naturally occurring isotopes?
A*X + B*Y = Atomic Weight A is equal to the mass number of the first isotope. X is equal to the percentage prevelance of that first isotope. B is equal to the mass number of the second isotope. Y is equal to the percentage prevelance of that second isotope.
What are the 4 fat soluble vitamins?
A, D, E, and K. Mnemonic: A DEK in that *******
What is the function of Antiduretic hormone (ADH)?
ADH increases re-absorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys in response to increased plasma osmolarity or increased concentration of solutes in blood or low blood volume. This increases blood volume and decreases osmolarity
How are the ways ADH and Aldosterone affect the reabsorption from the kidney different?
ADH moves water alone from the collecting duct to the blood. This water increases the blood volume, but dilutes the concentration of the blood. works only on collecting duct Aldosterone moves sodium ions from the DCT into the blood, and then water follows these ions. This water increases the blood volume and the sodium ions maintain the concentration of the blood. works on DCT and collecting duct
How are the effects of Aldosterone and ADH different and similar?
ADH only increases reabsorption of water in the collecting duct, which increases the amount of water in the blood without any respect for solutes. This causes the blood to become more dilute. Aldosterone on the other hadn increases the reabsorption of sodium and water, which means the blood has more water and solutes, maintaining its initial concentration. Both increase blood volume and pressure
What exactly does ADH do to the collecting duct to exert its effects?
ADH punches holes in the membrane of the collecting duct through which water can pass. Therefore, as ADH increases, the amount of these holes increases, and more water passes from the urine back into the blood.
What is Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) and what organ secretes it?
ANP is a hormone that promotes the excretion of sodium and therefore water, which increases the volume of urine and lowers blood volume/pressure. Antagonistic to aldosterone (because no change in osmolarity) This hormone is secreted by the heart.
What are abductors?
Abductors are muscles that cause abduction, that is to say, they move parts of the body away from the midline of the body. MNEMONIC: When you get abducted, you get taken away. Abductors take body parts away from the midline.
What is the resting potential for neurons?
About -70mV, indicating that the interior of the neuron is relatively negative compared to the exterior.
How much mass does an electron add to an atom?
About 1/2000th of a proton. Essentially the mass of an electron is negligible in its contribution to the mass of an atom.
What is the mass of a neutron?
About the same as a proton, 1amu.
What neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic nervous system use to exert its effects?
Acetylcholine, released from both pre and post ganglionic
What are acinar cells?
Acinar cells are the cells that make up the bulk of the pancreas and produce pancreatic juices.
What happens if you have excess Growth Hormone as an adult?
Acromegaly Your long bones only grow for a defined section of time, after which they will stop growing. If you take Growth Hormone after this period of time passes, various small bones in your hands, feet, and head will grow, but the long bones in your arms, legs, chest, etc. will not.
What is activation energy?
Activation energy, Ea is the amount of energy it takes to start a reaction between two molecules. This energy is supplied by temperature (more kinetic energy) and orientation (when the molecules hit in a certain way it can generate more or less energy).
What is active immunity?
Active immunity is when the body is exposed to a pathogen, either naturally by getting infected or artificially by getting vacinated, and creates the antibodies it needs to fight that pathogen more effectively next time.
Inhalation is a {{c1::active::passive or active}} process
Active process means it takes the contraction of skeletal muscle to generate the negative pressure required to expand the lungs.
What is meant by active transport?
Active transport is when energy is required to transport something across the cell membrane. This is due to the fact that the molecule in question is being pushed from low concentration to high concentration, opposite the direction of the concentration gradient.
What is adaptive immunity?
Adaptive immunity refers to the defenses that can target specific pathogens.
What is adaptive radiation?
Adaptive radiation is when disruptive selection turns one species into two or more different species over time.
How can you increase the frequency factor of a reaction?
Add more molecules.
How do we get the molecular weight of a molecule?
Add the atomic weights of the elements that make the molecule up. Remember, we can always refer to a periodic table for the atomic weight of any element.
How does one calculate the equivalent capacitance of capacitors in parallel? How do voltages behave?
Add up the individual capacitances. Thus, capacitors in parallel causes an increase in equivalent capacitance Each voltage is the same and equal to the source voltage
What are adductors?
Adductors are muscles that cause adduction, that is to say, they move parts of the body towards the midline of the body.
What is adhesion?
Adhesion is the attractive force that a molecule feels towards molecules of some other substance.
What is an Aerotolerant anaerobe?
Aerotolerant anaerobes are bacteria that cannot use oxygen in metabolism, but are not harmed by its presence in the environment.
What are afferent neurons?
Afferent neurons are neurons that carry sensory information from receptors in the body to the brain and spinal cord. MNEMONIC: Afferent neurons Ascend the spinal cord toward the brain.
What happens in Relaxation of muscle?
After a while, the acetylcholine in the synapse is degraded by an enzyme known as acetylcholinesterase. This results in the termination of the signal at the sarcolemma and allows the sarcoplasmic reticulum to reploarize. As the signal decays, calcium release ceases, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum starts to bring calcium back into itself. An ATP molecule binds to the myosin heads, freeing them from actin. At this point, myosin and actin will disconnect, and the sarcomere will snap back to its original width. With no calcium floating around, the tropomyosin will move back over the myosin binding sites.
How does one neuron transmit a signal to another neuron?
After an action potential has been conducted down the axon to the axon terminal, the axon terminal releases chemicals into the synaptic cleft which then diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to the receptors in the next neuron's dendrite membrane.
What is the corpus luteum and what is its function?
After an egg bursts from a follicle, the burst follicle will turn into the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum's job is to produce progesterone in reponse to Leutenizing hormone.
What happens in the Luteal Phase of Menstruation?
After ovulation, LH will cause the burst follicle to form into the corpeus luteum, which secretes progesterone and some estrogen. These progesterone levels rise as the estrogen stays high. Progesterone negatively inhibits the hypothalamus even at high concentrations, so as the levels rise, eventually the hypothalamus is negatively inhibited and the levels of GnRH, FSH, and LH fall. This prevents the ovulation of multiple eggs.
At what point will heat affect the temperature of an object that is undergoing a phase change?
After the phase change is complete. Changing phases requires its own heat energy and this cost must be paid first. Therefore, heat added to a 0 degrees celsius icecube will only cause the icecube to melt into water, not change the temperature. Once the ice cube is completely water, any additional added heat will raise the temperature.
What are common dielectrics?
Air, glass, plastic, and ceramic.
In a circuit, current flows from {{c1::the posititive terminal to the negative terminal}}
Aka higher potential to lower potential electrons flow from negative to positive
What are Alanine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Alanine, Ala, or A is a non-polar aliphatic amino acid.
What is albumin?
Albumin is a protein that maintains the osmotic (oncotic) pressure of the blood and serves as a carrier for drugs and hormones.
What is the mineralcorticoid with which you should be familiar?
Aldosterone
What is aldosterone's function?
Aldosterone increases sodium and water reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule of and the collecting duct of the nephron. It also decreases the reabsorption of potassium and hydrogen ions in these same segments of the nephron.
What exactly does Aldosterone do to the DCT (and collecting duct) to exert its effects?
Aldosterone puts Sodium Potassium Pumps in the membrane of the DCT. This causes 2 Potassium's to enter the DCT, 3 Sodiums to leave, and water to follow the sodium out of the DCT (net osmotic pressure outwards). Therefore aldosterone indirectly increases water reabsorption
What happens in Meiosis II?
All four steps of Meiosis II are basically identical to Mitosis. In this second round of division, the sister chromatids separate, just like in Mitosis. The result is two cells with one double stranded copy of each chromosome turn in to four cells with one single stranded copy of each chromosome. I.e, 4 haploid cells.
What kind of biomolecules can the pancreatic juices break down?
All three. Carbohydrates with Pancreatic Amylase, proteins with Pancreatic peptidases, and fats with pancreatic lipase.
How do the penetrating powers of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma decay compare?
Alpha Particles penetrate very little, Beta Particles penetrate a modest amount, and Gamma Rays penetrate the most.
Which form of radiation is most dangerous if its source is inside the body?
Alpha decay is the most dangerous radiation if its occuring inside the body. This is because the alpha particle is not very penetrating, and won't be able to break out of the body. These particles will just stay in the body doing damage. A gamma ray, though higher energy, will exit the body very quickly due to its penetrance.
What is alpha decay?
Alpha decay is when an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle AKA Helium Nucleus. Doesnt penetrate shielding (like lead sheets)
If the intensity of the contraction signal is always the same, how do we get our muscles to contract harder or softer than other times?
Although the signal is constant, you can make a muscle contract harder by sending that same all or nothing signal to more of the muscle fibers in a muscle. Likewise, you can make a muscle contract lightly by sending the same all or nothing signal to only a few of the muscle fibers in a muscle.
What are some common paramagnetic materials?
Aluminum, copper, and gold
What are alveoli?
Alveoli are the small, balloon like structures in the lungs in which gas exchange actually occurs.
When the alveoli are filled with air, they expand to their full size. When the alveoli have no air, they are no longer feeling internal pressure to cancel out the external pressure. How is it that the alveoli don't collapse in on themselves everytime we exhale?
Alveoli don't collapse in on themselves because they are covered in surfactant, which lowers the surface tension and therefore lowers the amount of compressing force on the alveoli.
What are amino acid derivative hormones?
Amino acid derivative hormones are hormones that are made from a few modifications of one or two amino acids.
What does an ammeter measure?
Ammeters measure current at some point in the circuit. Use the magnetic properties of current carrying wire to obtain a measurement. has extremely low resistence as to not change circcuit mathematics when inserted into circuit (increasing resistence would decrease current). Inserted in series into the circuit. Circuit needs to be on
What are the SI units of current?
Amperes
What is amplification in the context of signalling cascades?
Amplification is the possiblity that a hormone can activate a receptor multiple times before it is degraded, leading to an increase in the intensity of the signal as it cascades. For example, 1 hormone molecule may be released, but it can bind to the receptor 10 times before it degrades. This means that, in the cell, there are 10 activated secondary messengers even though there was only one hormone molecule. Amplification can happen at any of the many steps of a signalling cascade.
What is amplitude in the context of waves?
Amplitude is the maximum possible displacement for a wave. NOT total distance from crest to trough (that would be twice the amplitude)
What does it mean to be isobaric and how does that affect the first law of thermodynamics equation?
An Isobaric process is one in which there is no change in pressure. Keeping pressure constant does not affect U = Q-W
What is meant by the term N-terminus?
An N-terminus is the free amino group at the very beginning of a peptide.
What is an absorption spectrum?
An absorption spectrum is like the atomic emission spectrum, only instead of cataloguing the photons that are emitted when excited electrons fall, absorption spectra catalogue the photons that are absorbed when ground state electrons are promoted to excited states. Remember, the difference in energy going from energy level 1 to 2 is the same amount of energy as going from energy level 2 to 1, so the photons emitted by the emission spectrum are the same photons absorbed in the absorption spectrum.
What do we mean when we say the action potential has a constant potential difference regardless of intensity of stimuli?
An action potential (within the same neuron) will always initiate at -45ishmV, jump to +35mV, and then return to -70mV. The intensity of the stimuli does not alter this potential difference. Instead, as a stimulus gets more intense, the action potential will fire more often, but with the same potential difference.
What is an action potential?
An action potential is an all-or-nothing electrical impulse that neurons generate and conduct down their axon to communicate with other cells.
What does it mean to be adiabatic and how does that affect the first law of thermodynamics equation?
An adiabatic process is one in which there is no change in heat. W is negative for my version change in internal energy of the system is equal to work done on the system
What is an allele?
An allele is an alternative form of the same gene. For example, the gene eye color has many alleles, blue, green, hazel, brown, etc. The gene height has different alleles, short and tall. Etc. Etc.
What is an alpha helix?
An alpha helix is a rodlike structure in which the peptide chain coils clockwise around a central axis. 3.6 residues per turn, H bonds every ten atoms
What is an amino acid?
An amino acid is a molecule that contains an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH).
What does it mean to be amphoteric?
An amphoteric substance is something that can react like an acid or a base. Water is amphoteric.
What is an androgen?
An androgen is any male sex hormone, such as testosterone.
What is an anode?
An anode is where oxidation occurs.
What is an antigen?
An antigen is a substance (usually a pathogenic protein) that can be detected by antibodies.
What is an antinode?
An antinode is any point on a standing wave where interference is maximized and the amplitude is greatest.
What is an aqueous solution?
An aqueous solution is any solution in which the solvent is water.
What is the definition of an arrhenius acid?
An arrhenius acid is something that dissociates to form an H+ ion.
What is the definition of an arrhenius base?
An arrhenius base is something that dissociates to form an OH- ion.
What does it mean for an atom to be in an excited state?
An atom is excited when one of its electrons is in a higher energy shell than it would normally be.
What does it mean for an atom to be in ground state?
An atom is in ground state when all of its electrons are in the lowest possible energy shells they can occupy.
What is an atom's mass number?
An atom's number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Essentially, mass number is equal to the total mass of the atom (because electrons give so little mass they are not accounted for.)
What is an atomic emission spectrum?
An atomic emission spectrum is a cataloguing of all the electron transitions an atom can undergo and the photons those transitions release. Remember, the distances between energy levels are different in every atom. Therefore, the photons released when an electron falls from an excited state to ground state are different in every atom. We can use the photons an atom releases to determine its identity.
What is an atrium
An atrium is one of the top, smaller quarters of the heart. It acts as a receiving chamber for incoming blood. The atrium sends its blood to its respective ventricle.
What is an autoimmune disease?
An autoimmune disease is any disease caused by the immune system failing to recognize self antigens and subsequently killing healthy cells.
What is an electrical dipole?
An electrical dipole is when 2 equal positive and negative charges are separated by a small distance.
Describe the diversity of electrochemical cells.
An electrochemical cell can be made out of almost anything, as long as there is a cathode and an anode of some sort connected by something. This is seen in batteries as solution reactions connected by wires, but it can be seen in the body as two sides of the mitochondria connected by a plasma membrane. As long as there is flow of electrons, there is potentially an electrochemical cell at play.
What is an electrochemical cell?
An electrochemical cell is an anode and a cathode connected somehow that captures the flow of electrons to harness energy.
What is an electrochemical gradient?
An electrochemical gradient is the combined gradient that charged ions feel due to their relative charge and relative concentration inside and outside of the cell. For example, in the resting neuron, the inside of the membrane has a lower charge and a lower sodium concentration than the outside of the membrane. This means that sodium ions will be pulled into the cell by their positive charge being attracted to the negative interior and their relatively high concentration wanting to go to a low concentration. In this case, both the electrical and the chemical gradient are pointed inward. The combined effect of both of these gradients is the electrochemical gradient.
What is an electrode?
An electrode is the general name for the materials that make up the cathode and anode.
What is an electrolytic cell?
An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical cell in which electrons are going from high reduction potential to low (still anode to cathode), and this requires the input of energy.
What is an electrolytic solution?
An electrolytic solution is a solution with dissolved ions. These solutions can conduct electricity through themselves.
What is an electron configuration?
An electron configuration is a shorthand accounting of the electrons in an atom using s,p,d,f notation.
What is empirical formula?
An emprical formula is the most-reduced whole number ratio of the atoms in the compound. ionic compounds only have empirical (NaCl)
What is an endocrine gland?
An endocrine gland is a gland that secretes its product into the blood stream for transfer to another tissue.
What is an endosome?
An endosome is an endocytic vesicle that pinches off from the membrane during endocytosis.
What is an episome?
An episome is a plasmid that can integrate itself into the host bacterium's genome.
What is an exocrine gland?
An exocrine gland is a gland that secretes its product into a duct for secretion.
What is an extensor muscle?
An extensor muscle is a muscle that causes extension, that is to say, a muscle that increases the angle across the joint.
What is an ideal gas?
An ideal gas is the hypothetical gas described in the ideal gas law. It refers to a gas that has 0 volume and 0 intermolecular forces. As the molecules in the gas get bigger and as they exhibit stronger intermolecular forces, they behave less ideally.
What does it mean for an image to be virtual?
An image is virtual if the light appears to be coming from the position of the image, but the light rays don't actually converge there.
What is an indicator?
An indicator is a molecule that changes color with changes in acidity/basicity. This is what we use to determine when the endpoint of an acid base titration has been reached.
What is an insulator?
An insulator is any material that will not easily distribute a charge over its surface. Most nonmetals are insulators. Molecularly, electrons are closelely linked to nuclei
What is an ionic bond?
An ionic bond is when one or more electrons from one atom are transferred to a different atom. This is usually how metals and nonmetals bond, because metals really want to get rid of a few electrons and nonmetals really want to gain a few electrons. Form crystal lattices where each molecule is attracted to many others
What is an irreversible reaction?
An irreversible reaction is a reaction that goes forward to completion, and makes the full amount of product possible given its reactants.
What does it mean to be isochoric(isovolumetric) and how does that affect the first law of thermodynamics equation?
An isochoric process is one in which no change in volume occurs. Without volume change (compression or expansion) there can be no work. change in internal energy is equal to the heat added
What does it mean to be isotonic?
An isotonic solution is a solution that is as concentrated as the interior of the cell/tubule/etc. Isotonic solutions lose as much water to their surroundings as they gain, resulting in no net change in the amount of water inside or outside the cell. Doesn't stop movement of water, theres just no net change
What is an oligopeptide?
An oligopeptide is a relatively small peptide of up to only 20 residues.
What is an open boundary?
An open boundary is a boundary that allows maximum oscillation because it really isn't a boundary. Examples of an open boundary are the free end of a flag and the open end of a pipe.
What is an open pipe?
An open pipe is a pipe that is open at both ends, and so both ends of the pipe support anti nodes.
What is an orbital?
An orbital is a region of space outside of the nucleus where electrons can be found.
What is an osteoblast?
An osteoblast is an external bone cell that builds more bone. secretes bone matrix MNEMONIC: Osteoblast builds bone
What is an osteoclast?
An osteoclast is an external bone cell that breaks down and reabsorbs bone. Considered a macrophage MNEMONIC: Osteoclast chews bone.
What is an osteon?
An osteon, also known as a Haversian System, is the basic repeatable structural unit of the bony matrix
What is an oxidation number?
An oxidation number is the number of redistributed electrons on an element in a compound or on its own.
What is an Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) reaction?
An oxidation-reduction reaction is a reaction that involves the transfer of electrons.
What does it mean to be an unsaturated solution?
An unsaturated solution is a solution that has not reached the maximum amount of dissolved solute as defined by the ksp. Solute added to an unsaturated solution will dissolve.
The internal sphincter of the bladder is made of {{c1::smooth::smooth or skeletal?}} muscle
And is therefore under autonomic control!
The external sphincter of the bladder is made of {{c1::skeletal::smooth or skeletal?}} muscle
And is therefore under voluntary control!
What does it mean to be an Andrenergic receptor?
Andrenergic receptors are receptors that respond to epinephrine and norepinephrine.
What is angular frequency?
Angular Frequency is a measurement of how many radians (2pi radians is 1 full circle) a wave rotates per second. This is just another way of thinking about frequency. Although it is a little harder to visualize, thinking about frequency in this way is useful for certain situations. If you want to convert 2Hz to angular frequency, it would be 4pi rads per second. A common misconception is that a radian is equal to 2pi so you divide your answer by 2pi to get radians per second (2 rads per second). Dont do this. In the above example, the wave rotates a full circle (2 pi radians) in 2 seconds.
What are the two divisions of the pituitary?
Anterior and posterior
What are antibodies?
Antibodies are molecules that bind to specific antigens. Once an antibody has bound to an antigen, cells of the immune system can target and attack the antigen and the invader that is producing it.
What is Pascal's Principle?
Any change in pressure in a fluid will be transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the containing vessel.
What changes to an acid will make it stronger?
Any change that stabilizes the conjugate base. This is usually due to induction. Example shown below.
How big must the difference in electronegativity be to be considered a polar bond?
Any electronegativity difference between 0.5 or 1.7 will seperate charge enough to create a polar bond.
How big must the difference in electronegativity be to be considered a non-polar bond?
Any electronegativity difference less than 0.5 is considered a non-polar bond
Describe electric fields
Any given charged particle will create an electric field that radiates outward or inward in all directions. Charged particles that enter the electric field of a different object are liable to experience electrostatic forces.
What are the possible values for n?
Any positive integer to infinity (whole number other than 0).
How big must the difference in electronegativity be to be considered an ionic bond?
Any two elements with an electronegativity difference of greater than 1.7 will form an ionic bond. This is because the difference in electronegativity is so big that one of the atoms just takes the electrons from the other one instead of sharing them.
What is the formula for Ohm's Law?
Applies to a single resistor, any part of a circuit, or the entire circuit (assuming you calcualte the equivalent resistence from a resistors in the circuit)
In a reaction with two possible products, how do you get the thermodynamic product?
Apply a higher temperature to the reaction.
In a reaction with two possible products, how do you get the kinetic product?
Apply low temperature to the reaction.
What are the characteristics of Archaea?
Archaea are single-celled organisms that look like bacteria, but have genes and metabolic pathways that are more similar to Eukaryotes. They were historically considered extremophiles and they are notable for their ability to employ chemosynthesis, an ability to generate energy from inorganic compounds like sulfur and nitrogen.
In what 3 ways are Archaea similar to Bacteria?
Archaea have a singular circular chromosome, divide by binary fission or budding, and share a similar overall prokaryotic structure to Bacteria.
What is Archimedes' principle
Archimedes' principle states that an object in a fluid will be pushed upwards by a force that is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
What are Arginine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Arginine, Arg, or R is a basic/positively charged amino acid.
What is the loop rule?
Around a closed circuit loop, the sum of voltage sources will always be equal to the sum of voltage drops. Sum of all voltage will be 0 (source is pos and drops are neg)
What are arrector pili?
Arrector piili are muscles that cause the hairs of the skin to stand up.
What is an artery?
Arteries are the blood vessels in the body that move blood away from the heart. MNEMONIC: Arteries carry blood Away from the heart.
What are arterioles?
Arterioles are the structures into which arteries branch that supply blood to the capillaries.
What role does the parasympathetic system play in digestion?
As parasympathetic activity increases, glands in the stomach are stimulated secrete more often and peristalsis is increased.
What is the purpose of a salt bridge?
As the cathode gets more and more electrons, it starts to build up a negative charge. The anode starts to build up a positive charge as it loses electrons as well. As the anode and cathode diverge from their original charges, the reaction becomes less efficient and progresses less vigorously. The salt bridge fixes this problem. The bridge is filled with inert ions that will affect the charge of the solution without reacting with the redox-reaction. The cations in the salt bridge will go to the cathode to cancel out the negative charge build up, and the anions will go to the anode to cancel out the positive charge build up.
As the neural groove deepens, what happens to the neural folds?
As the neural groove deepens, the neural folds come closer to one another. They will continue to come closer to one another until they meet, forming the neural tube.
What happens as you get deeper into the kidney?
As you move deeper into the kidney, the concentration of solutes in the interstitium increases. This is so that the interstitium stays isotonic with the loops of henle and there isn't a rush of water into (explosion!) the loops or out of (collapse!) the loops.
What are Asparagine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Asparagine, Asn, or N is a polar amino acid with an amide bond in the side chain. (amide hydrogens DONT gain/lose electrons dependent on pH)
What are Aspartic Acid's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Aspartic Acid, Asp, or D is an acidic/negatively charged amino acid. (aspartate is deprotonated form)
What is an aster?
Aster refers to the microtubules that radiate outward from the centrioles during mitosis and anchor the centrioles to the opposite sides of the cell membrane. Asters are so named because they radiate outwards in all directions, and make the centrioles look like stars.
What is the function of astrocytes?
Astrocytes nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier, which controls the transimission of solutes from the bloodstream into nervous tissue.
Where does initiation of muslce contraction occur?
At the neuromuscular junction, where the nervos system communicates with muscles via motor neurons.
What happens when the threshold potential is reached that causes the action potential to fire?
At the threshold potential, sodium voltage gated channels open, allowing a huge influx of sodium and therefore a fast rise in the membrane potential of the cell.
What is the periodic trend for atomic radius?
Atomic radius increases as you go left and down.
What is atomic weight?
Atomic weight is the weighted average of all the different stable isotopes one might find of an atom. For example, Chlorine naturally occurs in the 35 and 37 mass number. Therefore, the atomic weight of chlorine is equal to the weighted average of the mass number of its naturally occurring isotopes.
What is happening when an electron is promoted to a higher energy level?
Atoms gain energy all the time from increases in temperature, collisions with other atoms, and from being struck by photons (most common method). If an atom gains the exact amount of energy required to promote an electron from one energy level to another, it will do so.
What are atrioventricular valves?
Atrioventricular valves are the valves between the atrium and the ventricle into which it flows.
What is autocrine signaling?
Autocrine signaling is when a cell releases a chemical that acts on itself.
What is autoionization?
Autoionization is the phenomenon of water reacting with itself to make hydronium and hydroxide.
Breathing itself is under {{c1::autonomic{{c2::somatic or autonomic?}}}} control
Autonomic control means we don't have to consciously think about it. For clarification, if you can do it while you're sleeping, it's under autonomic control. This includes breathing, heartbeat, etc.
What is an axis in the context of the endocrine system?
Axis is the term used to refer to the common three-organ pathways the endocrine system takes to exert its effects. For example, the HPA axis refers to the communication between the Hypothalamus, the Anterior Pituitary, and the Adrenal glands. The HPO Axis refers to the communication between the Hypothalamus, the Anterior Pituitary, and the Ovaries.
Which is the second quantum number?
Azimuthal (angular momentum) number, l.
What kind of genetic information can viruses carry?
Basically any kind. The genetic info in viruses can be linear or circular, DNA or RNA, and single stranded or double stranded.
What is the function of Basophils?
Basophils contain large purple granules and are involved in allergic reactions. Release a shit ton of histamine. Least populous leukocyte under normal conditons
Why must fetal hemoglobin have a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin?
Because Fetal Hemoglobin has to compete with adult hemoglobin for the oxygen that the mother delivers to the baby. Fetal Hemoglobin literally rips oxygen molecules off of adult hemoglobin with its higher binding affinity.
What does it mean when we say epithelial cells are polarized?
Because epithlelial cells cover the body and line its organs, one side of an epithelial cell will be attached to underlying structural cells and the other side will be exposed to the lumen of an organ or the outside world. Because of these dramatically different environments, the two sides of the epithelial cell are actually pretty different. We call this phenomenon polarization.
Why do we care about the difference between laminar and turbulent flow?
Because laminar flow can be approximated to be a conservative system with no dissipation of energy to heat, sound, etc.
Describe the timing of peptide hormone signals
Because of amplification in the secondary messenger system, the effects of peptide hormones are usually rapid, but short lived. That is to say that it is quicker to turn a peptide hormone's effects on or off, but their effects won't last without constant stimulation.
What are the 3 functions of the peroxisome?
Because of their hydrogen peroxide, peroxisomes are important in the breakdown of long chain fatty acids (Beta Oxidation). Peroxisomes also participate in the synthesis of phospholipids and contain some enzymes for the Pentose Phosphate Pathway.
How do peptide hormones exert their effects on target cells?
Because peptide hormones cannot pass the cell membrane, they must interact with receptors on the outside of the membrane that carry the signal into the cell.
How does entropy always change during solvation?
Because solvation spreads molecules out, the change in entropy for this process is always positive.
Why is it important that the fetal and maternal blood does not mix?
Because the fetus can have a different blood type than the mother! This is why all exchange of waste, nutrient, and gas happens across the membrane of the placenta.
How does the environment in the nucleus compare to the environment of the rest of the cell?
Because the nuclear membrane is selectively permeable, the environment in the nucleus is separate and distinct from the environment in the rest of the cell.
Why are the granulocytes called granulocytes?
Because they contain cytoplasmic granules that are visible by microscopy.These granules contain toxic enzymes and chemicals which can be released by exocytosis to kill invaders. s
Why do we need to know how to convert first order and second order graphs into line graphs?
Because we can get the slope of a line, and the slope of the line graph equals the rate constant k!
What is Beta minus decay?
Beta decay is when an unstable nucleus emits a beta minus particle AKA an electron. This happens when neutrons in the nucleus break down into a proton and an electron and an antineutrino. The proton stays in the nucleus, increasing the atomic number but conserving the atomic mass. The electron is emitted as the beta particle. An antineutrino is emitted as well
What is the formula for volumetric expansion?
Beta is volumetric expansion coefficient
What is Beta plus decay?
Beta plus decay is when an atom emits a beta plus particle aka positron. This happens when an unstable proton turns into a neutron and a positron and a neutrino. The neutron stays in the nucleus and the positron is emitted as a beta plus particle. A neutrino is emitted as well. This causes the atomic number of the atom to decrease and the mass number to stay the same.
Where are metalloids on the periodic table?
Between the metals and nonmetals.
What is Bile and what is its function?
Bile is a complex fluid composed of bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol. Bile allows us to emuslify fats, which makes them much easier to absorb.
How does Bile help us break down fats?
Bile salts have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, which helps hydrohobic fats stay solubilized in hydrophilic body secretions. Form micelles, like soap! This is a form of mechanical digestion as it keeps the fats broken down into smaller pieces. Bile salts also help pancreatic lipase, a water soluble enzyme that breaks down fats, access the fats so it can cleave them. It also gives fats more surface area for pancreatic lipase to act Bile salts are NOT enzymes
What is the major pigment in bile?
Bilirubin, which is a byproduct of the breakdown of hemoglobin.
What is Binary Fission?
Binary fission is a simple form of asexual reproduction seen in prokaryotes. The prokaryote copies its genetic information and then splits into two.
How is a blastocsyt distinct from a blastula?
Blastocyst is just the name for a mammalian blastula.
What is blastulation?
Blastulation is the name for the transformation of the morula into the blastula.
Where are blood cells made?
Blood cells are made from hematopoeitic stem cells in the bone marrow.
What is boiling point elevation?
Boiling point elevation is the fact that, as you add nonvolatile solutes to a solution, it's boiling point increases. This is described mathematically below. Where Delta T is the change (elevation, so if our answer is 15, the boiling point goes UP by 15) in boiling point, Kb is a constant, m is the molality of the solution, and i is equal to the number of different particles the solute dissolves into. For example, NaCl would dissolve into two ions, so i would equal 2. glucose would have an i of 1
What is bond dissociation energy?
Bond dissociation energy is the average energy that is required to break a particular type of bond between atoms in the gas phase. Some sample bond dissociation energies are shown below.
What role does the bone marrow play in the immune system?
Bone marrow is where all of the leukocytes (white blood cells) are produced. B cells mature here as well
What are the components of bone matrix?
Bone matrix has organic components like collagen, glycoproteins, and peptides. It also has inorganic components like calcium, phosphate, and hydroxide ions that combine to make hard hydroxyapatite crystals. Minerals such as sodium, magneisum, and potassium are also stored in bone.
What are some examples of connective tissues?
Bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fat tissue, and blood.
Describe the relative contribution of organelles and cytoplasm to the zygote made by a sperm and an ovum
Both the sperm and the ovum contribute half of the genetic information to the zygote, but the ovum basically supplies everything else. Remember, the ovum is a very large cell with high quantities of organelles, proteins, cytoplasm, etc. The sperm basically just contributes its piece of the DNA and that's it.
Where in relation to the element symbol are the atomic number and mass number located?
Bottom left and top left, respectively.
What is Boyle's Law?
Boyle's Law states the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional.
What are bronchioles?
Bronchioles are the smaller and smaller branches the two main bronchi make.
What are brush-border enzymes?
Brush-Border enzymes are a series of enzymes found in the duodenum that break down trimers and dimers of macromolecules into absorbable monomers. disaccharidases and peptidases
What is bulk modulus?
Bulk modulus is a measure of an object's resistance to compression. Bulk modulus is lowest in gases (easily compressed) and highest in liquids and solids (almost impossible to compress)
What is the role of Cholecystokinin (CKK)?
CKK stimulates the release of bile and pancreatic juices into the small intestine. It also promotes the neurological phenomenon of feeling full.
What effect does CRF have?
CRF stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone).
What are canaliculi?
Canaliculi are tiny chananels that connect lacunae. This allows waste and nutrient exchange between the osteocytes that live in the lacunae and the Haversian and Volkmann's canals that carry blood vessels.
What is capacitance?
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the amount of charge built up on either plate of the capacitor to the magnitude of the voltage across the capacitor.
What are the characteristics of capillaries?
Capillaries are made of a single layer of endothelial cells across which gas, nutrient, and hormone exchange can occur with surrounding tissues. They are very narrow and fragile. Red blood cells actually have to travel single file in capillaries because they are so narrow!
How do the rules of resistors apply to the cardiovascular system?
Capillaries, veins, and arteries all act like resistors, and therefore follow the same rules. For example, two capillary beds in series will have an equivalent resistance equal to their resistances added up. Two individual capillaries wired in parallel will decrease the resistance to the tune of 1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2. Just like in circuits! Longer blood vessels=higher resistence Wider blood vessels=lower resistence All systemic capillary beds are in parallel with the exception of the portal systems!
What is a capsid?
Capsid is another name for the protein coat in a virus.
What kind of biomolecules can the mouth break down?
Carbohydrates and fats with salivary amylase and lipase.
What is the primary way carbon dioxide is transported in our blood?
Carbon dixoide is converted into carbonic acid by carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme. Carbonic acid will dissociate and travel through the blood stream as a charged molecule. Carbonic acid is converted back into carbondixoide by carbonic anhydrase in the lungs, so that it can exchange with the alveoli.
Of what type of tissue is the heart composed?
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
List the 4 key characteristics of Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac Muscle is striated, involuntarily controlled, autonomically innervated, and has 1 to 2 nuclei per cell.
What is Cardiac Muscle responsible for?
Cardiac muscle is responsible for the automatic contractions of the heart, and is therefore innervated by the autonomic nervous system.
What is cartilage and a major difference from bone?
Cartilage is a firm but elastic material consisting of a matrix of molecules known as chondrin. Cartilage is avascular (no blood or lymphatic muscles) and has no nerves
How do catalysts speed up reactions?
Catalysts are molecules that in some way shape or form stabilize the transition state of the reaction and lower its energy ** KAPLAN 162. This in turn lowers the activation energy of the reaction, which is used in the Arrhenius equation to determine the rate constant of the reaction.
What is cell specialization?
Cell specialization is the development of a vast variety of specialized cells in the body from the same genetic information (DNA).
What is cell-mediated immunity?
Cell-mediated immunity is the T-cell part of adaptive immunity.
What causes cells to undergo determination?
Cells can undergo determination due to the asymmetric distribution of products during cell division (if one cell gets some proteins and mRNA but the other cell gets different proteins and mRNA, this can cause determination). Determination can also occur in response to the secretion of morphogens.
If every single cell in the human body contains the same DNA, and DNA is the blueprint for the development of the cell, how is it that cells can be so different from one another?
Certain cells will express different parts of the genome while not expressing others. For example, heart cells will express the heart related segments of our DNA, where as kidney cells will express the kidney related segments of our DNA.
What does multiplying a vector by a negative number do?
Change the magnitude and direction of the vector.
What is Charles's Law?
Charles's law states that the volume and temperature of a gas are proportional.
What is chelation?
Chelation is when a central cation is bonded to the same ligand in multiple places. This generrally requires large organic ligands that can double back to form more bonds with the central atom.
How are signals passed from neuron to neuron (or neuron to effector)?
Chemically, in the form of neurotransmitters that diffuse across the synapse to activate the post-synaptic cell.
What is the role of chief cells?
Chief cells secrete pepsinogen, which is an inactive zymogen form of Pepsin.
What molecule are steroid molecules derived from?
Cholesterol
What does it mean to be a cholinergic receptor?
Cholinergic receptors are receptors that respond to acetylcholine.
How does one break a vector into components?
Choose two axes (vertical & horizontal or parallel & perpendicular) and use two vectors to represent the original vector.
What are chromatids?
Chromatid is the name for either individual copy of a duplicated chromosome. Note, just because a chromosome has been duplicated into two sister chromatids does not mean you have two chromosomes. The sister chromatid pair only counts as one chromosome.
What is chromatin?
Chromatin is the term for unwound DNA in the nucleus.
What is Chyme?
Chyme is the semifluid acidic mixture that results from food being carried through the hydrolytic environment of the stomach to the small intestine.
What is a cilia?
Cilia are projections from a cell that are involved in movement of materials along the cell's surface. For example, cilia in the respiratory tract will undulate in order to move mucus.
Describe Class 1 MHC's
Class 1 MHC's are found in every nucleated cell in the body. Any protein produced in a cell can be loaded into a class 1 MHC and presented on the cell's surface. Cells normally use class 1 MHC's to present various normal proteins on their cell surface. If a cell is infected, it will be filled with foreign proteins. Class 1 MHC's will present these foreign proteins on the cell's surface where the immune system can detect them and respond.
What is a cleavage furrow?
Cleavage furrow is the name of the pinched in spot where the microfilament ring contracts in order to cause cytokinesis of the cell.
What is cleavage? (in embryonic development)
Cleavage is the series of rapid mitotic divisions undergone by a newly fertilized zygote. These cleavages are distinct because they do not result in an increase of the size of the organism, they just result in more cells. This increases surface area to volume ratio which increases area for nutrition and gas exchange
What is codominance?
Codominance is when more than one dominant allele for a gene exists, and when a person has both dominant alleles, he expresses both of them. In this pattern, the phenotype will express both genotypes distinctly.
What causes arrector pili muscles to contract?
Cold conditions.
What are colligative properties?
Colligative properties are physical properties of solutions that are dependent on the concentration of dissolved particles but not on the chemical identity of the dissolved particles
What does it mean to be Columnar Epithelium?
Columnar Epithelium is composed of long, thin, column shaped cells.
How does the Y copy of the sex chromosome compare to the X copy of the sex chromosome?
Compared to the X chromosome, the Y chromosome is small and does not contain much coding information. Because of this, males rely on the Y chromosome to provide most of the DNA for the non sex related information on the sex chromosomes.
How do Complement proteins kill bacteria?
Complement proteins punch holes in the cell wall of bacteria.
What is complete dominance?
Complete dominance is when there is only one dominant allele and one recessive allele, and the dominant allele completely masks the recessive allele.
What drives solute exchange between tissues and capillaries?
Concentration Gradients and Pressures
What are the units of rate?
Concentration over time, usually Molarity over seconds.
What is conduction?
Conduction is the direct transfer of energy from molecule to molecule through physical collisions. Has to be directly touching, cant be anything in between the two objects
What is bacterial conjugation?
Conjugation is when a bacterium forms a conjugation bridge with another bacterium and shares genetic information (including the sex factor, so the recipient can then form a bridge with new bacteria).
What is the function of connective tissue?
Connective tissue's function is to support the body and provide a framework for the epithelial cells to carry out their function. Connective tissue cells also secrete the various molecules that make up the extracellular matrix, such as collagen and elastin.
What are conservative forces?
Conservative forces are forces that do not dissipate energy e.g Gravity and Electrostatics PATH INDEPENDENT
What are the different types of expressivity?
Constant expressivity means that every person who is expressing a phenotype as a consequence of their genotype expresses the same exact phenotype. Variable expressivity means that people with the same exact genotype can express different phenotypes.
What is constructive interference?
Constructive interference occurs when negative displacement waves interact with negative displacement waves, or when positive displacement waves interact with positive displacement waves. When these types of waves interact, the superposition wave will have a displacement equal to the sum of the individual wave displacements.
What is convection?
Convection is the transfer of heat by the physical motion of a fluid. (plume of smoke over fire is heat rising through air) (Remember, gases and liquids both behave as fluids!) warm water flowing over an object is convection NOT conduction. Object sitting in still water is conduction.
What is Convergent Evolution?
Convergent evolution refers to the independent development of similar characteristics in two species that do not share a recent common ancestor.
What is meant by converging and diverging in the context of optics?
Converging and diverging are whenthe optical device (mirror or lens) makes the real light rays come closer together or further apart, respectively, after they reflect/refract.
What are the two glucocorticoids with which you should be familiar?
Cortisol and Cortisone
Describe how cortisol and cortisone affect the body.
Cortisol and cortisone raise blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis. They can also decrease inflammation and immunologic responses. Finally, Cortisol is a stress hormone, which means it is released in times of stress. It makes sense because you would need high levels of energy (sugar) to deal with a stressful situation.
How does cortisol compare to Epinephrine and Norepinpephrine in terms of stress response?
Cortisol is considered to be a long term stress hormone, where as epinephrine and norepinephrine are meant to deal with immediate stressful situations.
What are the units of charge?
Coulombs C
How does one determine the harmonic of a standing wave in a closed pipe?
Count the number of quarter wavelengths.
What is reaction coupling?
Coupling is when you pair two reactions so that their overall delta G is negative and the overall reaction is spontaneous. Ex. exergonic combustion of glucose with endergonic formation of peptide bonds
What are the characteristics of covalent compounds?
Covalent compounds contain discrete molecular units with relatively weak intermolecular interactions, and therefore lower boiling points and melting points. They do not break down into constituent ions, and are therefore poor conductors of electricity.
How is creatine used by the muscle?
Creatinine is a molecule that can be easily phosphorylated into creatine-phosphate. Resting muscle will take excess ATP and make Creatine Phosphate with it. This is done so that, in times of exercise, the creatine phosphate molecules can be broken back down into ATP and Creatine.
What are cristae?
Cristae are the infoldings of the inner mitochondrial membrane. These foldings increase the surface area available for electron transport chain enzymes.
What does it mean to say genes are linked?
Crossing over is a geographical phenomenon. That is to say, when crossing over occurs, a variable region of DNA at and surrounding the chiasma will cross over. This means that, the closer that genes are to one another, the better chance that they will either both be left on a chromosome or they will both cross over to the other chromosome. Either way, because of their proximity on the chromosome, they will travel together, and are therefore linked.
What is crossing over?
Crossing over is the process by which homologous chromosomes in tetrads exchange chunks of DNA with one another, thereby increasing the genetic diversity of the daughter cells.
What does it mean to be Cuboidal Epithelium?
Cuboidal epithelium is composed of cube shaped cells.
Should you place an ammeter in series or parallel?
Current is equivalent across elements in series and split across elements in parallel. Therefore, you should place the ammeter in series so that you're measuring the actual current. If you place an ammeter in parallel, it will split the current and the value you measure will be lower than the actual current.
What is current? Direction of flow in terms of potential?
Current is the amount of positive charge passing through a conductor per unit of time. Flows from high potential to low potential (remember positive goes from high to low and negative (electrons) goes from low to high, both trying to reduce potential energy)
What molecules are responsible for the timing of the cell cycle?
Cyclins and Cyclin Dependent Kinases
What are Cysteine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Cysteine, Cys, or C is a polar amino acid. It is also one of the only two amino acids with a sulfur, and it is unique in that it can engage in disulfide bonds with other nearby cysteines. also only amino acid with R config called a sulfhydryl or thiol group
What is Cystine?
Cystine is the name used to refer to the disulfide bond made between two cysteine's in a protein.
What is Cytokinesis?
Cytokinesis is when a microfilament ring in the center of the cell contracts to form a cleavage furrow and eventually split the cell in two.
What is the function of Cytotoxic T-Cells?
Cytotoxic T-Cells, also called CD8+ T-cells, are capable of directly killing cells with internal pathogens by injecting them with chemicals that induce apoptosis.
What is Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures?
Dalton's law of partial pressures states that the total pressure in a container with a mixture of gases will be equal to the sum of the independent pressures.
What is the basic timeline of menstruation?
Days 1 through 14, shedding of previous endometrium and follicular phase. Day 14, LH spike and ovulation. Days 14 - 28 Luteal Phase
What is the unit of sound?
Decible dB
Describe a deletion chromosomal mutation
Deletion occurs when a large segment of DNA is lost form a chromosome.
What is depolarization?
Depolarization is when the membrane potential rises from its resting -70mV towards 0mV. Causd by excitatory input. Makes neuron more likely to fire action potential This is called depolarization because the membrane potential is moving in the positive direction, therefore becoming less polarized in the negative direction.
What is it called when a gas goes to a solid?
Deposition
What is destructive interference?
Desctructive interference occurs when the a positive displacement wave interacts with a negative displacement wave. The superposition wave will be equal to the sum of the individual wave displacements, but because the waves have opposite signs, the superposition wave will be smaller than either of the individual waves.
What is Determinate cleavage?
Determinate cleavage results in cells with fates that are determined. That is to say, they are already committed to differentiating into a certain type of cell.
What is determination?
Determination is when a cell is irreversibly commited to a cell type.
What is the difference between determination and differentiation?
Determination is when the cell commits to a fate, differentation is when the cell actually starts changing to reach that fate. As an analogy, you are determined to go to be a doctor one day, but you won't actually start to differentiate into a doctor until you undergo the changes in your knowledge and skill set that await you in medical school and residency.
What does it mean to be diamagnetic?
Diamagnetic materials are made of atoms with no unpaired electrons and that have no net magnetic field.
How do diamagnetic materials behave when exposed to magnets?
Diamagnetic materials are weakly repelled by magnets (slightly antimagnetic)
What is a diaphysis?
Diaphysis is the scientific name for the cylindrical shaft of a long bone. Full of marrow
What is diastole?
Diastole is relaxation. This is when blood is coming back into the heart.
What are diatomic molecules?
Diatomic molecules are seven elements that do not exist alone in nature. Instead, they bond with themselves to form more stable di-atomic (2 atom) compounds. They are H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2. MNEMONIC: The six in the seven and Hydrogen. Six of the diatomic elements are in a seven shape on the right side of the periodic table, and the only other one is Hydrogen.
How do dielectric materials work?
Dielectric materials are inserted in between the plates of a capacitor in order to increase the capacitance. Because dielectrics are insulators, inserting them in between the plates of a capacitor decreases the strength of the electric field between them. Capacitance is inversely related to the field between the plates, so lowering the strength of the field increases the capacitance. Reduces energy stored in capacitor
What is differentiation?
Differentiation is when the cell begins to undergo changes in its structure, function, and biochemistry, to become a specific type of cell.
What is diffraction?
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves as they pass through a narrow opening or around an obstacle.
What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration.
What is digestion?
Digestion is the breakdown of food into its constituent organic molecules. For example, Starches are brokendown into carbohydrates, lipids are broken down into free fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins are broken down into amino acids. This is necessary because, the body can only metabolize a handful of chemicals, which almost always serve as the building blocks for the complex structures found in food.
What is dilution?
Dilution is when you lower the concentration of something by adding more solvent.
What does it mean to be diploid?
Diploid cells contain two copies of each of their chromosomes.
What is directional selection?
Directional selection is when pressures in the environment select for a new phenotype directly. For example, when all the fast animals can eat the leaves in the bushes, the tall giraffes that can reach the leaves in the trees don't starve to death and are able to pass their genes on. Overtime, this results in the absolute tallest giraffes of every generation having a lot of reproductive success, and giraffes evolving to be taller over time as a result.
What is disjunction?
Disjunction is the term used to refer to the separation of homologous chromosomes in Meiosis.
What is Divergent Evolution?
Divergent evolution refers to the independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two or more lineages sharing a common ancestor. E.g. some primate ancestor of ours diverging into a modern primate on one hand and us on the other.
How do dizygotic twins come to be?
Dizygotic twins form from the fertilization of two different eggs that were released in one ovulatory cycle by two different sperm. Both of these zygotes will implant in the uterine wall and be carried to full term.
What is the order of taxonomy from most general to most specific?
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. MNEMONIC: Kids Play Cod On Fuzzy Green Sofas
What effect does Dopamine have?
Dopamine inhibits the anterior pituitary from releasing Prolactin. Dopamine also has various effects on motivation/feelings of accomplishment/happiness
When multiplying vectors, what type of product should be used to create a scalar?
Dot product
Describe a duplication chomosomal mutation
Duplication is when a segment of DNA is copied multiple times into the genome.
What 5 important structures are developed during gastrulation?
During gastrulation, the three primary germ layers are developed as well as the archenteron and the blastopore.
What is a dynamic equilibrium?
Dynamic equilibrium is when reactants are converted into products, but at the same rate at which products are converted into reactants, resulting in no net change in the substance and allowing it to remain at equilibrium.
What is the EMF or Ecell?
EMF or Ecell is the difference between standard reduction potentials between two half cells. If you need to balance by multiplying half reactions by a common factor, dont multiply Ered or Eox, they dont depend on moles present
What is the Expiratory Reserve Volume? (ERV)
ERV is the volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation(as defined by TV).
How do the alveoli exchange Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide with the blood?
Each alveoli is surrounded by a capillary. A pulmonary arterial carrying low Oxygen/high Carbon Dioxide blood abuts the alveoli and exchanges gases with it. Oxygen comes into the blood, carbon dixoide goes into the alveoli. This oxygenated blood is then carried away by a pulmonary venule to the heart where it can be pumped to the body.
What are efferent neurons?
Efferent neurons are neurons that transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. MNEMONIC: Efferent neurons Exit the spinal cord.
What is effusion?
Effusion is the flow of a gas particle under pressure from one area to another through a small opening.
How are signals passed down the length of the axon?
Electrically, in the form of saltatory conduction of an action potential.
What is Electron Domain Geometry and how do we predict it with VSEPR?
Electron Domain Geometry is the shape made between the electrons on the central atom and the central atom, regardless of whether or not the electrons are in a bond or not. In this case, we simply count up the number of electron pairs, bonded or nonbonded, and refer to VSEPR theory for the shape.
What is Electron Affinity?
Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an an atom gains an electron. In other words, Electron Affinity describes how easily an atom can capture an extra electron.
What is electron capture?
Electron capture is when an unstable nucleus combines an inner electron with a proton to form a neutron while releasing a neutrino. The neutron stays in the nucleus. This lowers the atomic number while keeping the mass number the same.
What is Electronegativity?
Electronegativity is a measure of how much force with which an atom can pull electrons towards itself. The more electronegativity an atom has, the stronger it pulls electrons towards itself.
What does it mean for elements to be in parallel?
Elements in parallel are elements which are placed side by side on different paths. Because there are multiple paths, the current will split and be distributed amongst the elements.
What does it mean for elements to be in series?
Elements in series are elements which are placed sequentially on the same path. Because there is still only 1 path, the each element will have the full current pass through them.
What do you call a reaction with a positive Gibbs Free Energy?
Endergonic
What is endocrine signaling?
Endocrine Signaling is when cells secrete hormones that travel through the bloodstream to target a distant tissue.
What is the function of Endorphins?
Endorphins decrease the perception of pain and cause feelings of euophoria.
What is an endo skeleton?
Endoskeletons are internal skeletons, like those seen in mammals.
What are endothelial cells?
Endothelial cells are specialized epithelial cells that line the inside of blood vessels.
What is an energy shell?
Energy shells are different distances at which electrons can orbit a nucleus with stability. The more energy an electron has, the further out they go.
What does the 2nd law of thermodynamics state, in basic terms?
Energy will always spontaneously spread out if it is not actively being kept from doing so.
What is the difference between heat and enthalpy?
Enthalpy is just heat under constant pressure, a commonly made assumption.
What is entropy?
Entropy is the measure of the spontaneous dispersal of energy at specific temperatures. As entropy goes up, more energy gets dispersed or the same ount of energy gets dispersed farther.
What is Eo?
Eo is the standard potential. It is the potential change associated with the reaction being described at standard state conditions
What is the function of Eosinophils?
Eosinophils are filled with bright red-orange granules are play a primary role in allergic reactions and invasive parasitic infections. Eosinophils also release large amounts of histamine, thereby inducing an inflammatory response.
What is the function of Ependymal cells?
Ependymal cells line the ventricles (cavities) of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid, which physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber.
What are the hormones secreted by the Adrenal Medulla?
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
What are the functions of the epithelial tissues?
Epithelial tissues cover the body and line its cavities. These tissues, being exterior tissues, provide protection against infection and dessication (drying out). In some tissues, epithelial cells are also involved in absorption, secretion, and sensation.
What is equational division?
Equational division is when division results in the separation of sister chromatids, and therefore it does not change the ploidy number of the daughter cells.
What are Erythrocytes?
Erythrocytes are the red blood cells. These are specialized cells designed for the transport of oxygen. High concentration in blood
What is erythropoeitin's function and what organ secretes it?
Erythropoeitin stimulates bone marrow to increase the production of blood cells. This hormone is secreted by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels in the blood.
What is erythropoietin?
Erythropoietin is a hormone secreted by the kidney that increases the synthesis of new erythrocytes in the bone marrow.
Which hormone is responsible for secondary sex characteristics in women?
Estrogen
What two hormones do the ovaries produce?
Estrogen and progesterone
Describe Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Eukaryotic Chromosomes are large pieces of DNA that are formed from the wrapping of DNA around histones and the packing of those histones into a linear structure.
What is it called when a liquid goes to a gas?
Evaporation or Vaporization
What is the difference between evaporization and boiling?
Evaporization is the natural conversion of some liquid molecules into gas that occurs as a result of the equilibrium between the phases. Boiling is the rapid bubbling of the entire liquid with the rapid release of the liquid as gas particles. This happens when the liquid exceeds its boiling temperature.
What do you call a reaction with a negative Gibbs Free Energy?
Exergonic
Exhalation is an active, passive, or both process
Exhalation can be passive as in the case of the diaphragm and external intercostals relaxing, causing the size of the chest cavity to decrease, and increasing the pressure there in. In certain times of need/pathology, exhalation can be active. This is when muscles (internal intercostal muscles) are recruited to increase the force of contraction on the lungs and to help in forcing air out of the lungs.
What is exocytosis?
Exocytosis is when material is packaged into a secretory vesicle, the secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, and the contents of the secretory vesicle are released outside of the cell.
What is an exoskeleton?
Exoskeletons are external skeletons, like those seen in insects.
What is expressivity?
Expressivity is the extent to which a single genotype can manifest itself as various phenotypes.
What is extracellular digestion?
Extracellular digestion is when something is broken down into nutrients outside of a cell, and then the cell absorbs the usable nutrients. This is the type of digestion that occurs in the stomach.
What kinds of molecules can easily pass the cell membrane?
Extremely small molecules and non-polar molecules.
What is the restriction on bacterial conjugation?
F+ Bacteria can only conjugate to F- Bacteria. F+ Bacteria cannot conjugate with other F+ Bacteria.
In what way does FSH affect the testes?
FSH causes the Sertoli Cells to trigger sperm maturation. MNEMONIC: Follicle Stimulating hormone Stimulates the Synthesis of Sperm by the Sertoli Cells
In what way does FSH affect the ovaries?
FSH stimulates the growth of the follicles in the ovaries.
What is a facultative anaerobe?
Facultative anaerobes are bacteria that can switch between anaerobic and aerobic metabolism depending on the environment.
What is feces and where is it made?
Feces refers to the amalgam of anything that couldn't be absorbed in the GI tract. It is a collection of indigestible material, water, bacteria, certain digestive secretions, etc. It is formed in the colon.
What does it mean to be ferromagnetic?
Ferromagnetic materials, like paramagnetic materials, are made of atoms unpaired electrons and randomly oriented magnetic fields that cancel out. The only difference is that ferromagnetic fields become strongly magnetized by magnets as opposed to becomming weakly magnetized by magnets.
What is filtration in kidney?
Filtration is the passive process by which things that are small enough to pass through the glomerular pores are pushed into the bowman's capsule by the pressure differential. This is caused by Starling forces, just like in the capillaries. Starling forces account for both hydrostatic and oncotic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus is higher than in Bowmans space causing fluid to move into nephron. The blood osmolarity is also higher causing pressure opposing fluid movement into nephron. Hydrostatic pressure is much higher so net fluid still flows from blood into nephron
How do we know how many valence electrons an atom is carrying?
Find the atom's element on the periodic table and make note of what column it is in. That will tell you the number of valence electrons on that element, and therefore an atom of that element.
What are fingernails and hair made of?
Fingernails and hair are made of keratin and are produced by specialized skin cells.
What are the three steps of childbirth?
First, the cervis thins out and the amniotic sac ruptures (Water breaking) Second, strong uterine contractions result in the birth of the fetus. Third, the placenta and the umbilical cord are expelled. (afterbirth)
What is a flagella?
Flagella are structures involved in the movement of the cell itself. They achieve this by spinning and flailing, generating force for movement.
What does it mean to be a fluid?
Fluids are things (gases and liquids) that can flow and conform to the shapes of their containers.
What is fluorescence?
Fluorescence is when a species absorbs high frequency light, but doesn't emit it all right away. Instead, it emits multiple photons with increasingly less energy in a series of steps where the total energy of the emitted photons is equal to the energy of the absorbed photon. Because the light is being emitted in multiple steps, it takes a lot longer. So, when you shine high frequency light on fluorescent material, it will absorb the light and glow for a while afterwards (Slow emission of many photons) as opposed to just flashing a quick color like it would if it emitted one photon in one step.
What kind of materials can pass through the pharynx?
Food and air
How do the nutrients in the food we eat actually make it to our tissues?
Food is broken down in the digestive system. Capillary beds in the digestive system absorb the nutrients and carry them to other tissues so they can be used.
How does the common ion effect work?
For a soluble substance, if either of the constituent ions are present, they will appear in the products of the solvation equilibrium, and push the equilibrium left towards the precipitate, as predicted by le chatelier's principle. Solubility is reduced if dissolving in a solution that already has some of the ions vs pure solvent
What are the steps of the half reaction method?
For basic, add OH- to both sides at the end of the problem. Merge H+ and OH- to form water and then cancel out water. For this example we would add 16OH- to each side.
What stage of Meiosis is responsible for Mendel's second law of genetics?
For genes on the same chromosome, Crossing over in Prophase I allows genetic information to be traded between homologous chromosomes, which allows for the unlinking of linked genes and the independent assortment that Mendel's second law of genetics describes. For genes on different chromosomes, random alignment during metaphase results independent assortment
What is the critical modification one must make to the right hand rule for negative charges?
For negative charges, flip the direction of the vector that resulted from the right hand rule. If the right hand rule tells you the force on a proton is coming out of a page, that means that for an electron, that force will be going into the page.
Transition metal charges can be identified with roman numerals, but they can also be identified with suffices. What are these suffices?
For transition metals with two stable ions, the suffix -ous is used to refer to the lesser charge ion and the suffix -ic is used to refer to the higher charge ion.
What is formal charge?
Formal charge refers to the difference between the number of valence electrons on an atom in a molecule and the number of valence electrons on an atom in its neutral unbonded state. Generally speaking, the larger the formal charge (in either the negative or positive direction), the less likely that the molecule will arrange itself in that lewis structure.
What is freezing point depression?
Freezing point depression is the fact that, as you add nonvolatile solutes to a solution, it's freezing point decreases. This is described mathematically below. Where Delta T is the change (depression, so if our answer is 15, the freezing point goes DOWN by 15) in freezing point, Kf is a constant, m is the molality of the solution, and i is equal to the number of different particles the solute dissolves into. For example, MnCl2 would dissolve into three ions, so i would equal 3.
What is the frequency factor, A?
Frequency factor is how many molecules collide per second.
What is frequency?
Frequency is the number of full oscillations a wave completes in one second.
What is frequency summation?
Frequency summation is when a muscle fiber is exposed to frequent simple twitches before it can relax. Frequency summation causes contractions (of overall muscle) to become stronger and more prolonged as they add up with one another. These contractions can become so strong and prolonged that the muscle cannot relax, a condition known as tetanus.
As you move from left to right on the periodic table, in what way do elements change?
From left to right elements have an increasing number of protons, electrons, and neutrons. More specifically, going from left to right increases the effective nuclear charge in an atom.
In what direction(temperature wise) does heat flow?
From objects with high temperatures to objects with lower temperatures
What is it called when a solid goes to a liquid?
Fusion or Melting
What is the cell type associated with the Pyloric Glands?
G-cells
What are the four stages of the cell cycle?
G1 (G0), S, G2, and M
What effect does GHRH have?
GHRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release GH (Growth Hormone)
What are gametes?
Gametes are the haploid sex cells. In males, these are sperm. In females, these are ova.
Which form of radiation is most dangerous if it is outside the body?
Gamma rays are the most dangerous outside the body because they can penetrate the skin/clothes easily and cause damage within the body.
What kinds of reactants and products appear in the equilibrium expression?
Gases in all gas systems and aqueous molecules in aqueous systems. Solids and liquids (other than water) do not appear in the equilibrium expression.
What does Gastrin do?
Gastrin is a peptide hormone that induces parietal cells to release more HCl and signals the stomach to contract and mix its contents.
What is gastrulation?
Gastrulation is the term used to refer to the inward folding of the blastula to create a layered structure with a prominent invagination known as a gastrula.
What is Gay-Lussac's Law?
Gay-Lussac's Law states that pressure is proportional to temperature.
What is genetic drift?
Genetic drift refers to the changes in the composition of a gene pool due to chance. This is different when compared to natural selection in that natural selection is the change in the composition of a gene pool in response to environmental selectors. The likelihood of a smaller genepool to be significantly altered by random mutations
What is genetic leakage?
Genetic leakage is the flow of genes between species. This happens when two species can make a viable hybrid offspring. For example, cows and bison can mate to make a hybrid known as a beefalo. This beefalo can reproduce with either cows or bison, and can therefore leak genetic information from one to the other.
What is genetic mapping?
Genetic mapping is the process by which we theorize the general order of genes on a chromosome based on their relative recombination frequencies. Farther away would mean higher recomb. Genes in a row should add. So in ABC, the recombination frequency of A and C should equal A and B plus B and C.
What is the function of Glucagon?
Glucagon increases the level of glucose in the blood. MNEMONIC: GlucaGON levels are high when glucose is GONE
What is the function of the glucocorticoids?
Glucorticoids are steroid hormones that regulat glucose levels and affect protein metabolism.
What are Glutamic Acid's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Glutamic Acid, Glu, or E is an acidic/negatively charged amino acid. (glutamate is deprotonated form)
What are Glutamine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Glutamine, Gln, or Q is a polar amino acid with an amide bond in the side chain. (amide hydrogens DONT gain/lose electrons dependent on pH)
What are Glycine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Glycine, Gly, or G is a non-polar aliphatic amino acid. Also unique in that it is non-chiral!
How does the presence of GnRH change as we mature?
GnRH is tightly regulated by the hypothalamus until puberty, at which point GnRH is released in pulses which lead to the development of secondary sex-characteristics.
What effect does GnRH have?
GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH.
What is GnRH?
Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone is a hypothalmic hormone. When synthesized and released, it stimulates the release of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Leutinizing Hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary.
What is Graham's Law of effusion and diffusion?
Graham's law allows us to compare diffusion and effusion rates (which equal speed) between gases by relating the square root of their molar masses. Where the r's are the diffusion or effusion rates of the two gases, and the MM's are the molar masses. A gas with 4 times the molar mass will travel half as fast as lighter gas
Describe the cell walls in Gram Negative bacteria
Gram Negative bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycan. They also have an outer membrane beyond the peptidoglycan which is studded with lipopolysaccharides. Note periplasmic space in diagram
Describe the cell wall in gram positive cells
Gram Positive cell wall's consist of a thick layer of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid.
Where are the Alkali Metals on the periodic table?
Group 1
Where are the Alkaline Earth Metals on the periodic table?
Group 2.
What is the function of Growth Hormone and how does it carry this out?
Growth hormone promotes the growth of bone and muscle. stimulates breakdown of fatty acids and prevents glucose uptake in tissues not growing, thus increasing glucose availability for tissues that are growing
What are the major waste productes excreted in the urine?
H+ ions, Urea, NH3, and K+ MNEMONIC: DUMP the HUNK
What does it mean to be haploid?
Haploid cells only have one of each chromosome.
The first overtone is the {{c1::second harmonic, given by n=2}} for open systems and {{c2::3rd harmonic, given by n=3}} for closed systems
Has 1/2 the wavelength and twice the frequency of the first harmonic
What is HbF?
HbF stands for Fetal Hemoglobin. This is a modified version of the Hemoglobin protein found in fetuses that has a higher affinity for oxygen then normal hemoglobin.
What is heat capacity?
Heat capacity is the product of the specific heat of an object and its mass (in grams when using c=4.184). In other words, Heat capacity = m*c
What are the two types of energy transfer?
Heat(thermal) and Work(mechanical)
What is the function of helper T-Cells?
Helper T-cells, also called CD4+ cells, coordinate the immune response by secreting lymphokines. Lymphokines recruit other immune cells to the location and increase their effectiveness.
What kind of infections do Helper-T cells respond to best?
Helper-T cells respond to Class II MHC's, which present the antigens of phagocytosed extracellular invaders. Many bacteria, fungi, and parasites are too big to infect cells intracellularly, so out of necessity they act as extracellular invaders. It follows that Helper-T cells respond best to these types of infections.
What important molecule in Erythrocytes allows them to carry oxygen?
Hemoglobin
How does cooperative binding manifest itself in Hemoglobin?
Hemoglobin has 4 sub units for oxygen. With 0 oxygen molecules bound, the affinity of each of the sub units for oxygen is relatively low. Once an oxygen molecule binds to one of the sub units, Hemoglobin experiences a conformational change from a tense state to a relaxed state. This makes it easier for the other 3 sites to bind oxygen. Once another oxygen molecule binds, the other 2 sites become more affine to oxygen. Same thing happens when a third oxygen molecule binds. Note, this relationship goes in the other direction as well. When there are 4 oxygens boundd, the oxygens are held very tightly, but when one oxygen leaves, the rest of the sub units hold the remaining 3 oxgens less tightly, and so on for the following oxygen departures.
How does Hemoglobin bind Oxygen?
Hemoglobin has four specialized chemical structures known as heme groups. The heme groups have an importantly places iron atom that carries the oxygen molecule.
What did Hershey and Chase do to further support the DNA theory of genetic information?
Hershey and Chase knew that bacteriophages inject their genetic material into cells to infect them, and the capsid stays outside the cell. So, hershey and chase created modified baceteriophages with radiolabeled DNA and protein. Specifically, they made a baceteriophage with radiolabeled phosphorous, which is found in DNA not protein. And they made a bacteriophage with radiolabeled sulfur, which is found in protein, not DNA. They found that, when they infected cells with the DNA radiolabeled bacteriophages, they could see the radioactive phosphorous in the cell, indicating that the DNA was injected into the cell. When they infected cells with the protein radiolabeled bacteriophages, they could not see any radioactive sulfur in the cell, indicating that the protein was not injected into the cell. These results supported the idea that DNA is the genetic material viruses use to attack cells, not protein.
What is Hess's law?
Hess's law is just a consequence of the fact that enthalpy is a state function. It states that enthalpies of a series of step by step reactions will just add up, and the overall enthalpy of the series of step by step reactions will be equal to the sum of each individual step. Can split up reactions into steps Ex. C(s)+2H2(g)->CH4(g) = 1. C(s)->C(g) Delta H1 2. 2 (H2->2H) two times Delta H2 3. C(g)+4H->CH4(g) Delta H3 Add them all together to get overall delta H. Remember formation of bonds relases energy so delta H3 is negative https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-standard-enthalpy-of-formation-of-methane-given-that-the-average-c-h
What is hyperglycemia?
High blood sugar (diabetes)
What is histamine?
Histamine is a molecule that causes the blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable. This makes it easier for fluid and immune cells in the blood to enter tissues that have been infected.
What are Histidine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Histidine, His, or H is a basic/positively charged amino acid. Has imidazole ring which is aromatic an amino acid whose side chain is frequently encountered at the active site of metalloenzymes N with double bond gets protonated
Which component of a vector will cos(theta) give you? (horizontal/vertical and parallel/perpendicular)
Horizontal or Perpendicular
What is a good general rule for knowing what condition causes a hormone to be secreted?
Hormones want to maintain balance and will often be secreted in response to their opposite effect being too high in the body. For example, calcitonin decreases the amount of calcium in the blood. When calcium levels in the blood are too high, calcitonin is secreted in response.
What is conductance? SI unit?
How easily electrons can flow through a substance. The higher the conductance, the easier it is for electrons to flow through the substance. Siemens (S)
What is displacement in the context of waves?
How far away from the equilibrium position the point on the wave is.
What is humoral immunity?
Humoral immunity is the B-cell/Antibody part of adaptive immunity.
What is Hund's Rule?
Hund's rule states that energy of the various orbitals in a sublevel are equal. What this implies is that each orbital in the sublevel will receive one electron before it receives two electrons.
What is hydration?
Hydration is the same thing as solvation, it's just what you call it when water is the solvent.
What are Hydrogen Bonds?
Hydrogen bonds are just a particularly strong dipole-dipole interaction formed when hydrogen binds certain very electronegative elements (F,O,N). Hydrogen bonds are so strong, that they can act as intermolecular forces (attraction between different molecules) or intramolecular forces (attraction between a hydrogen dipole within the molecule and another element within that same molecule). MNEMONIC: Hydrogen bonds pick up the FON (phone): Hydrogen bonds are only seen in molecules containing a hydrogen bound to Fluorine, Oygen, and Nitrogen.
What are the two types of pressures exhibited by blood?
Hydrostatic pressure and Osmotic pressure
In liquids, what two kinds of pressures can potentially exist?
Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
How do the hydrostatic pressure and the oncotic pressure change as blood moves from one side of the capillary bed to the other?
Hydrostatic pressure is high on the arteriole side of the capillary bed and decreases as the blood moves across the capillary bed into the venules. Oncotic pressure, on the other hand, is constant throughout the entirety of the capillaryt bed. This means that, on the arteriole side of the bed, there is a net force out of the vasculature into the tissues. On the venule side of the capillary bed, the hydrostatic force is too low, and the net force is not from the tissues into the vasculature.
What is hypermutation?
Hypermutation is the process by which a B-cell modifies the antigen binding region of its antibody. The way it works is that B-cells with antigen binding regions that have a high affinity for the antigen will survive, and B-cells without will die. Overtime, the antigen binding region of the B-cell gets better and better until its considered sufficient. This is a slow process. It will take about 10 days for a B-cell to make a good antibody.
What is hyperpolarization?
Hyperpolarization is when the already negatively polarized -70mV resting membrane potential becomes even more negative and therefore more polarized. Cause by inhibitory input and leads neuron to be less likely to fire AP
What is hyperthyroidism?
Hyperthyroidism is when thyroid hormones are in too high concentration. The symptoms of this are opposite those seen in hypothyroidism. Weight loss, increased body temperature, increased energy levels, higher heart rate, higher respiratory rate.
How are Glucocorticoids signalled to be released?
Hypothalamus secretes CRF, Anterior Pituitary releases ACTH, and then the adrenal cortex releases glucocorticoids.
What is the route taken by hypothalmic hormones after they are secreted?
Hypothalmic hormones travel directly through the capillary beds of the hypothalamus to the capillary beds of the anterior pituitary due to the portal system that connects them.
What is hypothyroidism?
Hypothyroidism is when thyroid hormones are in insufficient quantity. This condition is characterized by lethargy, decreased body temperature, weight gain, slowed respiratory rate, and slowed heart rate.
What does it mean to be in a hypotonic solution?
Hypotonic solutions are less concentrated than the interior of the cell/tubule/etc in question. Water follows the concentration of solutes and rushes into the cells, causing them to swell with water and potentially burst.
How does one calculate the power of a resistor?
I is current through the resistor, V is voltage drop across the resistor (not across circuit), R is the resistence Can substitute in V=IR to derive different forms Since P=E/delta t, E=P(delta t), so any of those power equations multiplied by time will give power dissipated over the course of time
What is the Inspiratory Reserve Volume? (IRV)
IRV is the volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation(as defined by TV).
In what direction will the reaction proceed if Q < Keq? What is ΔG?
If Q < Keq then the ratio of products to reactants is lower then it would be at equilibrium. Therefore, we'd expect the reaction to go in the forward direction to reach the equilibrium ratio. ΔG is negative
In what direction will the reaction proceed if Q = Keq? What is ΔG?
If Q = Keq then the reaction is at equilibrium. The delta G is equal to 0 and the reaction will stay where it is.
In what direction will the reaction proceed if Q > Keq? What is ΔG?
If Q > Keq then the ratio of products to reactants is higher then it would be at equilibrium. Therefore, we'd expect the reaction to go in the reverse direction to reach the equilibrium ratio. ΔG is positive
What happens if a lysosome releases its enzymes?
If a lysosome releases its enzymes, the enzymes will begin to break the cell down from the inside out in a process known as autolysis.
What happens in the Menstruation stage of Menstruation?
If no implantation occurs, the levels of LH will fall. This causes the corpus luteum to cease production of progesterone, which weakens the integrity of the uterine lining and causes it to slough off. With the estrogen and progesterone levels low again, the block on GnRH is lifted and the cycle can begin again.
What does it mean to be antagonistic?
If something is antagonistic to something else, that means it has the opposite effects.
What happens if the immune system does not recognize a self antigen?
If the immune system can't recognize a self antigen, it will just assume that the antigen of the cell it is targeting is foreign and destroy it. In other words, the immune system can make mistakes and kill our own healthy cells!
When a light ray refracts from one medium to another, how does its speed change?
If the second medium's index of refraction is lower, the light ray goes faster. If the index of refraction is higher, the light ray goes slower.
What does it mean to be immune to a disease?
Immunity to a disease is a manifestation of the fact that a person already has the memory cells and antibodies to fight a disease. You aren't technically immune. The infection will still occur. It's just that you control the infection so quickly and effectively nothing really happens before the infection is cleared out.
What is impulse propogation?
Impulse propogation is the way an action potential generated in the axon hillock travels down the axon to the axon terminal.
What happens in Anaphase I of Meiosis and how is it different than Anaphase of Mitosis?
In Anaphase 1 of Meiosis, the chromosomes are pulled to opposite sides of the cell, just like in Anapase of Mitosis. The only difference is that Anaphase 1 of Meiosis results in a decrease in ploidy in the daughter cell where as Anaphase of Mitosis does not.
How is the way the chromosomes are split different in Anaphase 1 of Meiosis when compared to Anaphase of Mitosis?
In Anaphase of Mitosis, the chromosomes are split according to their sister chromatids, and therefore each cell gets 2 single stranded copies of each chromosome. In Anaphase 1 of Meiosis, the chromosomes are split according to their homologs, and therefore each cell gets 1 double stranded copy of each chromosome.
What is Disruptive Selection?
In Disruptive Selection, there are two different extremes that simultaneously adapt well to environmental pressure, and therefore those two different extremes are selected. If these two extremes are selected for vigorously enough, their genetic information will become so different they can no longer successfully reproduce, thus resulting in the splitting of one species into two.
What is happening in G0?
In G0 the cell is just living its life and serving its function. At this point the cell is not doing anything to prepare for division.
What is happening during G1?
In G1, the cell increases its size, synthesizes proteins, and creates new organelles. This is to prepare the cell for division.
What happens in G2?
In G2 the cell grows more and synthesizes more proteins to further prepare for Mitosis.
How is the cardiovascular circuit analagous to an electrical circuit.
In a circuit, a voltage drives a current through a given electrical resistance. In the cardiovascular system, a pressure drives cardiac output through a given vascular resistance.
What are london dispersion (Van Der Waals) forces?
In a nonpolar covalent bond, we expect the electrons to be equally shared between the atom's electronegativities are the same. But, even though the electrons aren't actively being pulled to one atom, they can still randomly assort themselves in the orbital in such a way that one atom has a little tiny bit more electron density than the other one. This results in a spontaneous, very short lived, very small dipole. The negative end of this temporary dipole will attract to the positive end of some other molecule's temporary dipole. This low-level but ever present attraction between the spontaneous dipoles of non-polar compounds is referred to as London Dispersion Forces, and is the weakest of the intermolecular forces.
What is the dipole moment?
In a polar compound, the dipole moment is the net vector of electrical charge in the molecule. In diatomic molecules, this will simply be the vector from the partially positive element to the partially negative element. However, in molecules with multiple polar bonds, the multiple electrostatic vectors will have to be summed in order to get the net vector.
What is a reaction mechanism?
In a reaction that is expected to take more than one step, the reaction mechanism is the proposed series of steps.
How do we determine the limiting reactant?
In a reaction with two reactants, you can convert the moles of one reactant into the moles of another reactant using normal stoichiometric methods. So what you do is... 1. Identify the moles of both reactants. 2. Pick one of the reactants, it does not matter which. 3. Use the balanced equation to convert the moles of the reactant you picked into the moles of the other one. 4. Now compare the converted moles of the reactant to the original mole of the other reactant. The smaller number is the limiitng reactant.
What is a first messenger?
In a situation where a molecule must bind to a receptor on the surface of a cell, the first messenger is the molecule that binds to the extracellular receptor.
What is a second messenger?
In a situation where a molecule must bind to a receptor on the surface of a cell, the second messenger is the molecule that is activated inside the cell by the first messenger.
Genetic drift is more prevelant in {{c1::small populations::small or large populations?}}
In a small population, the random events that might move the population in one direction or the other can move the population much further. In big populations, most of those random events cancel out and don't push the population in any specific direction.
What is an effector?
In a synapse, if the post-synaptic cell is a gland or a muscle instead of a neuron, that gland or muscle cell is referred to as an effector.
How are redox titrations similar to acid-base titrations?
In acid base titrations, the pH and thus the transfer of protons is what is used to reach the equivalence point of the reaction. In a redox reaction, the E cell of the reaction and thus the transfer of electrons is what is used to reach the equivalence point of the reaction.
How do reactions respond to changes in temperature as described by Le chatelier's principle?
In an endothermic reaction, heat is a reactant, so increasing the temperature shifts the equilibrium right. On the other hand, in an exothermic reaction, heat is a product, so increasing the temperature shifts the equilibrium left.
What is an overtone?
In an object that produces multiple frequency waves when struck, the overtones are the higher frequency waves.
What important thing happens in Anaphase?
In anaphase, the chromosomes are reeled in by the centrioles and pulled to opposite sides of the cell.
What happens in Metaphase I of Meiosis and how is it different than mitosis?
In metaphase 1, Tetrads attach to the spindle apparatus at their kinetochores and align at the center of the cell. Key difference: In mitosis each chromosome is aligned directly over the plate with two sprindle fibers (one on each side, 2 chromatids wide on plate) whereas in meiosis homologous chromosomes are lined up with one spindle (4 chromatids wide, 2 on each side of equitorial plate, No centromeres directly over plate in meiosis)
What is a polar body?
In oogenesis, cytoplasm is split unevenly in order to create 3 non functional cells and 1 relatively massive oocyte. The small nonfunctional bodies that receive little cytoplasm are polar bodies.
What does it mean for two waves to be in phase?
In phase waves have a phase difference of 0 degrees, and are therefore lined up exactly (in phase). Below is a picture of two red waves that are in phase. The blue wave shows the superposition wave sum (adding both aplitudes). Constructive interferencce
What is happening in the M phase?
In the M phase, the cell undergoes all stages of Mitosis and Cytokinesis, resulting in two new cells.
What occurs in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule?
In the Proximal Convuluted Tubule the useful molecules that passed through the glomerular pores are reabsorbed (amino acids, glucose, vitamins, majority of salts, and water) into the vasa recta. Also in the PCT, a number of waste products are secreted from the blood into the PCT for excretion (H+, K+, Urea, NH3, etc. DUMP the HUNK )
What is happening in the S stage?
In the S stage, the DNA is replicated, resulting in identical sister chromatids.
What is the function of the Stratum Granulosum?
In the Stratum Granulosum, the keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei.
What is the function of the Stratum Spinosum?
In the Stratum Spinosum, skin cells become connected to one another. This is also the laayer that houses Langerhans cells.
How is the pressure in the fetal heart different than in the adult heart?
In the adult heart, the left ventricle is more muscular, generates more force, and therefore generates more pressure than the right side. In the fetus, the difference between the two ventricles is not as large. In fact, the pressure in the right side of the fetal heart is higher than the pressure in the left side. As the fetus develops, the left ventricle's relative size difference grows, and the pressure in the left side of the heart rises.
Where are tropic hormones usually created?
In the brain. It makes sense because the brain is the central control center for the body, and tropic hormones play a overall regulatory role.
What happens in the Collecting Duct?
In the collecting duct, the final concentratin of the urine is altered. This occurs because the collecting duct's permability to water can be modified by Aldosterone or ADH. The amount to which the collecting duct is permeable to water will determine the urine's final concentration. Water is almost always reabsorbed here but to varying amounts
In what direction will charges spontaneously move?
In the direction of lower electric potential energy.
Where are T3 and T4 produced? What do they contain?
In the follicular cells of the thyroid. They contain iodine
Where is calcitonin made?
In the parafollicular (or C-cells) of the thyroid.
What neurotransmitters are released by the pre and post ganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system?
In the parasympathetic nervous system, acetylcholine is used by both the pre-ganglionic neuron and the post-ganglionic neuron.
How is the way neurons affect target tissues different in the somatic nervous system versus the autonomic nervous system?
In the somatic nervous system, neurons go directly to the tissue in question. In the autonomic nervous system, a neuron will synapse with another neuron before affecting the target tissue.
What neurotransmitters are released by the pre and post ganglionic neurons in the sympathetic nervous system?
In the sympathetic nervous system, acetylcholine is used by the pre-ganglionic neuron and norepinephrine is used by the post-ganglionic neuron.
What is the difference between the two types of diabetes?
In type 1 Diabetics, the body's immune system has erroneously destroyed the Beta Cells, making endogenous insulin production impossible. In type 2 Diabetics, Insulin is produced, but the insulin receptors on the cells are insensitive to it.
How does vasodilation help cool the body?
In vasodilation, the arteries open up which brings a lot of blood to the skin. This moves more of the total heat in the body to the skin where it can dump its heat into boiling the sweat on the surface of the skin.
What are inborn errors of metabolism?
Inborn errors of metabolism arew a class of deletrious mutations involving the genes of metabolism. Children born with these defects require very early intervention to prevent permanent damage from buildup of metabolites.
What kinds of genotypes does inbreeding encourage?
Inbreeding encourages homozygous genotypes, both recessive and dominant. This is shown in the diagram below. Note how the percentage of individuals in the population that are homozygous recessive or homozygous dominant increases with each generation.
What are the three exceptions to the Octet Rule?
Incomplete Octet Elements: These elements are stable with less than eight electrons in their valence shell. Hydrogen (2), Helium (2), Lithium (2), Beryllium (4), and Boron (6). Expanded Octet: Any element in period 3 and greater can hold more than eight electrons. For example, Phosphorus (10), Sulfur (12), Chlorine, (14) and others. Odd numbers of Electrons: Any molecule with an odd number of valence electrons cannot distribute those electrons to give 8 to each atom, so one of the atoms won't have a full octet in these molecules.
What is incomplete dominance?
Incomplete dominance is when a heterozygote expresses a phenotype that is a mix of the two alleles. The incomplete dominant phenotype will look like an indistinct mix of the two individual phenotypes.
What is induction?
Induction is the ability of one group of cells to influence the development of other nearby cells through the use of inducers.
What is induction in the context of acids and bases?
Induction is when an electronegative group somewhere on the acid spreads the negative charge of the conjugate base out. This stablizes the acid and the effect increases when the group is more electron withdrawing and when it's closer to the proton that will be lost (the atom that the negative will be on) so FCH2COOH is doper than CH3COOH. Having electronegative groups close to the atom that will accept the proton on a base is actually worse. THe base wants electron donating groups (aka groups that are less electronegative, so NH3 is weaker than CH3NH3 because the methyl donates to the nitrogen making it more electron dense and more likely to take a proton)
What kind of pathogens is inflammation effective against?
Inflammation is effective against extracellular pathogens like bacteria, fungi, and parasites.
What is Innate immunity?
Innate immunity is the composition of defenses that are always active against infection, but lack the ability to target specific invaders.
Describe an insertion chromosomal mutation.
Insertion occurs when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another.
How does Insulin decrease glucose levels in the blood?
Insulin decreases blood sugar by stimulating the uptake of glucose by muscle and liver cells to store as glycogen. Insulin also stimulates the synthesis of proteins and fats, which uses up glucose.
What is the function of Insulin?
Insulin decreases the level of glucose in the blood.
How is the amplitude of a sound wave related to its intensity?
Intensity increases proportional to the square of the amplitude. This means that, if you double the amplitude, you will quadruple the intensity.
How is intensity of sound related to your distance from it?
Intensity of sound is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. This means that if you are twice as far away from a sound, it will be 1/4 times as intense. If you are 3 times as far away from a sound, it will be 1/9 times as intense. Note: this is because surface area of a sphere is 4(pi)r2 so as it travels further the surface area increases exponentially thus distributing power more thinly, reducing intensity
What is intensity of sound (and equation/units)?
Intensity of sound is the average rate of energy transfer per area a sound wave makes on a surface. Where P is power and A is the area the sound power passes through. 4pi(r)2 is surface area of sphere Units: W/m2
What are intercalated discs?
Intercalated Discs are specialized structures that contain many gap junctions. These gap junctions allow the cytoplasm of neighboring cells to connect, and this connection allows cardiac muscle to conduct the signal of the heartbeat so effectively across numerous cells.
What are intercalated discs?
Intercalated discs are one of the unique identifying features of cardiac muscle. Intercalatated discs are discs composed of many gap junctions that allow cardiac muscle cells to have a direct connection between their cytoplasm's. When the cardiac muscle cells share cytoplasm, it is easier for them to synchronize their contraction for the purpose of heartbeat.
What is an interferon and what role does it play in the innate immune system?
Interferons are a group of proteins that prevent viral replication and dispersion. A cell will begin to produce interferons to slow down or stop the spread of the virus after it has been infected. Cause neighboring cells to decrease protein production, become less permeable, and upregulate MHC class I and class II (results in better antigen presentation and detection of the infected cells)
What is interkinesis?
Interkinesis is a short rest period that cells can undergo after the first round of cytokinesis in Meiosis. During this period the chromosomes partially uncoil.
What is indeterminate cleavage?
Intermediate cleavage results in cells that can still develop into complete organisms. This is actually what happens in monozygotic twins. At some point, the embryo undergoes an indeterminate cleavage that results in another organism forming in addition to the original.
What are the characteristics and 3 roles of Intermediate Filaments?
Intermediate filaments are a diverse group of filament proteins, e.g. Keratin, Desmin, vimentin, and Lamin. Intermediate filaments are able to withstand a lot of tension, which makes the cell structure more rigid and is important in the overal maintenance of the cytoskeleton. Intermediate filaments also anchor organelles to certain locations in the cell. Finally, Intermediate filaments are important in cell-cell adhesion.
What are intermolecular forces?
Intermolecular forces are weak electrostatic forces that molecules will exhibit between one another. These Intermolecular forces are very important in determing physical properties of the molecule, such as melting points, boiling points, and density.
What are interneurons?
Interneurons are neurons that are found between neurons of the other two types. Interneruons are located primarily in the CNS and are often linked to reflexive behavior.
What is interphase?
Interphase is just a way of referring to the non-reproductive stages of the cycle, i.e. G1, S, G2
What is intracellular digestion?
Intracellular digestion is when a cell takes in something and digests it into nutrients. This involves the oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy.
What are intramolecular forces?
Intramolecular forces are strong electrostatic interactions between the atoms within a molecule, i.e. the actual bonds in the molecule.
Describe an inversion chromosomal mutation.
Inversion occurs when a segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome.
In which direction will a negative charge's electric field radiate?
Inward
What special case must we remember when considering Ionization energy?
Ionization energy increases massively once the atom has an octet. This is because a full octet is very stable and it takes a lot of energy to knock an electron out of an octet. Example of this phenomenon shown below.
What is Ionization Energy?
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a sample of gaseuos atom. The greater an electron's effective nuclear charge, the stronger the nucleus holds the electron, and therefore the higher its ionization energy.
What is the isoelectric point (pI)?
Isoelectric point or pI is the pH at which the amino acid is completely neutral as a result of all positive and negative charges balancing out.
What are Isoleucine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Isoleucine, Ile, or I is a non-polar, aliphatic amino acid.
The small intestine primarily absorbs {{c1::nutrients::nutrients or water?}}
It actually absorbs a lot of water too, more than the colon
Are the characteristics of amino acid hormones more similar to steroid hormones or peptide hormones?
It depends! Amino acid hormones can have very different properties. Some act like steroid hormones, and some act like peptide hormones.
What are the units of rate constant?
It depends. Each reaction can have different rate constant units, and the MCAT can even ask you about this specifically. You can always figure out the units of a rate constant given the reactants. This is because you know that the rate will have units of Ms-1 and any reactant will have units of M. Just use dimensional analysis to determine the units of rate constant.
What structure does the blastopore eventually develop into?
It depends. If you are an organism known as a deuterosome (humans as an example), the blastopore develops into the anus. If you are a protosome, the blastopore develops into a mouth. MNEMONIC: In DEUTerosomes, the blastopore is for DOODOO (poop).
How does recombination unlink linked genes?
It is statistically unlikely to happen, but sometimes the region of DNA that gets swapped includes one gene but does not include another gene that is close by. The close by gene will usually be included in the cross over, but sometimes it will fall just outside of the range of crossing over. This seperates the linked genes, thereby unlinking them. As you can see, before crossing over, the A and B genes were linked as well as the a and b genes. After a statistically unlikely crossing over event in a small area, the genes were all unlinked and it is now possible to have A x B or A x b as well as a x b or a x B chromosomes.
What does it mean that mitochondrion are semi-autonomous.
It means that mitochondrion can do a couple of functions on their own independently from the cell. These functions are below. 1. Mitochondria contain some of their own genes (in the form of cicular DNA strands) and have their own ribosomes (That are similar in size to prokaryotic ribosomes!) 2. Mitochondria can divide independently of the cell as a whole (by performing binary fission).
What does it mean to say that muscles work in antagonistic pairs?
It means that muscles are paired in such a way so that one muscle contracts while the other relaxes, and vice versa. For example, the Bicep contracts, the tricep relaxes, and the arm flexes. Then the tricep contracts, the bicep relaxes, and the arm extends.
What will a neurotransmitter do if it does not exit the synaptic cleft?
It will rebind to the receptor in the post-synaptic cell and exert its effects again.
How many antibodies can each individual B cell produce?
Just 1. Luckily, the body has many B-Cells so we can recognize many different antigens.
How does one calculate the equivalent resistance for resistors in series?
Just add them up
What kind of materials pass through the larynx?
Just air.
What is nonspecific immunity?
Just another name for Innate Immunity
What is the energy barrier?
Just another term for Activation Energy, Ea
What is a dielectric material?
Just another way of saying insulator.
What is specific immunity?
Just another word for Adaptive immunity.
For a forward reduction reaction with a known reduction potential, how do we find the oxidation potential of the reverse reaction?
Just flip the reaction to make it an oxidation and flip the sign on the standard potential.
What is juxtacrine signaling?
Juxtacrine signaling is when a cell directly activates the receptors of a nearby cell with itself instead of sending out a chemical.
What is the reaction of a weak monoprotic acid with water and what is the Ka expression?
Ka=[H3O+][A-]/[HA]
What are Kidneys?
Kidneys are organs that filter our blood and send that filtrate out through the ureters to the bladder. Primary job is to regulate blood volume and osmolarity
What kind of infection are Killer-T Cells best at fighting?
Killer-T cells respond to Class I MHC's, which express the antigens inside of a cell after a cell has been infected by an intracellular invader. It's hard for big things to enter cells. Therefore, only viruses and small bacteria and fungi will ever infect a cell intracellulary. It follows that Killer-T cells respond most effectively to these kinds of infections.
Is Mendel's second law of genetics accurate?
Kind of. Unlinked genes independently assort and crossing over can even make it possible to independently assort linked genes; but the fact of the matter is that genes that are close to one another on the chromosome are more likely to be inherited together (not independent of one another like the second law claims.)
What is kinetic friction?
Kinetic friction is the force that acts between two objects sliding against each other.
Of the two, which is made faster, kinetic product or thermodynamic product and why?
Kinetic product is made faster, lower activation energy.
What is a kinetochore?
Kinetochores are protein structures located at the centromere that serve as attachment points for specific fibers of the spindle apparatus.
In what way does LH affect the testes?
LH causes the interstitial cells aka Leydig cells of the testes to produce testosterone. MNEMONIC: LH -> Low Hair -> Side effect of too much testosterone.
What are lacunae?
Lacunae are the small spaces between lamellar rings in osteons. Their function is to house mature bone cells known as osteocytes.
What is laminar flow?
Laminar flow is smooth and orderly flow. It is usually represented as parallel layers of fluid flowing smoothly over one another. lines on outside are flowing slower than near object
What is Le Chatelier's principle?
Le Chatelier's principle states that equilibria will always oppose changes made to themselves. So, if you shift an equilibrium in one direction, the equilibrium will naturally oppose that shift and go the other direction.
What are leak channels?
Leak channels are specialized channels that allow ions to move slowly in the direction of their concentration gradient instead of just rushing down it. Sodium leak channels allow sodium to leak into the cell and potassium leak channels allow potassium to leak out of the cell.
In what direction are peptides drawn?
Left to right from N-terminus to C-terminus.
What are Leucine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Leucine, Leu, or L is a non-polar aliphatic amino acid.
What are Leukocytes?
Leukocytes are the white blood cells. These are specialized immune function cells that make up a much smaller portion of the cellular component of blood.
What are ligaments?
Ligaments are dense connective tissue that attach bone to bone.
How does water behave when it reacts with an acid?
Like a base.
In what way can the metallic bond be described?
Like a sea of electrons floating over a rigid lattice of metal cations. This flowing nature of the electrons over metals is what makes metals such good conductors of electricity. More accurately it is an equal distribution of the charge density of free electrons across all of the neutral atoms within the metallic mass
How do we approach acid base problems?
Like normal equilibriums. The same principles we used to find the concentration of species in equilibria from before will apply well to acids and bases.
How do we visually determine the harmonic of a string attached at both ends?
Look at the number of Antinodes/ number of half wavelenghts
How do you quickly determine the harmonic of an open pipe?
Look at the number of nodes/ number of half wavelengths
How do you determine the number of valence electrons an atom has?
Look at the periodic table and determine which column the atom is in. (the numbers above the periodic table are the number of valence electrons. The noble gases can be thought of as having 0 valence electrons or 8 valence electrons.)
How can one determine how much of a floating object lies beneath the surface of the water in which it is floating?
Look at the specific gravity. The specific gravity will be equal to the percentage of the object that is submerged. For example, an object with a specific gravity of .92 will float with 92% of its volume submerged in the water. Objects with a specific gravity of more than 1 sink in water and are therefore completely submerged.
What is hypoglycemia?
Low blood sugar
How is fetal circulation different than adult circulation?
Lungs and liver don't play significant roles prior to birth, thus gas exchange occurs at placenta and detox and metabolism are controlled by moms liver. Because these organs are nonfunctional and structurally weak, the fetus develops shunts to redirect blood away from these fragile organs.
What role do lymph nodes play into the immune system?
Lymph nodes are a network of channels that immune cells use to communicate and mount attacks against pathogens. B-cells can also be activated in the lymph nodes.
What is a lymph node?
Lymph nodes are small bean shaped structures that are attached to the lymph vessels. The lymph node is a place where cells of the immune system can be exposed to possible pathogens. They contain an artery, vein, and lymphatic channel
What are Lysine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Lys, K, basic
What are lysosomes?
Lysosomes are membrane bound structures containing hydrolytic enzymes. They are found floating in the cell's cytoplasm
What is lysozyme?
Lysozyme is an enzyme in the nose, tears, and saliva. It attacks the peptidoglycan of bacteria and kills them.
What is MHC?
MHC, or Major Histocompatibility Complex, is a protein in Macrophages. After the Macrophage digests a foreign invader, MHC will bind to little pieces of the invader that are left over (i.e its antigens) and bring the pieces to the surface of the macrophage. Now that the antigen is on the surface of the macrophage, adaptive immunity cells can see it, memorize it, and recognize it for next time.
What does a concave mirror look like?
MNEMONIC: Like entering a Cave
What are 7 specific functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?
MNEMONIC: Rest and Digest
What are the three main functions of the corticosteroids?
MNEMONIC: The 3 S's 1. Salt (Mineralcorticoids) 2. Sugar (Glucocorticoids) 3. Sex (Cortical Sex Hormones)
How are Macrophages named in the tissues?
Macrophages get specific names in specific tissues. For example, Microglia are the macrophages of the CNS. Langerhan's cells are the macrophages of the skin. Etc. Try not to let these names confuse you.
What do we do if we are working with a lewis structure and seem unable to get a stable octet on all the atoms?
Make sure that one of the elements you are working with isn't an exception to the octet rule. For example, remember some elements can handle less than 8 electrons, and every element in period 3 or larger will be able to hold extra electrons in their d orbitals.
A right shift of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve means that hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen has {{c1::decreased::increased or decreased?}}
Makes sense right? If hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is high, that means it is hogging the oxygen. Right shift happens when the body needs more oxygen in its tissues, so it makes sense to reduce hemoglobin's affinity for this precious resource.
What is the function of Mast Cells?
Mast Cells are closely related to Basophils. Their function is to release large amounts of histamine in response to allergies, like basophils, but they exist in the tissues, mucosa, and epithelium instead of the bloodstream.
What are Meissner's Corpuscles?
Meissner's Corupsucles are sensory neurons in the dermis that respond to light touch.
As intermolecular forces in a molecule become stronger, how do melting and boiling points change?
Melting and boiling are both examples of separating atoms from one another. Atoms are held together by intermolecular forces. Therefore, as intermolecular forces get higher, boiling and melting points get higher. This is because you need more temperature energy to overcome the intermolecular forces and break the atoms up into liquid or gas form.
What are memory T-cells?
Memory T-cells are just like Memory B-cells in that they have already adapted to the antigen/antibody necessary to recognize a specific foreign invader. They allow us to respond more rapidly to an infection once it infects us for the second time.
What is a menarche?
Menarche is the term used to refer to a woman's first menstrual cycle
What is Mendel's Second Law of classical genetics?
Mendel's Second Law, the law of independent assortment, says that the inheritance of one allele of one gene has no affect on the inheritance of another allele of a different gene. For example, the second law states that, if there are two alleles for different genes, let's say blue for eyes and blonde for hair, these two alleles will independently assort. So, if you get the allele for blue eyes, it has no affect on whether or not you get the allele for blond hair.
What is Mendel's first law of genetics?
Mendel's first law of genetics is the law of segregation. It states that every individual organism contains two alleles for each trait, and that these alleles segregate during meiosis so that each gamete only receives one allele. The result is that, after two gametes combine, the offspring will have two alleles, one from each parent.
What is Mendel's second law (of independent assortment)?
Mendel's second law states that the inheritance of one gene does not affect the inheritance of another gene. This is possible because of the crossing over that mixes up alleles on chromosomes during prophase 1 of Meiosis. NOTE: Mendel did great work, but he didn't get the rules 100% correctly. For example, we know now that there are linked genes that actually do get inherited together.
What is menopause?
Menopause is the process by which a woman's ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH over time. This means less progesterone and estrogen are produced which results in ovarian atrophy and makes pregnancy impossible. Less progesterone and estrogen removes negative feedback on GnRH which means FSH and LH blood levels RiseThis usually occurs between the ages of 45 and 55.
What are Merkel Cells?
Merkel cells are sensory neurons present at the epidermal-dermal junction. These cells are responsible for deep pressure and texture sensation on the skin.
What is the spread of cancer cells through the blood and lymphatic vessels referred to as?
Metastasis
What are Methionine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Methionine, Met, or M is a (relatively) non-polar amino acid. It is also one of the only two amino acids that contains sulfur!
What are the characteristics and 3 roles of Microfilaments?
Microfilaments are solid polymerized rods of Actin. When organized into bundles and networks, Actin filaments provide resistance to compression and fracture for the cell. Actin filaments can also generate force for movement by interacting with Myosin. Finally, Actin Filaments are important for the formation of the cleavage furrow in mitosis/meiosis. This is accomplished by an actin ring which forms at the site of division between cells. The ring contracts, and the cell gets pinched into two.
What is the function of Microglia?
Microglia are phagocytotic cells, which means they can consume things. Specifically, Microglia ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in the central nervous system.
What are the characteristics and 3 roles of Microtubules?
Microtubules are hollow polymers of Tubulin proteins. Microtubules radiate throughout the cell, providing pathways along which vesicles can travel. This is accomplished by motor proteins like Kinesin and Dynein, which travel along the microtubules and drag vesicles with them. Microtubules are also important in the structures of Cilia and Flagella. Finally, Centrioles are composed of microtubules and use them to exert their effects during mitosis.
How are mineralcorticoids signalled to be released?
Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) are signalled to be released by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
Aldosterone acts on the {{c1::DCT and collecting duct::DCT or PCT or collecting duct?}}
Mnemonic: Damnit Aldosterone
What is the equation for linear thermal expansion?
Mnemonic: When temperature changes, the length changes ALOT
What is molality?
Molality is the ratio of the moles of solute to the kilograms of the solvent.
What is molar mass?
Molar mass is how much mass you will have of something given a mole of it. It is usually expressed in g/mol
What is molecular formula?
Molecular formula is the exact number of atoms of each element in the compound, without being reduced to simplest whole number ratios.
What is Molecular Geometry and how do we predict it with VSEPR?
Molecular geometry is the geometry of the molecule as it pertains to the bonds it makes with other atoms. Because there is a distinction here between bonded electrons and nonbonded electrons, we must count them up seperately and then refer to VSEPR Theory for the shape.
What kinds of molecules make good oxidizing agents?
Molecules that get reduced well (i.e. attract electrons). (usually have electronegative atoms especially oxygen) (think: non metals usually gain eletcrons)
When a molecule has resonance structures, which of its resonance structures will it behave like?
Molecules with resonance structures will behave as though they were resonance hybrids, that is to say, the hybrid structure of all the resonance forms combined. Some resonance structures are more stable than others (this can be determined with formal charges), and therefore will dominate the overall resonance structures. In these cases, the molecule will act mostly like the dominant resonance structure, but will still have small characteristics of the other resonance structures.
How do monozygotic twins come to be?
Monozygotic twins occur when a single fertilized ovum (zygote) splits into two without differentiating into other tissues. Because the genetic material in daughter cells is identical in mitosis, these two twins will carry the same genetic information and share appearance.
What is a morula?
Morula refers to the solid mass of cells that culminates from several divisions of the zygote. It's name comes from the latin word for mulberry, which is what the morula looks like.
Most enzymes are most active at a {{c1::neutral pH::low pH or neutral pH?}}
Most active @ around blood pH, 7.3
What is the role of mucous cells?
Mucous cells produce a bicarbonate rich mucus. Bicarbonate is a base, so it helps to protect the stomach wall from the acidic conditions of the stomach.
What does it mean to be multipotent?
Multipotent cells are semi-specialized stem cells that can differentiate into multiple cells within a type. For example, hematopoietic stem cells are capable of differentiating into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (blood components), but not skin or nervous cells.
What are the two functions of myelin?
Myelin is a fatty white substance that surrounds the axon. It serves to insulate the axon and prevent nearby neurons from accidentally discharging eachother. Myelin also serves to speed up the rate at which nervous signals are conducted.
What does it mean for muscle to be myogenic?
Myogenic muscle can contract without nervous system input. This is seen in smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
What is myoglobin? curve in comparison to hemoglobin?
Myoglobin is a special form of hemoglobin found in muscle that binds oxygen with high affinity. Used as a muscular oxygen reserve. Curve is more left shifted than hemoglobin curve. Can also be in organs??
What are the units of electrostatic force?
N
What are the units of Electric Field?
N/C
What is a natural killer cell?
NK cells are a nonspecific (innate) form of lymphocyte. These cells can detect when a pathogen is trying to downregulate MHC activity in a cell in order to remain hidden. Natural Killer cells induce apoptosis in cells that they suspect are being messed with by pathogens, thereby killing them.
Do capacitors store charge?
NO! Everyone will tell you yes, but they are wrong. Capacitors store energy in the form of an electric field, not charge. It is true that charge will accumulate on the plates of capacitors, but this is an equilibrium with the rest of the circuit and for every charge that enters one side of the capacitor, a charge will leave the other side of the capacitor.
What is the Arrhenius Equation?
NOTE: It is more important you understand the relationship between these variables. It is unlikely you will have to calculate using the Arrhenius Equation. The Arrhenius Equation is a rigorous equation that gives the rate constant for a reaction given various variables. Where k is the rate constant of the reaction, A is the frequency factor, e is the natural base, Ea is the activation energy of the reaction, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the temperature.
Where are naive B-cells stored?
Naive B-cells are stored in the lymph nodes.
What are nares?
Nares is the anatomical term for nostrils.
Describe Natural Selection.
Natural selection is the theory that certain characteristics or traits possesed by individuals within a species may help those individuals to have greater reproductive success. Because these individuals have more offspring, their genetic information is more heavily represented in the next generation. As certain genetic information is selected for by the environment, the composition of populations change over time to adapt to said environment.
What is necrosis?
Necrosis is when cells die as a result of injury. These cells just leak out their damaged contents instead of packaging them.
What is meant by negative pressure breathing?
Negative pressure breathing means that the way we breath is NOT by increasing the pressure from outside so that air will rush into our lungs. Instead, we DECREASE the pressure inside of our lungs so that air will rush in. By reducing the pressure in our lungs, we suck air into them.
What is negative selection? (immune system)
Negative selection is one of the ways T-cells are selected for maturation. In negative selection, T-cells that erroneously target the body's own healthy cells are apoptosed. This happens because T-cells need to kill dangerous foreign cells, not the body's own cells!
Describe negative sense viruses
Negative sense RNA cannot be directly translated. Instead, a complimentary strand must be synthesized in the host cell. This complimentary strand can then be translated to produce viral proteins. In order to ensure the complimentary RNA strand is synthesized, negative sense viruses carry an enzyme called RNA replicase (RNA dependent RNA polymerase) which synthesizes the complimentary strand described previously.
Describe Neo-Darwinism (modern synthesis model)
Neo-Darwinism is a modern take on Natural Selection with some modifications. First, Neo-Darwinism adds a robust knowledge of the way that variations occur in individuals (mutations) and just clarifies that the mutations occur to change the genome and those mutations are what are passed down specifically. darwin said nothing about mutations Second, Neo-Darwinism describes Inclusive Fitness. Early descriptions of evolutionary success were all about individuals succeeding, so that means adaptations like bigger claws, tougher scales, or bigger/more frequent reproduction. Inclusive Fitness, on the other hand, refers to the changes in a population that make it more likely for offpsring of all members to succeed. For example, an attitude like altruism (helping others at the expense of yourself) might hurt the individual's reproductive chances, but improves the reproductive success of the population as a whole.
What is Neurulation?
Neurlation is the development of the internal nervous system from the external ectoderm.
What is a neuron?
Neurons are specialized cells capable of transmitting electrical impulses and translating those electrical impulses into chemical signals.
How are neurotransmitters stored?
Neurotransmitters are stored in membrane bound vesicles in the axon terminal.
What is the archetypal form of a Neutralization reaction?
Neutralization reactions are a specific type of double-displacement reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to produce a salt.
What is the function of Neutrophils?
Neutrophils are short lived phagocytotic cells (like macrophages) that target bacteria through chemotaxis. Most populous leukocyte in blood
Do products ever appear in or affect the rate law?
No! Rate is dependent on the concentration of the reactants, so only they are included.
Does Hess's law only apply to enthalpy?
No, Hess's law applies to any state function.
Does the path taken from one equipotential line to another matter?
No, any path from equipotential line to another will take the same amount of work.
When an acid loses its proton, does the proton just float around in solution?
No, the proton is attacked by water molecules to form the hydronium ion, H3O. However, the proton still behaves as though it were free in the solution to react.
Do all compounds with internal electronegativity differences have dipole moments?
No. Although most compounds with internal electronegativity differences will have internal dipoles, if the structure is symmetric, the internal dipoles will all cancel out resulting in a nonpolar compound with no dipole moment.
Do shifts of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation affect all tissues equally?
No. At the higher end of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, where the partial pressure of oxygen is high (like in the lungs) hemoglobin will be close to 100% saturated, even if the curve has been shifted. However, at the low end of the curve, where partial pressure of oxygen is low, the saturation of hemoglobin can be significantly different after a shift.
Does the posterior pituitary synthesize its own hormones?
No. Both Oxytocin and ADH are synthesized by the hypothalamus, but released by the posterior pituitary.
Can a catalyst ever make a nonspontaneous reaction spontaneous?
No. Catalysts only affect the activation energy of the reaction, not the delta G.
Does ploidy increase in the S stage?
No. DNA replication causes each chromosome to double in size, but even though there are now two sister chromatids, there is still only one chromosome.
Are neurons the only type of cell in the nervous system?
No. Neurons must be supported and myelinated by other cells known as neuroglia or glial cells.
Do Eukaryotic cell walls have peptidoglycan?
No. Peptidoglycan is only present in bacterial cell walls.
Is the distribution we see in a punnet square always accurate?
No. Punnet squares only predict the inheritance pattern of unlinked genes that have no affect on one another. We now know that some genes are linked to one another and will almost always travel together, resulting in non statistically-random offspring.
Is the equilibrium constant a constant?
No. The equilibrium constant is different for every reaction and is different at evey temperature.
Is the response to an antibody-antigen binding event always the same?
No. The response to an antibody binding an antigen depends on the type of antigen, type of antibody, type of immune cells nearby, the location of the infection, etc.
Will every stimulus the neuron receives trigger an action potential?
No. The stimulus must be depolarizing enough to reach the threshold voltage of -55 to -40mV. Only then will the neuron fire.
Do the stoichiometric coefficients of a balanced reaction tell you the orders of the rate law?
No. The stoichometric coefficients rarely have anything to do with the order of rate law. There are only two very rare cases when the stoichiometric coefficients tell you the order of the rate law. 1. If the reaction mechanism is a single step and the balanced overall reaction is reflective of the entire chemical process 2. When the complete reaction mechanism is given, the orders of the reactants will be equal to the stoichiometric coefficients of the slowest step, assuming there is no intermediate in the slowest step. 3. When a complete mechanism is given, each step is a single step so the stoich applies when writing rate for each individual step (before combining algebraically to get overall order)
Do catalysts just speed up the forward reaction?
No. They lower the transition state energy, which makes it easier to go forward through the reaction or backward through the reaction.
What is noise?
Noise is defined scientifically as the sound you hear when an object vibrates at multiple frequencies that have no relation to one another.
What is non-disjunction?
Non-disjunction is when the homologous chromosomes fail to seperate correctly. This results in inappropriate numbers of chromosomes in daughter cells.
What are the general characteristics of non-metals?
Non-metals are usually brittle solids with no luster or gases. Non-metals are also poor conductors of heat and electricity.
What is Normality?
Normality is equal to the number of equivalents of interest per liter of solution. An equivalent of interest is a measure of the number of molecules there are to react. To calculate the normality of a solution, you must know what purpose the solution serves and which species is the reactive species. Then, the normality will equal the molarity of the reactive species multiplied by the number of times it could react. For example, H2PO4 could dissociate twice to give 2 protons into solution. This means, in a solution of base, it will be able to react with the OH groups not once but twice. Therefore, it's normality will be equal to twice it's molarity. (6M would be 12N)
Does a molecule with polar bonds always exhibit polarity?
Not always. Remember, symmetrical molecules can cancel out the polarity in their bonds.
How long does an atom stay in an excited state?
Not long at all. Atoms want to be in ground state because it is the most stable configuration. Even when forced into an excited state, atoms will revert back to ground state.
Are mutations necessarily bad?
Not necessarily. A mutation can lead to a new amino acid in a protein that alters its function. This can be bad if it makes the protein unable to serve its original function, but it can be good if it makes the protein better able to serve its original function. Or, the new protein may be unable to serve its original function, but it might be able to serve some new function now. Mutation results in basically random effects, and although certain types of mutations are known to usually be more harmful, any given mutation could potentially be potential or maladaptive.
Is the rate constant a constant?
Not really. It needs to be experimentally determined for every reaction. But, if you are given the rate constant for a reaction and it matches the conditions of your reaction, you can use it like a constant in the rate equations.
The closer field lines are the {{c1::stronger}} the field is.
Note that field lines for a single charge never cross
As the charge separation of a cation and an anion increase, {{c1::Ionic Bond strength increases::what kind of intermolecular force increases?}}
Note, the lattice energy getting more negative means that the lattice is more stable, meaning it is comprised of stronger ionic bonds.
Veins contain {{c1::deoxygenated::oxygenated or deoxygenated?}} blood
Note: This is USUALLY true. The Pulmonary Vein and the Umbilical Vein both carry oxygenated blood.
Arteries contain {{c1::oxygenated::oxygenated or deoxygenated?}} blood
Note: This is USUALLY true. The pulmonary arteries and the umbilical arteries both carry deoxygenated blood.
As temperature increases, a resistor's resistance will {{c1::increase}}
Note: glass, pure silicon, and most semiconductors
In a parallel configuration, each element will feel the same {{c1::voltage}}
Note: the current will split on each path. The path with lowest resistence will get the most current. They are inversly proportional
What happens if a molecule hits another molecule with less energy than the activation energy of the reaction?
Nothing will happen. If the reaction is to occur, the activation energy must be surpassed.
How does one calculate the weight of a given volume of a substance?
Notice that, if you multiply density by volume, you will get mass, at which point this equation simplifies to the hitherto described equation Fg=mg. Therefore, this equation is actually just a combination of the known force of gravity equation and the equation to calculate density.
What are the myelin producing cells in the central nervous system called?
Oligodendrocytes
What is the path an egg takes in the female reproductive system?
Once a month after puberty has begun, an egg will ovulate from the ovary into the peritoneal sac (lines abdominal cavity). From the abdominal cavity, the egg will move through the fallopian tube where it will be fertilized and end up in the uterus where it will implant into the endometrium.
What happens when the membrane potential reaches +35mV?
Once sodium influx causes the membrane potential to reach +35mV, the sodium voltage channels close and the potassium voltage channels open, causing the membrane potential to nose dive.
What is Oncotic pressure?
Oncotic pressure is just a specific name for the osmotic pressure in blood (because it is mostly due to proteins).
What can people do to increase the force of their breath in times of need of pathology?
One can recruit various muscles of the neck, back, and chest wall can be recruited to aid in breathing if necessary.
What is one hertz equal to?
One cycle per second 1Hz = 1/s
What does one find in the center of the villi of the small intestine?
One finds a capillary bed for the absorption of water soluble nutrients and a lacteal, which is a lymphatic channel that takes up fat for transport to the lymphatic system.
What are the three rays that can be drawn in order to use a ray diagram for mirrors?
One must draw at least 2 of the following in order to find the image. 1. A parallel ray that is reflected through the focal point. 2. A ray that passes through the focal point and is reflected parallel to the mirror. 3. A ray that passes straight through the mirror to the center of curvature and is reflected with an angle equal to its incident. Rays 1 and 2 used below All 3 rays used below.
How does one calculate isoelectric point?
One must take the pKa's of the functional groups that provide the protein with a +1 and a -1 charge respectively. Then, one simply averages them. For amino acids with no ionizable side chain, this is simply the average of the pKa of the carboxyl group and the pKa of the amino group. Note, for amino acids with ionizable side chains, it is important to correctly select the 2 pKa's that correspond to -1 and +1 charge out of the three available pKa's.
What are the 2 special d-orbital modifications we must make to the electron filling order?
Only occurs in d and f (NOT P) The 2-special cases of electron filling exist for the Chromium group of elements (Chromium and all the elements below it on the periodic table) and the Copper group of elements. For these elements, instead of taking on a normal 4s23d4 configuration, they will take a 4s13d5 configuration. This is because filling the 3d orbital up with 5 electrons (half) provides the atom with extra stability. So much extra stability, that the atom will pull an electron from the s orbital to fill the d orbital. The same thing happens for the copper elements, only the d orbital electrons go from 9 to 10 instead of 4 to 5. For example, Copper's electron configuration is actually 4s13d10 instead of 4s23d9
What is oogenesis?
Oogenesis refers to the production of female gametocytes, otherwise known as ova or eggs.
In what direction do frictional forces act?
Opposite that of the accelerating force.
What is the Aufbau Principle?
Orbitals are filled in order of lowest energy to highest energy. The order of low energy orbitals to high energy orbitals can be determined using the diagonal method shown below. An electron not in its lowest energy orbital is called excited and will shortly return to its lowest energy orbital. energy of orbital can be determined by adding first two quantum numbers (n+l rule)
Which kinds of organic compounds are likely to be colored?
Organic compounds with conjugated double bonds or aromatic ring systems.
What are thick filaments made of?
Organized bundles of Myosin
What kind of liquids exhibit osmotic pressure?
Osmotic pressure is the pressure associated with concentration gradients of solutes. Therefore, any fluid with dissolved solutes will exhibit osmotic pressure.
What is osmotic pressure?
Osmotic pressure is the pressure associated with concentration gradients. Think about it. When solutes go from high concentration to low concentration, what makes them move? It's osmotic pressure that makes them move!
What is an Osteocyte?
Osteocytes are early osteoblasts that become trapped in the lacunae while they build up the bone. These cells are internal to the bone and maintain it by both building and absorbing bone.
What does it mean for two waves to be out of phase?
Out of phase waves have a phase difference that is not equal to 0 degrees.
In which direction will a positive charge's electric field radiate?
Outward
What is ovulation?
Ovulation is the process by which a follicle bursts, and a secondary oocyte is released into the abdominal cavity and taken up by the fallopian tube.
What is an oxidation state?
Oxidation state is the charge an element will usually take if it is going to form an ion and become part of an ionic compound. For most elements, this will be the charge assocated with an octet configuration. For example, all of the Alkalie Metals (Na, K, Li) will always have an oxidation state of +1 in ionic compounds. The same is true for some Halogens and their -1 oxidation state. Then, there are some elements that are usually going to have the oxidation number associated with their octet configuration, but not always. Finally, there are the transition metals, many of which take on many different oxidation states. It is important to know the few stable transition metals and then just figure out what the oxidation state of any other transition metal is during the problem.
Which pituitary hormone undergoes positive feedback?
Oxytocin. During birth, oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the uterus, and then contractions of the uterus stimulate oxytocin release. This means the contractions quickly get stronger and stronger, which is a good thing in the case of birth.
What is the relationship between PTH and Vitamin D?
PTH activates Vitamin D which allows calcium and phosphate to be absorbed in the gut.
What are PTH's 4 effects on the body?
PTH serves as an antagonist to Calcitonin. 1. Increases calcium absorption by the gut. 2. Increases bone resorption (liberating calcium from bone). 3. Decreases excretion of calcium by the kidneys. 4. Affect phosphorus homeostasis by increasing resorption of phosphate from bone and reducing reabsorption of phosphate in the kidney (increasing its urine excretion)
What is the ideal gas law?
PV=nRT where P is the pressure , V is the volume, n is the moles of the gas, R is th ideal gas constant (.0821) and T is the temperature.
What are Pacinian corpuscles?
Pacinian corpuscles are sensory neurons found in the dermis that are responsible for deep pressure and vibration sensation.
What do the free nerve endings in our skin allow us to feel?
Pain
What is pancreatic juice?
Pancreatic juice is a mixture of several enzyems in a bicarbonate-rich alkaline solution. This juice from the pancreas is injected into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic chyme and break it down. Note: Because the pancreatic juice is alkaline, the enzymes in it all operate best at a high pH ~8.5
What is paracrine signaling?
Paracrine signaling is when a cell secretes a chemical that affects the local area of cells around it.
What is Parallel Evolution?
Parallel Evolution refers to the process where related species with a recent common ancestor evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to similar environment pressures.
How do parallel plate capacitors work?
Parallel plate capacitors are composed of two plates, one connected to the positive terminal one connected to the negative terminal, separated by a small distance. The plate connected to the positive terminal will build up positive charge and the plate connected to the negative terminal will build up negative charge. The difference in charge between the two plates will cause an electric field to develop between them. The energy that is stored in a capacitor is stored in the electric field it creates.
What does it mean to be paramagnetic?
Paramagnetic materials are made of atoms with unpaired electrons and net magnetic fields, but the atoms are randomly distributed and the net magnetic field within the material cancels out.
How do paramagnetic materials behave when exposed to magnets?
Paramagnetic materials become weakly magnetized by and attracted to the magnet.
What hormone is produced by the parathyroid glands?
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
What is parenchyma and of which tissue type is it usually comprised?
Parenchyma are the functional parts of an organ. For example, nephrons in the kidney or acid producing cells in the stomach. The parenchyma is usually made up of epithelial cells.
What is the role of parietal cells?
Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid, which generates the free hydrogen ions necessary to cleave Pepsinogen into Pepsin. Parietal Cells also secrete intrinsic factor, which is a glycoprotein that helps us absorb B12.
How are mole fraction of a gas and partial pressure related?
Partial pressure of a gas will be equal to its mole fraction times the total pressure of the gas. Where PA is the partial pressure of A, XA is the mole fraction of A, and PT is the total pressure.
What are the 5 units in which pressure is measured?
Pascals, mmHg, torr, atm, bar
What is passive immunity?
Passive immunity is when antibodies of a disease are transferred from a person who makes them to a person who does not. Only antibodies are transferred and not the plasma cells that produce them. Aka mother to fetus through placenta or mother breast feeting
What is passive transport? examples?
Passive transport is when a molecule is transported across the cell membrane without the use of energy. This is because the molecule in question is going from a high concentration space to a low concentration space, so it does not need to spend energy to fight the concentration gradient. simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
What are different types of penetrance?
Penetrance can be full, meaning 100% of people with that genotype expresses the associated phenotype. From there, penetrance can be high, meaning most people with that genotype express the phenotype. Reduced penetrance means not as many people express the phenotype. Low penetrance means even less people express the phenotype. Nonpenetrance means 0% of the people with that genotype express its associated phenotype. These are silent genes.
What is penetrance?
Penetrance is a population measure defined as the proportion of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype. In other words, penetrance is the probability that, given a particular genotype, a person will actually make the physical changes associated with the phenotype. In the image below, the each offspring has the Bb genotype, but only a little more than half of them actually exprerss the phenotype.
What is Pepsin's function?
Pepsin is a proteolytic enzyme, meaning it can cleave the amide bond in proteins and break them down into individual amino acids.
What must occur for Pepsinogen to be converted into Pepsin?
Pepsinogen is cleaved into Pepsin by exposure to hydrogen ions (acid)
What is a peptide bond?
Peptide bond is just a specific name for the amide bond that holds amino acids together.
Can peptide hormones easily cross the cell membrane?
Peptide hormones can be large and are always polar, so we would not expect them to be able to cross the cell membrane easily.
What is percent composition?
Percent composition is the percent by mass of a specific compound that is made up of a given element. Only refers to one compound. Know that mass percent composition only pertains to one compound not all the products in a reaction. If products are AgCl and MgO, and you need to find percent composition of Ag in product, it is mass percent of Ag in AgCl not Ag out of everything
What is percent yield?
Percent yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield multiplied by 100%. In practical terms, a Percent Yield of 90% means that you obtained 90% of the absolute maximum value you could have gotten if you did everything perfectly.
What is perstalsis?
Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of the GI tube that moves food through itself. Controlled by parasympathetic nervous system. If parasympathetic is blocked then GI mobility is severely limited (trumps the loss of slow down from secretin)
What are the Oxidation Number Assignment Rules (what are peroxides as well)?
Peroxides are any molecule with two oxygens single bonded to eachother Noble gases have 0
In an isolated system, describe the phases of the molecules?
Phase changes are an equilibrium, so in an isolated system given enough time, solid, liquid, and gaseous forms of the compound will exist in an equilibrium of some sort. Note: this equilibrium can so prefer one phase, such as solid, that you cannot see the tiny amounts of liquid and gas present.
What are Phenylalanine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Phenylalanine, Phe, or F is an nonpolar, aromatic amino acid.
Molecular bonds are made from overlapping atomic orbitals. What kind of bond do you get when parallel p-orbitals on adjacent atoms share electron density?
Pi bond.
What is pitch?
Pitch is our perception of the frequency of a sound. Each frequency will have its own pitch.
What is plane polarized light?
Plane polarized light is light in which all of the electric field vectors are lined up in one plane. Unpolarized light has random orientation of electric field vectors
What are the 2 basic structural components of blood and what are their relative percentages?
Plasma - The noncellular parts of blood, 55% Cells - The various types of cells found in blood. 45%
What is a plasmid?
Plasmids are small pieces of circular DNA, usually acquired from the environment. Plasmids don't carry critical genetic information, but can sometimes carry genes that provide the bacterium an evolutionary advantage, e.g. antibiotic resistance.
What are pleurae?
Pleurae are membranes that surround the lungs and line the chest cavity.
What does it mean to be pluripotent? Example?
Pluripotent cells can differentiate into any cell type in the body but not the cells in the placenta during fetal development. These are the cells in the inner cell mass that turn into the germ layers.
What is the equation to calculate pressure?
Pnet=Fnet/A
Describe Poiseuille's Law?
Poiseuille's Law is a method by which one can calculate the rate of flow through a confined space (or pipe) of some sort. Only with laminar flow
What are dipole-dipole interactions? In what phases do they matter?
Polar molecules share electrons unequally in their bonds, and therefore have areas of partial negative charge and areas of partial positive charge. In dipole dipole interactions, the positively charged region of one molecule will attract to the negatively charged region of another molecule. These dipoles are not temporary, like in London Dispersion forces, and so the dipole-dipole interaction is much stronger. neglidgible in gas phase because molecules are far apart
What is important to remember about polyprotic acids?
Polyprotic acids are acids with multiple protons. This means that 1 mole of a polyprotic acid will dissociate into more than 1 mole of protons. It is important that we account for this difference in ka calculations, neutralization reactions, etc.
Describe the appearance of polyvalent titration curves?
Polyvalent titration curves will represent the equivalence points of all of the reactions in the polyvalent species. That means, for a polyvalent acid, let's say a diprotic acid, there would be two equivalence points on the curve. The first would correspond to the completion of the first dissociation reaction, and the second would correspond to the completion of the second dissociation reaction.
What is a positive feedback loop?
Positive feedback loops are when the product of a reaction stimulates its own production. This means the more of the product you have, the faster more if it is produced. Ex. oxytocin induces uterine contraction which induces more oxy which induces stronger contraction etc.
What is positive selection? (immune system)
Positive selection refers to one of the ways T-cells are selected for maturation. In positive selection, T cells that are capable of responding to MHC are allowed to mature. This happens because T cells need to be able to read MHC's so that they can recognize cells to kill.
Describe positive sense viruses
Positive sense means that the viral genome can be directly translated by the ribosomes of the host cell, just like mRNA.
How does one calculate power in terms of force?
Power = Force * Velocity * Cos(theta)
When does pregnancy occur?
Pregnancy occurs when the thickened endometrial lining established in the first three phases of the menstrual cycle is implanted with a blastocyst.
What causes oxygen and carbon dioxide to cross the alveoli membrane? energy required?
Pressure differentials. There is a high pressure of oxygen in the alveoli and a low pressure of oxygen in the blood. This causes the oxygen to diffuse down the concentration gradient into the blood. The same is true for carbon dioxide but in the reverse direction. No energy required
What is pressure?
Pressure is force applied over an area.
What are the 4 variables that define the state of a gas?
Pressure, Volume, Temperature, and the number of moles of gas.
What are primary sex characteristics?
Primary sex characteristics are the sex organs with which you were born that developed during fetal development.
What is primary structure and what is its characteristic bond?
Primary structure refers to the actual sequence of amino acids in the protein. These amino acids are held together by peptide bonds.
In nuclear fusion, energy is {{c1::released::consumed or released?}}
Products are more stable than the starting nuclei
What side of the reaction is heat on in an exothermic reaction?
Products side.
How is the DNA of prokaryotic cells stored?
Prokaryotic DNA exists as a single, circular molecule which floats in a region of space known as the nucleoid region.
How do prokaryotic ribosomes contrast with eukaryotic ribosomes?
Prokaryotic ribosomes are made of a 30S and a 50S subunit, while eukaryotic ribosomes are made of a 40S and a 60S subunit.
What is the function of Prolactin?
Prolactin stimulates the production of milk in the mammary glands.
Describe the special role played by proline in secondary structure
Proline's rigid ring structure makes it unsuitable for inclusion in the middle of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets. When introduced into the middle of these structures, proline produces kinks in the secondary structure. However, proline's rigidity makes it useful at the start of alpha helices and in the turns taken by beta pleated sheets. These are the two locations one is likely to find proline.
What are Proline's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Proline, Pro, or P is a non-polar amino acid. It is also unique in its cyclic structure, which severly hampers proline's flexibility. NOT AROMATIC
What are the main differences between Prophase 1 of Meiosis and Prophase of Mitosis?
Prophase 1 of Meiosis is bascially the same as Prophase 1 of Mitosis. The only difference is that, in Prophase 1 of Meiosis, homolgous chromosomes undergo synapsis to form tetrads. These homologus chromosomes then undergo crossing over with one another.
What two hormones coordinate the contractions of the uterus in childbirth?
Prostoglandins and Oxytocin
What kinds of proteins are usually found in the Rough ER?
Proteins that are destined for secretion or proteins that are destined for integration into a membrane.
What does it mean to be pseudostratified epithelium?
Pseudostratified epithelium cells appear to be stratified, but are actually all attached to a basement membrane, like simple epithelium cells.
What is punctuated equilibrium?
Punctuated equilibrium is a small variation on Neo-Darwinism/Darwinism. The tenets of the theory are basically the same, but punctuated equilibrium disagrees with the timescale over which evolution occurs. Where as Neo-Darwinism/Darwinism state that evolution happens slowly over time. Punctuated equilibrium, citing evidence from the fossil record, claims that evolution happens in short bursts which correspond to large changes in selection pressures. The population will rapidly die out, leaving only evolved survivors, and the evolved survivors will stabilize until the next big selection pressure change.
Where does pus come from in an infected wound?
Pus is the collection of dead neutrophils in an infection.
How does one calculate the change in entropy of a reversible process?
Q is heat gained or lost in a reversible process, T temp in kelvin
What is the formula for Capacitance?
Q is the magnitude of the charge on either of the plates (they will be the same just opposite sign)
What is quaternary structure?
Quaternary structure refers to the overall structure obtained when two or more separate polypeptides in tertiary structure combine.
What is the Residual Volume? (RV)
RV is the minimum volume of the air in the lungs when one exhales completely. (Even when you exhale hard, there is always a little bit of air in your lungs.) CANNOT BE MEASURED BY SPIROMETER
What is radiation? How is it unique?
Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves. Radiation is unique in that it requires no contact whatsoever with a material to exert its effects. In fact, radiation can even transfer energy through a vacuum.
What is raoult's Law?
Raoult's law mathematically describes vapor point depression. It is equal to Pa=XaPao where Pa is the vapor pressure of solvent A when solute is present, Xa is the mole fraction of solvent A in the solution, and Pao is the vapor pressure of solvent A in its pure state.
As the permeability of the collecting duct increases, it is easier for water to be reabsorbed. This causes the urine to become {{c1::more::more or less concentrated?}}
Reabsorption is the movement of things from the urine to the blood. If water is moving from the urine into the blood, there is less water in the urine, i.e. more concentrated urine.
What side of the reaction is heat on in an endothermic reaction?
Reactants side
What is reaction coordinate?
Reaction coordinate is the x-axis of coordinate diagrams. It's just a weird way of saying how far into the reaction you are. This is usually seen on thermodynamic graphs.
What are reaction diagrams?
Reaction diagrams are graphs that track a thermodynamic property of a reaction over time. These graphs usually measure free energy change with respect to coordinate, enthalpy change with respect to coordinate, or entropy change with respect to coordinate.
What are real gases?
Real gases are the gases that actually exist in the universe. These are different from ideal gases in that they occupy volumes and exhibit intermolecular forces.
Which type of image can be projected onto a screen?
Real images
What are the 5 criteria for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium?
Really, there is only 1 criteria, and that is that there is no change in the frequency of alleles in the population. However, this can be manifested in 5 different ways. 1. The population is very large (meaning there is no genetic drift and alleles are staying constant. 2. There are no mutation that affect the gene pool (meaning that alleles are staying constant and not randomly changing). 3. Mating between individuals in the population is random, and not sexually selected. (meaning that the alleles are staying constant and not changing in frequency to adapt to sexual selection). 4. There is no migration of individuals into or out of the population. (Which means that the alleles are staying constant. You're not kicking old ones out or bringing new ones in. 5. The genes in the population are all equally successful at reproducing. (Which means that natural selection won't select a certain combination of alleles and make them appear more frequently. Instead, the relative frequency of alleles will stay constant since there is no pressure for any combination specifically. As you can no doubt see, Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium only applies to a theoretical population. However, although hardy-weinberg equilibrium is not perfect, the closer the real population is to the theoretical population, the more accurate the Hardy-Weinberg principles will prove to be.
What is recombination frequency?
Recombination frequency is the frequency with which two genes are separated from one another during crossing-over. Genes far away from eachother have the highest chance to be recombined, genes close together have a low chance to be recombined.
What is recombination?
Recombination is when homologous chromosomes cross over in Prophase 1 to make completely new combinations of alleles on chromosomes.
What is red bone marrow?
Red bone marrow is filled with hematopoetic stem cells, which are responsible for the generation of all the cells in our blood.
What is reflection?
Reflection is the tendency of a wave to bounce backwards when it encounters a boundary between two media. These media can be anything as long as they are different, oil and water, air and glass, etc.
What is refraction?
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another and changes speed.
What is the critical angle?
Remember that when light travels from a high index of refraction to a low index of refraction, it bends away from the normal. If you shine light with the right angle, you can actually bend light in such a way that it's angle of refraction is equal to 90 degrees, which means the light just travels along the boundary of the materials instead of refracting from one to the other. The incident angle required to make the light bend in this way is called the critical angle.
What is normality (N)?
Remember when you learned that sometimes 1 mole of a molecule can be made up of more than one mole of a certain atom? For example, 1 mole of H2O is made of 2 moles of H and 1 mole of O? Well, normality is a way to account for this difference in the molecule and the atoms into which it could potentially split up. Normality is like Molarity, in that it is measured in moles per liter. But, Normality is not the moles of the substance itself per liters. Instead, Normality is the moles of what we are interested in per liters. In the below example, we are interested in Hydrogen ions. Notice how 3 different compounds at the same molarity, 1M can have very different Normalities due to their differential contribution of hydrogen ions to the solution.
What is total internal reflection?
Remember, at the critical angle, the light that is being refracted is being bent all the way to the boundary of the two materials. If the angle of incidence is even higher than the critical angle, all refracted light will end up on the same side of the boundary, which is to say that it is actually being reflected. Therefore, total internal reflection is when you refract the light at such a wide angle that it just ends up reflecting. This happens when the angle of incidence for the light wave exceeds its critical angle.
Peptide Bond Formation occurs via {{c1::condensation aka dehydration::what kind of reaction?}}
Remember, dehydration reactions displace a water from the molecules reacting.
How do we use dimensional analysis to convert things?
Remember, dimensional analysis is just recognizing the basic quantity associated with the number and the specific unit of measure associated with the number. Once we see the basic quantity and the unit of measure, we can combine it with a conversion factor to convert it into a different unit of measure (but never a different basic quantity). These conversion factors must be memorized and then combined used in such a way so as to cancel out the starting unit of measure and result in only the new unit of measure.
What is meant by ideal bond angle?
Remember, each atom in a molecule has positive and negative charges associated with it. This means that, certain arrangements of the atoms will result in higher/lower electrical potential energies. The molecule will always adopt the most stable configuration, which is the configuration with the least amount of electrical potential energy. This most stable configuration is described by the ideal bond angle. For example, in a molecule with 4 bonded pairs and no unbonded pairs, the lowest potential energy is associated with all the atoms being arranged in a tetrahedron, which has an ideal bond angle of 109.5
How do we name ionic compounds?
Remember, ionic compounds will always have a cation and an anion. 1. Write the cations name as is (Unless it is an element that can form more than one stable positive ion, in which case you denote what its charge is with parentheses and roman numerals. 2. Write the anion's name. If it is a monoatomic (One type of atom, O2-, F-) anion drop the ending of element and add -ide. If it's a polyatomic ion, just write the polyatomic anion's memorized name.
How does one determine whether an atom's ion will be bigger or smaller?
Remember, the electrons are what determine the overall size of the atom. Therefore, if an atom loses electrons to become an ion (like the metals), it will have a smaller ionic radius than atomic radius. On the other hand, if an atom gains electrons to become an ion (like the non-metals), it will have a larger ionic radius than atomic radius.
What is resonant frequency?
Resonant frequency is the natural frequency or frequencies at which an object vibrates. Any solid object, when hit, struck, rubbed, or disturbed physically in any way, will begin to vibrate.
What is a retrovirus?
Retroviruses are enveloped single stranded RNA viruses that carry an enzyme called reverse transcriptase. This enzyme synthesizes DNA from RNA, which gets integrated into the host genome. HIV is the most famous retrovirus.
How does Rh factor work?
Rh positive cells express the Rh antigen, and thus recognize it as friendly. Rh negative cells do not express the Rh antigen, and thus recognize Rh antigens as foreign. Therefore, Rh positive people can receive blood from either Rh positive or Rh negative individuals, while Rh negative individuals can only receive blood from other Rh negative individuals.
What is rough ER and what is its function?
Rough ER is ER studded with ribosomes. These ribosomes take in ingredients from the cytosol, but secrete their proteins directly into the lumen of the ER. This is the function of the ER, and believe it or not, being able to make proteins that are protected from the cytosol is actually pretty useful. These Rough ER Proteins are usually sent to the Smooth ER where they will be packaged and sent to the Golgi Apparatus.
What are Ruffini Endings?
Ruffini endings are sensory neurons in the dermis that are responsible for stretch sensation.
What is standard temperature and pressure (STP)?
STP is 0 degrees celsius (273K) and 1 atm. This is different than standard conditions! STP is used for ideal gas calculations.
What is STP?
STP is standard temperature and pressure. It refers to conditions of 273 K (0C) and 1 atm. Note this is not the same thing as standard conditions!
What is saltatory conduction?
Saltatory conduction refers to the way that the action potential is insulated by the myelin sheath and refreshed at the nodes of ranvier.
What is the function of saltatory conduction?
Saltatory conduction's function is to space out the generation of action potentials to maximize the speed of impulse propogation. If there was no myelin, the action potential would be re-generated thousands of times to move down the axon, which takes a while. With myelin and nodes of ranvier, the signal can be regenerated many times less often, specifically, just enough times less often so the signal can still make it to the axon terminals.
What are the myelin producing cells in the peripheral nervous system called?
Schwann Cells
What are secondary sex characteristics?
Secondary sex characteristics are the physical changes that we associate with men and women that occur as a consquence of primary sex characteristics at puberty. Secondary sex characteristics include increased muscle mass, facial hair, and lowering of voice in men and widening of hips, development of breasts, and heightening of voice in females.
What is secondary structure and what is its characteristic bond?
Secondary structure refers to the formation of repeating patterns of pleated sheets and alpha helices. These patterns are held together by hydrogen bonds between the carboxyl and amino group backbone of the amino acids.
What is the role of Secretin?
Secretin causes pancreatic juices to be released into the duodenum. It also lowers pH of the digestive tract by inhibiting parietal cells and increasing bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas. Finally, Secretin is an enterogastrone, which slows down the motility of the GI tract, giving more time to fully absorb food.
What is Secretion?
Secretion is when the body either actively or passively transports waste products into the nephron that were too big to pass through the glomerular pores. Occurs anyhwhere besides bowmans capsule
What is segregation in the context of a reproducing cell?
Segregation is another term that refers to the separation of homologous chromosomes.
What is selective transcription?
Selective transcription is when a cell develops a specialized function by only transcribing certain parts of the genome.
What are self-antigens?
Self-antigens are the protein and carbohydrate tags on the surface of our own cells.
What is semen?
Semen is the combination of sperm cells and seminal fluid.
What is seminal fluid and what is it's function?
Seminal fluid is a fluid produced by the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral gland. It's purpose is to nourish and protect the sperm cells as they travel from the male reproductive system to the female reproductive system.
What is senescence?
Senescence is the scientific term for the loss of integrity of cells over time due to aging.
What is sequencing?
Sequencing is a laboratory technique that allows one to determine the primary structure of a protein. This is most easily done by using the DNA that coded for the protein, although the protein itself can be used if necessary. As you can see below, you can figure out the sequence by trying to replicate the DNA while adding ddnucleotides, which halt replication. For example, if only one nucleotide is produced from the DNA in the ddATP beaker, then I know the first nucleotide in the DNA is A. This can be repeated to get the whole sequence of DNA, which can then be translated into the amino acids present.
What are Serine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Serine, Ser, or S is a polar amino acid.
What is a sex pilus?
Sex pili are appendages that male bacteria use to form conjugation bridges.
Molecular bonds are made from overlapping atomic orbitals. What kind of bond do you get when orbitals overlap directly?
Sigma (or single) bonds.
What kind of bonds make up a single bond?
Sigma bond
What type of bonds allow for free rotation of the atoms that make up the bond.
Sigma. Remember, a pi bond is made from the overlap of electron density between two parallel pi bonds. If you try to rotate one of the atoms, you will start to disrupt the bond. The electrons prefer being in the bond to floating around randomly, so they will resist your attempt to rotate the pi bond.
What does it mean to be simple epithelium?
Simple epithelium is epithelium that consists of a single layer.
What is Skeletal Muscle responsible for?
Skeletal muscle is responsible for voluntary movement, and is therefore innervated by the somatic nervous system.
List the 4 key characteristics of Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle is striated, voluntarily controlled, somatically innervated, and has many nuclei per cell.
How does the structure of the sarcomere change when it contracts?
Sliding filament model
What is the purpose of mechanical digestion?
Smaller objects have a better surface area to volume ratio, and are therefore easier to absorb. Mechanical digestion (like chewing) helps break the food down into as small of pieces as possible so it can be efficiently absorbed.
What is smooth ER and what are its 3 functions?
Smooth ER is ER that takes on a tubular form and has no ribosomes in its membrane. Smooth ER is where lipids are synthesized (for example the phospholipids in bilayers and steroids). Smooth ER also detoxifies certain drugs and poisons. Finally, proteins that were synthesized into the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum travel to the Smooth ER so they can be packaged and transported to the Golgi Apparatus.
List the 4 key characteristics of smooth muscle
Smooth muscle is nonstriated, involuntarily controlled, autonomically innervated, and has one nucleus per cell.
What is smooth muscle responsible for?
Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary action, and is therefore innervated by the autonomic nervous system. It is found in the respiratory tree, digestive tract, bladder, uterus, and other places that need automatic action by muscles to function correctly.
What are the two most important ions in explaining the changes in membrane potential a neuron undergoes?
Sodium and Potassium
What is solubility?
Solubility is the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a particular solvent at a particular temperature.
What is the solubility product?
Solubility product is just a special form of an equilbrium constant. It describes the equilibrium of a solid dissolving into its constituent ions. You find it using the normal rules for equilibrium expressions. Concentrations that you plug in are equilibrium (saturation) concentrations For molar solubility this would be (3x)3(2x)2=108x5 where x is molar solubility of Ca3(PO4)2
How do solutes affect vapor pressure?
Solutes depress the vapor pressure.
What is solvation a.k.a dissolution?
Solvation is the electrostatic interaction between solvent and solute molecules that causes ions to be separated from one another in solution.
How does solvation occur?
Solvation occurs when the electrostatic interactions between the solvent and the solute are strong enough to break the intermolecular bonds in the solute and separate the ions from one another.
What are somatic cells?
Somatic cells are every single cell in an organism other than reproductive cells.
The diaphragm is under {{c1::somatic{{c2::somatic or autonomic?}}}} control
Somatic control means we can consciously cause our diaphragm to contract. This is what you're doing when you choose to take a deep breath. skeletal muscle, but can become involuntary
What is the function of Somatostatin and when is it released?
Somatostatin inhibits the secretion of both insulin and glucagon. High blood glucose and amino acid concentrations stimulate its secretion. Its also produced by hypothalamus where it decreases growth hormone secretion
What is Reabsorption in kidney?
Sometimes useful molecules are small enough to pass through the glomerulus e.g. Sugar and Amino Acids. These are important building materials for the body, and the body wants to keep them in the blood not urinate them out. Reabsorption then, is the process by which the body actively transports important solutes that have been filtered or secreted into the urine back into the blood.
What does it mean to say muscles can be synergistic?
Sometimes, instead of working opposite to one another, muscles can work together to accomplish the same function.
What is sound?
Sound is a longitudinal wave that transmits through the oscillation of particles in a deformable medium. As such, sound can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
What is spatial summation?
Spatial summation is when multiple signals add up based on how many there are and how closely they are to one another. For example, if multiple small signals are integrated closely to one another on the neuron, their combined effect may be enough to reach the threshold potential
What is specification?
Specification is when a cell is reversibly designated to a specific cell type.
What is speed?
Speed is a scalar quantity that tallies the length of distance travelled over time.
What is spermatogenesis?
Spermatogenesis is the formation of haploid sperm through Meiosis. This occurs in the seminiferious tubules.
What are spermatogonia?
Spermatogonia are the diploid stem cells that will differentiate into sperm.
What are spindle fibers?
Spindle fibers are the names of the long microtubules that centrioles use to exert their effects during mitosis.
What does it mean to be Squamous Epithelium?
Squamous epithelial cells are flat, scale like epithelial cells.
In closed pipes, what harmonics are standing waves limited to?
Standing waves in closed pipes are limited to odd harmonics. This is because the standing wave in a closed pipe has to have a node at one end and an anti node at another end, and this is only possible with odd harmonics.
What are Starling Forces?
Starling Forces are the combined effects of oncotic and hydrostatic pressure on the vasculature that push things into or out of the vasculature.
What is a static equilibrium?
Static equilibrium is when the reaction is at equilibrium because neither the forward nor the reverse reaction are occuring at all.
What are stem cells?
Stem cells are cells that have not differentiated or cells that give rise to other cells that will differentiate
Can steroid hormones easily cross the cell membrane?
Steroid hormones are relatively small and nonpolar, so we would expect them to be able to cross the cell membrane.
How do steroid hormones exert their effects on target cells?
Steroid hormones can pass through the membrane and then bind to receptors that are in the cytosol or the nucleus itself. The hormone-receptor complex often dimerizes with another complex (but doesn't have to) then acts as a transcription factor.
Describe the timing of steroid hormone signals
Steroid hormones directly affect DNA, which takes longer to do, but leads to longer lasting changes in the cell. Therefore, steroid hormones effects activate slowly, but stick around for a while.
What is a stoichiometric coefficient?
Stoichiometric coefficients are the numbers we place in front of elements in a reaction to balance the reaction.
What does it mean to be stratified epithelium?
Stratified epithelium consists of multiple layers.
What is Stroke Volume?
Stroke Volume is the volume of blood pumped with each beat.
What is it called when a solid goes to a gas?
Sublimation
How can we find the enthalpy of a reaction?
Subtract the enthalpy of the products by the enthalpy of the reactants.
How can we calculate the standard gibbs free energy for a reaction?
Subtract the sum of the standard gibbs free energy of the products by the sum of the standard gibbs free energy of the reactants. or deltaG=deltaH-TdeltaS equation but with standard H and S
What is summation?
Summation is the additive effect of multiple stimuli. Remember, the resting potential needs to be raised from -70mV to about -55 to -40mV. If one signal can't provide the +30ish mV necessary to trigger an action potential, it can add up with other signals to reach the threshold instead. For example, two signals of +17mV together would be able to trigger an action potential because their voltages will just add up.
What is the function of Supressor or Regulatory T-cells?
Supressor T-cells are also CD4+ cells, like Helper T-cells. However, Supressor T-cells express a unique protein that helps the immune system calm down once an infection has been adequately contained. Supressor T-cells, because they can reduce the immune response, are also useful in turning of self-reactive lymphocytes and defending against auto-immune disease. Called self-tolerance
What is a surfactant?
Surfactant is a detergent that lowers the surface tension on a surface.
What is synapsis?
Synapsis is when homologous chromosomes come together to form a tetrad. This occurs in Prophase 1 of Meiosis.
What is the function of synovial fluid?
Synovial fluid serves as a shock absorber and dampens the movement of the bones in the joint synovial capsule.
What is systole?
Systole is Contraction, this is when blood is being pumped out.
What are T-tubules?
T tubules (or transverse tubules) are specialized microtubule structures that help transmit the action potential received at the sarcolemma to the many sarcomeres within the skeletal muscle cell.
What is the function of T3 and T4?
T3 and T4 work together to increase the basal metabolic rate. The more of these hormones there are, the more cellular respiration occuring and the more calories a person naturally burns.
What is the Total Lung Capacity? (TLC)
TLC is the maximum volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely. Cannot be measured by spirometer
What effect does TRH have?
TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone).
What is the Tidal Volume? (TV)
TV is the amount of air you inhale or exhale in a normal breath.
What are tail fibers?
Tail fibers are extensions of a bacteriophage that allow it to recognize and connect to target cells.
What does Telomerase do?
Telomerase is an enzyme that re-synthesizes the telomeres at the end of DNA, thereby increasing its longevity.
What happens in Telophase I of Meiosis and how is it different from Telophase I of Mitosis?
Telophase I of Meiosis is basically identical to Telophase of Mitosis. The nuclear envelope reforms, the spindle retracts, etc.
What happens in Telophase?
Telophase is essentially the reverse of prophase. A nuclei reforms around each of the copies of genetic information. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. The spindle dissappears and the centrioles return to their normal location.
What is temporal summation?
Temporal summation is when multiple signals are integrated in a short period of time. E.g. many small excitatory signals being integrated at nearly the same moment.
What are tendons?
Tendons are dense connective tissue that attach muscle to bone.
What is a Teratogen?
Teratogens are substances that interfere with development. Common teratogens are alcohol, prescription drugs, bacteria, viruses, or chemical exposure.
What is tertiary structure and what is its characteristic bond?
Tertiary structure refers to the three dimensional folding of the polypeptide chain into its final form. These forms are held together by hydrogen bonds between side chains, salt bridges between positively and negatively charged side chains, and disulfide bonds between cysteine residues.
What is the SI unit for magnetic field strength?
Tesla
Which hormone is responsible for the secondary sex characteristics in men?
Testosterone
What is a tetrad?
Tetrad is the name for the synaptic pair of homologus chromosomes that is formed in Prophase I. The tetrad is so named because, although there are only 2 chromosomes, both chromosomes have been duplicated in the previous S stage, and so there are 4 total chromatids.
What does it mean for energy in this universe to be quantized?
That the energy in this universe is quantized means that the energy only comes in discrete packets, of which you can have only whole number values. For example, energy is like children. You can either have 2 or 3, you cannot have 2.5.
What is the shared structure of flagella and cilia in eukaryotic cells?
The 9 + 2 structure, which is 9 doublets of microtubules surrounding a central doublet.
What is the A band?
The A band is the entirety of the thick filament, even the regions that are overlapping thin filaments. MNMEMONIC: The A band contains All of the thick filament, whether or not it is overlapping.
What is the AV Node?
The AV Node is the structure after the SA node that conducts the electrical impulse of the heartbeat down the heart. It is located at the junction of the atria and the ventricles.
What is the name of the AV Valve on the left side of the heart?
The Bicuspid or Mitral valve. (two leaflets) MNEMONIC: LABRAT Left Atrium = Bicuspid Valve Right Atrium = Tricuspid Valve
What is the Bohr effect?
The Bohr effect is the rightward shift of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve in response to changes in the blood. These changes are as follows: 1. Increased Carbon Dioxide concentration in the blood. 2. Increased blood Hydrogen Ion concentration (Which is a decrease in blood pH) 3. Increased Temperature 4. Increased 2,3-BPG Shifts right with exercise! MNEMONIC: Exercise is the right thing to do! Exercise increases your CO2 concentration, decreases your blood pH, and increases your temperature.
What is the Bundle of His?
The Bundle of His is a collection of nervous fibers that carry the electrical impulse of heartbeat down the heart from the AV Node. They are located in the intraventricular septum, the wall between the two ventricles.
What are the functions of the Centriole?
The Centriole is the organizing center for the Microtubules within a cell. Also, the centrioles play an important role in the separation of chromosomes during mitosis.
What happens in the Distal Convoluted Tubule?
The DCT responds to Aldosterone, which promotes sodium Reabsorption. Sodium reabsorption will also lead to an increase in water reabsorption (because water follows the sodium molecules, i.e. osmosis/osmotic pressure). The DCT is also a site of waste product secretion, like the PCT.
What is the Dermis?
The Dermis is the layer of skin underneath the epidermis. Houses sweat glands, blood vessels, hair follicles, and most sensory receptors
What is the Diluting Segment of the Nephron?
The Diluting segment is the thicker part of the ascending loop of henle near the top of its ascension. If for some reason the ascending loop of Henle was not able to reabsorb enough salts passively, this last segment of the loop of henle will actively transport out salts to further dilute the urine. Note, that because this is an active process, it won't stop when the interstitium and the filtrate equilibrate. Energy can keep being spent to make it so that salts go against the concentration gradient into the filtrate. This means that the Diluting Segment is the only structure in the kidney that can make filtrate even more dilute then blood itself.
What happens to the E cell of a battery as the redox reaction powering it progresses?
The E cell changes based on how far the battery is into the reaction.
What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum? (ER)
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a series of interconnected membranes that are contiguous with the nuclear envelope.
What is the F generation?
The F generation, or filial generation, is the first offspring generation of the P generation.
What is the Golgi Apparatus?
The Golgi Apparatus is a series of stacked membrane bound sacs inside of the cell.
What is the Golgi Apparatus' function?
The Golgi Apparatus' function is to receive materials from the ER and modify these materials by adding various functional groups. These functional groups serve to both modify the function of the materials and to direct them to certain locations in the cell. Once the material has been modified and has a location-determining functional group, the material will leave the Golgi Apparatus in an appropriate vesicle and travel to its intended location. This intended location can be inside the cell, outside the cell, or back to the Endoplasmic Reticulum.
What is the H Zone?
The H zone is where there are only thick filaments and no thin filaments. MNMEMONIC: H is a thick letter (area of thick filaments only).
What is the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
The Heisenbergy Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to determine the momentum and position of an electron simultaneously. This is because focusing on the momentum of the electron makes it harder to know the position, and vice versa.
What is the I band?
The I band is the area of space where there are only thin filaments and no overlapping thick filaments.] MNMEMONIC: I is a thin letter (area of the thin filaments only).
Active immunity is {{c1::permanent::permanent or temporary?}}
The Immune system has been exposed to the pathogen in Active Immunity, and therefore has the cells that produce antibodies for that pathogen indefinitely.
Passive immunity is {{c1::temporary::permanent or temporary?}}
The Immune system has not been exposed to the pathogen in Passive Immunity, and therefore does not have the cells that produce antibodies for that pathogen. The antibodies that a person receives in passive therapy will eventually break down or run out.
Of the three acid definitions, which is the most general?
The Lewis definition is the most general definition of acids/bases, followed by the bronsted lowry and then the arrhenius.
Where is Albumin synthesized?
The Liver
What is the Liver?
The Liver is a large organ that sits near and above the stomach that connects to both the small intestine and the gall bladder through bile ducts. It produces bile that it stores in the gallbladder. It also receives all blood from the gut wall via the hepatic portal vein, which is nutrient rich and upon which the liver acts to detoxifiy/metabolize.
What is the Log Phase?
The Log Phase is when the bacteria have adapted to the environment and start to grow exponentially.
What is the Lytic cycle?
The Lytic cycle is one way bacteriophages can spread. In the Lytic cycle, the cell's machinery is hijacked to produce new viruses. The viruses accumulate, destroy the cell, and spread to new cells. Viruses in this cycle are said to be Virulent
What is the M Line?
The M line is the line that goes right down the middle of the thick (myosin) filaments in the center of the sarcomere. MNMEMONIC: M line is in the Middle of the Myosin filaments.
What neural structure controls the rhythmic contraction of our breathing muscles?
The Medulla Oblongata
What is the Nernst Equation?
The Nernst Equation allows us to determine the E cell of a battery at non standard conditions.
What is the P generation?
The P generation, or parent generation, are the generation of individuals actually mating to create the punnet square.
What is the SI unit of pressure?
The Pascal (Pa)
What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle?
The Pauli exclusion principle says that no two electrons in a given atom can posess the same set of four quantum numbers. Specifically, this means that electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins in order to be unique.
What are the Purkinje Fibers?
The Purkinje Fibers are a series of fine nervous tissue that innervate the entirety of the ventricles and cause them to contract. They take receive the electrical impulse of heartbeat from the Bundle of His/Bundle Branches and relay it to the ventricles.
What is the SA node?
The SA node is a structure in the upper right atrium that generates the impulse for a heartbeat. Neural impulse not required (remember cardiac and smooth muscle can contract without neural input)
What is the Sarcolemma?
The Sarcolemma is the cell membrane of skeletal muscle cells. It is modified to be able to propogate action potential and distribute the action potentials it receives to all of its sarcomeres.
What is the function of the Stratum Basale?
The Stratum Basale contains stem cells and is repsonsible for the creation of Keratinocytes, the predominant cells of the skin that produce Keratin. The Stratum Basale also houses the melanocytes.
What is the function of the Stratum Corneum?
The Stratum Corneum consists of several dozen layers of flattened dead keratinocytes. The keratinocytes at this point are basically just sacs of keratin. These sacs form a barrier that prevents invasion by pathogens and loss of water and salt.
What is the Synovium?
The Synovium is a thin layer of tissue inside the synovial capsule that secretes synovial fluid.
What is the name of the AV valve on the right side of the heart?
The Tricuspid valve. (three leaflets) MNEMONIC: LABRAT Left Atrium = Bicuspid Valve Right Atrium = Tricuspid Valve
What is the urinary bladder?
The Urinary bladder is a large sac that holds urine for storage. It is fed by the ureters and it feeds into the urethra.
What nerve innervates the heart anad controls its rate?
The Vagus Nerve
What are the axes of the Hemoglobin Dissociation curve?
The Y axis is the percent O2 saturation of the hemoglobin molecules. X axis is the partial pressure of the oxygen in the tissues surrounding the hemoglobin molecule.
What is the Z line?
The Z line is the structure that marks the end of one sarcomere and the start of a new one. MNMEMONIC: Z is the end of the alphabet, end of the sarcomere.
What is the absolute refractory period?
The absolute refractory period is when no amount of stimuli could trigger another action potential.
What is an acrosome and where is it derived from?
The acrosome is a cap on the sperm head that allows sperm to penetrate eggs. The acrosome is derived from the golgi apparatus.
What is actin's role in the thin filament?
The actin filaments contain myosin binding sites. However, these binding sites are usually covered up by Tropomyosin.
How does an action potential propogate down the axon?
The action potential in one location will exert effects (cause depolarization until threshold is reached) on nearby channels in the membrane, causing the action potential to be repeated a little further down the axon. This is similar to how a wave works in a football stand.
What is the effective nuclear charge?
The actual attraction that outer electrons feel from the nucleus when you account for shielding.
What is the actual yield?
The actual yield is the amount of product an individual actually obtained after completing the reaction. This amount will always be lower than the theoretical yield due to errors/side reactions/loss of products/incomplete collection of product, etc.
What are the two parts of the adrenal gland?
The adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.
What are the adrenal glands?
The adrenal glands are glands located on top of the kidney that control the levels of a wide variety of hormones in the blood.
What is an afferent arteriole, in the context of the kidney?
The afferent arterioles are the arterioles moving blood away from the heart and towards the kidney (specifically, the capillary bed known as the glomerulus) supplied by renal artery
What is the alimentary canal?
The alimentary canal is the canal that runs from mouth to anus. This canal is sectioned off by sphincters.
What is the fundamental/allelic Hardy-Weinberg equation and what does it state?
The allelic Hardy-Weinberg Equation is as follows. Where p is the frequency of the dominant allele and q is the frequency of the recessive allele. This equation is simply stating that, in a population with only 2 alleles, p and q, the sum of the relative frequencies of the two of them will be 100%. In other words, if 40% of the alleles in the population are p, and there are is only one other allele, q, in the population, then 60% of the alleles in the population must be q.
What is the alternative pathway of the complement system?
The alternative pathway is when the complement system is activated without the need of an antibody.
What is the amnion?
The amnion is a thin, tough membrane which produces amniotic fluid. It serves as a shock absorber to protect the developing fetus.
What is bond energy?
The amount of energy requred to break a bond by separating its components into their isolated gaseous atomic states.
Describe electric potential energy relation to work?
The amount of work necessary to bring a charge from infinity to that point. Two like charges will have potential energy become increasingly positive as they get closer and two unlike charges will have potential energy become increasingly negative as they move closer (more stable) So opposites moving together and like charges moving apart will DECREASE electric potential energy.
What is the law of reflection?
The angle that the incident ray makes relative to the normal will equal the angle that the reflected ray makes relative to the normal.
How exactly do the erythrocyte antigens work?
The antigen you are born with is the one your immune system recognizes. Any other antigens will be considered foreign. For example, if you have A blood, you produce and recognize the A antigen and think the B antigen is foreign, and thus produce anti-B antibodies. This means you can receive A blood, because you recognize the antigen, and O blood, because there is no antigen on O blood. If you have AB Blood, you produce and recognize both the A antigen and the B antigen. No antibodies produced. This means you can receive A blood, B blood, AB Blood, or O blood. O blood has no antigens, and therefore the immune system of these individuals considers any antigen foreign. Produce anti-A and anti-B antigens. Therefore, O blood individuals can only accept O blood.
What is the name of the semilunar valve on the left side of the heart?
The aortic valve.
What are the components of the appendicular skeleton?
The appendicular skeleton is comprised of the bones of the limbs, the pectoral girdle, and the pelvis.
What is the appendix?
The appendix is a small fingerlike projection from the large intestine. It was once thought to be vestigial, but recent research suggests that the appendix plays a role in warding off certain bacterial infections and repopulating the large intestine with normal bacteria after episodes of diarrhea. \
What is the archenteron?
The archenteron is the name of the invagination that forms during gastrulation.
What happens in the ascending loop of Henle?
The ascending loop of Henle is only permeable to salts, and is impermeable to water. As the ascending loop ascends, the interstitium becomes less and less concentrated, favoring the removal of salts from the filtrate and back into the interstitium (and blood).
What is the atomic mass of an atom?
The atomic mass of an atom is its mass number minus the mass lost in the form of binding energy. However, the mass lost to binding energy is so small that the atomic mass and the mass number are basically the same.
What is the autonomic nervous system?
The autonomic nervous system regulates our heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretion. In other words, the autonomic nervous system is the peripheral nervous system that maintains all of the automatic functions of the body. We do not have voluntary control over the peripheral nervous system.
What is bond length?
The average distance between the two nuclei of atoms in a bond.
What are the components of the axial skeleton?
The axial skeleton is comprised of the skull, the vertebral column, the rib cage, and the hyoid bone.
What is the axis in the context of optics?
The axis is the normal line that passes through the center of the mirror or lens.
What is the function of the axon hillock?
The axon hillock is an area just before the axon where action potentials can be generated for conduction down the axon.
What is the function of the axon?
The axon is a long thin appendage that emanates from the neuron and terminates in close proximity to a target structure. Its function is to conduct the signal generated in the axon hillock so that it can activate the target structure.
What is the function of the axon terminals?
The axon terminals are enlarged flattened projections at the ends of the axon that are filled with neurotransmitters. Their function is to receive the signal from the axon and release the appropriate neurotransmitters in response to it. Usually, an axon will branch out into several axon terminals.
What is the basal body?
The basal body is a complex structure that anchors the flagellum to the membrane and provides the motor force necessary to activate the flagellum.
What is the basement membrane?
The basement membrane is an underlying layer of connective tissue to which groups of epithelial cells will be attached. This is so the epithelial cells stay close together and can remain a cohesive unit.
What is the Bicarbonate Buffer System? Bicaronate vs carbonic acid vs carbonate
The bicarbonate buffer system is the name for the chemical equilibrium between carbon dioxide and carbonic acid in the blood. By affecting the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood, the respiratory system can push or pull the bicarbonate buffer in various directions, increasing or decreasing the pH of blood.
What is the blastopore?
The blastopore is the name for the mouth of the opening in the gastrula known as the archenteron.
From what organ system do the cellular components of blood originate?
The bone marrow
What is the bone matrix?
The bone matrix is the collection of organic and inorganic components that makes up bone and is responsible for its strength.
What is the bowman's capsule?
The bowman's capsule is a cuplike structure that takes the filtrate from the glomerulus and sends it through the loop of Henle, starting with the Proximal Convuluted Tubule
What are the two components of the CNS?
The brain and the spinal cord.
What are the bronchi?
The bronchi are the two large branches of the trachea that lead to the lungs
What is energy?
The capacity to do work
What are capillaries?
The capillaries are the most branched parts of the vasculature that serve as the site of gas and nutrient exchange into the tissues.
What is the cecum?
The cecum is an outpocketing of the large intestine that accepts the fluid exiting the small intestine via the ileocecal valve. It is also the attachment point for the appendix. harbors normal gut flora
What is the function of the soma?
The cell body or soma is where the nueron houses its nucleus and most of its other organelles.
If DNA is found to be too damaged to move past the G1/S restriction point, what happens?
The cell cycle will be stopped by a protein known as p53 and an attempt will be made to repair the DNA so it can pass the restriction point.
What is the cell envelope?
The cell envelope is the name for all of the layers of the cell extending outward from the membrane. For example, in bacteria with a cell wall and a capsule, the envelope would be the membrane, the cell wall, and the capsule. In bacteria without a capsule, the envelope refers just to the membrane and the cell wall.
Why can't crossing over happen between sister chromatids?
The cell has ways of making sure that homologous chromosomes and not sister chromatids cross over, but think about it. A sister chromatid is identical to its sister, so even if sister chromatids could trade DNA, it wouldn't make a difference since all the DNA is identical.
What is the cell wall? What organisms have them?
The cell wall is a rigid structure that forms the outer barrier of the cell. Cell walls are found in almost all prokaryotes and in certain Eukaryotes (plants, algae, fungi).
What is the function of the intersitial cells (of Leydig)?
The cells of Leydig secrete testosterone and other androgens.
What is the central nervous system?
The central nervous system is the nervous system composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
What is the equilibrium position?
The central point around which the wave oscillates.
What is a centromere?
The centromere is the part of the chromosome where two sister chromatids connect.
What should the change in total mechanical energy of an object be equal to when considering nonconservative forces?
The change in total mechanical energy will be equal to the work lost due to the nonconservative forces.
"What does it mean if a thermodynamic property is written with a degree sign (prime) or called ""Standard"""
The changes in enthalpy, entropy, and free energy that occur when a reaction takes place under standard conditions are called the standard enthalpy, standard entropy, and standard free energy changes, respectively, and are symbolized by ΔH°, ΔS°, and ΔG°.
What is the chiasma?
The chiasma is the point at which homologous chromosomes overlap one another. It is at this point that genetic info will break off and cross over from one chromosome to another.
What is the chorion?
The chorion is an extraembryonic membrane that forms from the trophoblast cells and develops into the placenta.
What is the function of the cilia within the trachea and the bronchi?
The cilia in the trachea and bronchi catch material that has made it past the epiglottis and slowly push it back up the trachea so it can be coughed out.
What is the classical pathway of the complement system?
The classical pathway is when the complement system is actived by the binding of an antibody to a pathogen. (note, that although an antibody is present here, this is nonspecific, and therefore a part of innate immunity.)
What is the Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics and equation?
The collision theory states that, for a reaction to occur, the molecules must collide with eachother in appropriate configurations. Therefore, the rate of a reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per second between the reacting molecules. rate=Z*f Z= number of collisions, f= fraction of collisions that are effective
What is the colon?
The colon is the majority of the large intestine where the absorption of water and salt occur. It is the path that the stomach contents follow after they have moved from the small intestine into the large intestine.
What is the common ion effect?
The common ion effect states that the solubility of a solution can be affected by adding other substances.
What is the Complement system and what role does it play in innate immunity?
The complement system is a collection of proteins in the blood that acts as a nonspecific defense against bacteria.
What determines the activty of secretion and reabsorption in the nephron?
The composition of solutes in the blood at the time. For example, a high protein diet will result in a lot of Ammonia in the blood. Ammonia will be converted into a lot of Urea in the liver which will get secreted into the urine.
What happens if the solute-solvent interactions are not stronger than the intermolecular forces in the compound?
The compound will not dissolve.
How do the concentration of organelles in different cell types vary?
The concentration of organelles is different from cell type to cell type. These differences are functional. For example, cells that need a lot of energy have a lot of mitochondria. Cells that secrete a lot have high RER and Golgi Apparatus.
The concentration of the filtrate changes dramatically as it moves through the nephron. What prevents water from rushing into the nephron and bursting it when the filtrate is very concentrated, and what prevents water from rushing out of the nephrone and collapsing it when the filtrate is very dilute?
The concentration of solutes in the interstitium changes depending on the location of the nephron. Therefore, those places in the nephron that have very concentrated filtrate are surrounded by a concentrated, isotonic interstitium. The places in the nephron that have very dilute filtrate are surrounded by a dilute, isotonic interstitium.
What principle explains all the circuit laws?
The conservation of energy principle.
Describe the continuity equation?
The continuity equation states that the flow rate must be equal at all points in the pipe, regardless of changes in cross-sectional area.
What is the structure and function of the corona radiata?
The corona radiata is a layer of cells that adhere to the oocyte during ovulation. These cells are the first to be penetrated by the sperm and are responsible for communicating to the secondary oocyte that it is time for it to finish Meiosis II. This results in the production of a mature ovum and a polar body.
What are the cortical sex hormones?
The cortical sex hormones are androgens and estrogens that are synthesized outside of the gonads by the adrenal cortex.
What hormones are secreted by the adrenal cortex?
The corticosteroids.
What is the critical point?
The critical point marks the boundary of pressure and temperature at which you will still see normal phases. After the temperature and pressure exceed that of the critical point, the substance becomes a supercritical fluid with gaseous and liquid properties.
What physical properties affect capacitance?
The cross sectional area of the plates and the distance between them.
What is the Junction Rule?
The current going into a junction must be equal to the current going out of a junction.
What is the death phase?
The death phase is when the bacteria have completely consumed nearby resources and begin to quickly die out due to starvation.
What is the function of the dendrites?
The dendrites are specialized appendages emanating from the soma that receive incoming signals from other cells. It is important to understand that dendrites can only receive signals, and not send them.
What is the derived/phenotypic-genotypic Hardy-Weinberg equation and what does it state?
The derived Hardy-Weinberg equation is simply the result of squaring both sides of the original Hardy-Weinberg equation, p+q=1. Instead of describing the frequency of individual alleles, this equation describes the frequency of the combinations of alleles, i.e phenotypes and genotypes. p^2 refers to the frequency of people with a homozygous dominant genotype. 2pq refers to the frequency of people with a heterozygous genotype. q^2 refers to the frequency of a homozygous recessive genotype.
What happens in the descending loop of Henle?
The descending loop of Henle is only permeable to water. As it descends into the medulla, the concentration of the interstitium increases, which favors the outflow of water, which can be reabsorbed by the vasa recta. This is exactly what the descending loop of Henle does, remove water from the filtrate. Note, if the body has a lot of water and does not need to reabsorb it, the interstitium's concentration will change to reduce the outflow of water from the filtrate back into the blood.
What is the diaphragm?
The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that divides the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. This muscle is also the primary muscle by which we breath.
How do dielectrics affect isolated capacitors?
The dielectric will lower the electric field of the isolated capacitor, which will lead to a decrease in voltage and an increase in capacitance.
How do dielectrics affect capacitors connected to a voltage source (battery)?
The dielectric will reduce the electric field in the capacitor, which would normally lead to a decrease in voltage, but the capacitor is hooked up to an external voltage source, so it maintains its voltage. Instead, the decrease in the electric field in the capacitor will manifest itself as an increase in the charge on the plates of the capacitor.
What happens when a dipole is placed in an electric field?
The dipole will spin if necessary in order to cancel out its torques. An example is shown below. Initial Final
What stage of Meiosis is responsible for Mendel's first law of genetics?
The disjunction of chromosomes in Anaphase 1 of Meiosis results in the separation of homologous chromosomes (upon which the two different alleles will be found) and therefore is responsible for Mendel's first law of genetics.
What are the two sides of the spinal cord?
The dorsal (back) and ventral (front) sides.
Where is the ductus arteriosus and what is its function?
The ductus arteriosus provides a one way shunt from the pulmonary artery to the aorta. Helps bypass lungs possible due to higher right side pressure Sometimes a little bit of blood will still be sent to the pulmonary artery, despite the efforts of the foramen ovale. The ductus arteriosus takes whatever blood is in the pulmonary artery and re-routes it to the aorta where it will go to the systemic circulation.
Where is the ductus venosus and what is its function?
The ductus venosus shunts blood returning from the placenta via the umbilical vein directly to a location farther up the inferior vena cava so that it can bypass the liver.
What is an efferent arteriole, in the context of the kidney?
The efferent arterioles are the arterioles moving blood away from the glomerulus and towards the loop of henle. Feed into renal vein
What is the electro-motive force?
The electro-motive force is the potential difference between the two terminals of a cell. This potential difference is what drives the electrons through the wire of the circuit. Notice that this is not a force, but a potential difference. The name is a misnomer. Has units of volts (J/C)
What is the endogenous pathway in the context of the immune system?
The endogenous pathway refers to the presentation of an internal antigen by a class 1 MHC. The antigen is inside the cell and being presented to the surface, thus the name endogenous pathway.
What is the exogenous pathway in the context of the immune system?
The endogenous pathway refers to the presentation of an internal antigen by a class 2 MHC. The professional antigen presenting cells with calss 2 MHC's will actively phagocytose foreign invaders. They will then digest the invader and present its antigens on their surfaces. Because the invader started outside of the cell, this is referred to as the exogenous pathway.
What is the endometrium?
The endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus.
What happens when two liquids at different temperatures mix?
The energies of the liquids will be added together and distributed evenly to the total mixture. Basically, the total energy will be the same before and after.
What is kinetic energy?
The energy an object has by virtue of its movement.
What do rows allow us to easily ascertain?
The energy level at which the element's valence electrons reside.
What does the principle quantum number represent?
The energy level in which the electron resides.
What is the nth ionization energy?
The energy required to remove the nth electron from a gaseous sample of the compound in question. For example, the first ionization energy is the energy required to remove the first electron from an atom. The 4th ionization energy is the energy required to remove the fourth electron.
How does one find the enthalpy of a reaction using only bond dissociation energies?
The enthalpy of the reaction will be equal to the energy it absorbed by breaking bonds minus the energy it released by forming bonds. going from solid to gas counts in total energy absorbed (bonds broken)
What is the third law of thermodynamics?
The entropy of a perfectly organized crystal at absolute zero is zero. This really means that there can be no temperature lower than absolute zero.
What is the epididymis?
The epididymis is where new sperm are sent after developing in the seminiferous tubules. At this point, the sperm's flagella gain motility and the sperm are stored until ejactulation.
What is the epiglottis?
The epiglottis is a flap that covers the larynx during swallowing so food and water don't travel down it.
What is the epiphyseal growth plate?
The epiphyseal growth plate is a cartilaginous structre found at the internal edge of the epiphysis. It is important in the growth of our bones during childhood and adolescence.
What is the epiphysis?
The epiphysis is the name for the ends of the long bones. Spongy core is used for more effective dispersion of force and pressure at joints rather than filled with marrow
What is the equivalence point?
The equivalence point is the point at which the reaction between the titrand and the titrant is completed. (all of the species has been deprotonated)
What is the name of the sphincter food passes through when it travels from the esophagus into the stomach?
The esophogeal sphincter
What is Entropy?
The extent to which a system is spread out/unorganized. The more spread out/ the less organized the more entropy.
What happens if you shine light on a metal that has a higher energy than the work function energy?
The extra energy is converted into kinetic energy for the electron. So, the higher the frequency of the light shined on a metal, the higher the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.
What is the extracellular matrix?
The extracellular matrix is a vast collection of extracellular molecules secreted by cells that provide structural and biochemical support to the individual cells within a tissue. The extracellular matrix allows cells to associate and communicate with one another without being directly attached.
What makes music sound like music and not like noise?
The fact that the multiple frequencies at which the object vibrates are related to eachother by whole number ratios instead of just being randomly related.
What does it mean to be a female bacterium?
The female bacterium is F-, meaning it does not have a sex factor plasmid. Female bacteria accept the conjugation bridge and genetic info from the donor male.
How does fertilization cause pregnancy?
The ferilized zygote travels through the fallopian tube where it develops into a blastocyst and implants in the thickened endometrial lining of the uterus. The implanted blastocyst secretes Human Chorionic Gonadoptropin (hCG) which mimics LH and maintains the corpus luteum so it can secrete progesterone and some estrogen. This allows the implanted blastocyte to grow, the placenta to eventually form, and a baby to be born.
What is the fertilization membrane?
The fertilization membrane is the depolarized and impenentrable membrane of a zygote following the cortical reaction.
What is the bacterial flagellum filament?
The filament is a long hollow helical structure composed of flagellin.
How does one calculate the focal distance?
The focal distance will always be half the distance of the radius of curvature. f=R/2 Thus we can find focal point from this
What is the focal point?
The focal point is the point at which light rays parallel to the mirror or lens are focused (or virtually focused in the case of negative focal lengths)
What is a follicle?
The follicle are multilayered sacs that contain, nourish, and protect immature ova (eggs).
What occurs in the Follicular Phase of Menstruation?
The follicular phase begins when the uterine lining of the previous cycle begins to shed. 1. As Estrogen and Progesterone fall in response to the death of the corpus luteum, GnRH is secreted in response. 2. GnRH secretion leads to the rise of FSH and LH. 3. FSH and LH work together to cause the follicles in the ovary to grow (Mostly FSH though) 4. As the follicles grow, they release estrogen, which negatively inhibits the hypothalamus and causes a drop in GnRH, which slows the increase of FSH and LH. 5. The estrogen that has been released gets to work on re-thickening the endometrium (decidua).
Where is the foramen ovale and what is its function?
The foramen ovale is a one way valve that connects the right atrium to the left atrium. Normally, blood in the right atrium will travel to the right ventricle and then to the lungs. With this shunt in place, blood in the right atrium travels to the left atrium where the aorta pumps it into the fetus's systemic circulation. This shunt allows the blood to bypass the developing lungs and refrain from damaging them. possible due to right side having higher pressure
What is cohesion?
The force of attraction that the molecules that make up a fluid feel with other molecules of that same fluid.
What is air resistance?
The force of friction with the air. This force opposes movement and increases as speed increases, causing an object to reach a terminal velocity.
What is static friction?
The force that exists between a stationary object and the surface upon which it rests.
What is the founder effect?
The founder effect is a more extreme case of genetic drift in which a small population of a species finds itself in reproductive isolation from other populations due to various bottle necks that suddenly reduce the size of the population available for breeding. The founder effect is so named because the small isolated population will start to take on the characteristics of the populaton that founded it. Note, because this is just an extreme form of genetic drift, this is also a phenomenon predicated upon the randomness and unpredictability of evolution.
What is the purpose of the four quantum numbers?
The four quantum numbers exist so we can quickly and easily describe every electron's position in the atom. For example, if I assign the quantum numbers 2, 0,0,1/2, I know exactly which electron I am talking about: the electron in the second energy level, in the s orbital, in the up spin configuration.
What happens in Contraction?
The free globular heads of the myosin molecules, which are bound to ADP (a hydrolyzed ATP) move towards the exposed sites on actin and bind to it. The ADP on the myosin heads dissociates, which causes the myosin molecule to contract and pull the actin filament inwards towards the M-line, shortening the sarcomere.
When a light ray refracts from one medium to another, how does its frequency change?
The frequency of light is unaffected by refraction.
What is the fundamental frequency of a string?
The frequency of the first harmonic standing wave (n=1)
What is the fundamental unit of charge?
The fundamental unit of charge is the smallest discrete unit of charge that can exist. It is the charge on the electron(negative) and the charge on the proton(positive) it is equal to 1.60*10-19C
What is the role of the gall bladder?
The gall bladder stores bile for use in the small intestine. It secretes this bile into the small intestine in response to CCK.
What is the glomerulus?
The glomerulus is the convoluted capillary bed that can be found in the bowman's capsule of the nephron. It has pores in it that allow small things in the blood to leave, but big things to stay.
What structure does the archenteron eventually develop into?
The gut
What is the hardy-weinberg principle?
The hardy-weinberg principle is a special type of population equilibrium and two equations that can be used to predict the allelic and phenotypic frequencies of said population. Not all populations can be described by hardy-weinberg principles. Only a subset of populations with specific characteristics can be described by this method.
What are the 3 constituents of the cardiovascular system?
The heart, blood vessels, and blood.
What is the standard enthalpy of combustion?
The heat associated with combusting something at standard conditions under constant pressure.
What is enthalpy of fusion?
The heat associated with fusion (going from solid to liquid) under constant pressure.
What is the enthalpy of vaporization?
The heat of vaporizing (going from liquid to gas) at a constant pressure.
What is the henderson hasselbalch equation?
The henderson-Hasselbalch equation is used to estimate the pH of a buffer solution. For a weak acid buffer solution: (conjugate base/weak acid) And for a weak base buffer solution: (conjugate acid/ weak base) Remember this gives pOH so to get pH we need to convert
What is the hepatic portal system?
The hepatic portal system is the portal system comprised of blood passing through both the spleen and the wall of the intestine's capillary beds before passing through the liver's capillary bed.
What is the highest possible recombination frequency?
The highest possible recombination frequency is 50%, the percentage we would expect two genes to stay on the same chromosome after crossing over if there was no linkage what so ever. (Think about it, its a 50/50, either the genes get split up or they don't.)
What is the hilum?
The hilum is a large slit in the kidney where the ureter, renal artery, and renal vein enter the kidney.
What is the hook?
The hook connects the filament and the basal body in order to facilitate the motion in the filament that propels the bacterium forward.
What is the hypodermis?
The hypodermis is a layer of connective tissue that connects the skin to the rest of the body. This layer contains fat and fibrous tissue.
What is the hypophyseal portal system?
The hypophyseal portal system is the portal system composed of blood passing through the hypothalamus' capiilary beds and then into the anterior pituitary's capillary bed. This allows the hypothalamus to exhibit very direct control on the anterior pituitary through paracrine secretion.
How does the hypothalamus exert its effects on the pituitary? What type of signaling?
The hypothalamus affects the pituitary by releasing hormones that travel through a portal system to affect the pituitary. This is an example of paracrine signalling.
What is the hypothalamus and what is its function in the endocrine system?
The hypothalamus is a structure in the brain that controls the pituitary and affects the various levels of hormones it produces.
What is the function of the inner cell mass?
The inner cell mass is the group of cells that will give rise to the organism being born.
What is a muscular insertion?
The insertion is the smaller of the two attachments a muscle has to bone. The insertion point is usually distal compared to the insertion.
If the stomach is filled with acid, and acid breaks things down, why doesn't the stomach itself digest in the acidic conditions of its interior?
The inside of the stomach is covered in mucosa, which has molecules in it that neutralize the acidity of the stomach's contents and protect the stomach.
What is the interstitium?
The interstitium is the area surrounding the nephron that it exchanges solutes with. Solutes in interstitium can be picked up by the vasa recta to return to bloodstream
What is the Ion Product (IP)?
The ion product is the state of the dissolving equilibrium at any given point. It can be compared to the ksp to determine whether or not the solution will precipitate. It is calculated in the same manner as Ksp. Analogous to reaction quotient, you plug in the concentrations at any point in time When greater than Ksp there will be precipitate
How do the kidneys affect blood pressure?
The kidneys control the amount of water and salts reabsorbed into the blood. As the amount of water in the blood goes up, the blood pressure goes up.
What is the kinetic molecular theory?
The kinetic molecular theory is a series of assumptions that is used to explain the behaviors of gases. These assumptions makes it possible to derive the ideal gas laws.
What is the Lag Phase?
The lag phase is when the bacteria are adapting to the environmental conditions.
What is the larynx?
The larynx is another section of the throat. It is lower than the pharynx.
What is the latent period?
The latent period is the amount of time in between the muscle cell reaching threshold and the contraction beginning. This is the short period of time when the depolarization at the sarcolemma is travelling to the sarcoplasmic reticulum to cause Ca2+ release.
Which side of the heart drives the force in the systemic circuit?
The left side
Where are metals found on the periodic table?
The left side and the middle.
Of the two sides of the heart, which is more muscular?
The left side of the heart. This is because the left ventricle must pump blood throughout the entire body, while the right ventricle only needs to pump blood to the lungs. The left side of the heart has more muscle so it can generate more force.
What happens when the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to external pressure on the liquid (usually 1 atm, but can change depending on where you are.)
The liquid boils!
What is the absolute lowest dielectric constant and to what material does it belong?
The lowest dielectric constant is 1 and it belongs to vacuum, which is when there is absolutely nothing between the plates of a capacitor. The dielectric constant for a material will ALWAYS be higher than this value, and never lower. There are no negative or less than 1 dielectric constants.
The lungs do not have surfactant. What causes them to not collapse on themselves when their internal pressure drops as in inhalation?
The lungs are attached to the visceral pleura, which is attached to the parietal pleura, which is attached to the chest wall. The chest wall is a rigid muscular structure. It's like the lungs are pinned to the chest wall through their pleurae, so even though the pressure drop in the lungs would make the lungs collapse on themselves, they can't because they are attached to the chest wall which is firm.
What is the lymphatic system?
The lymphatic system is a type of circulatory system in the body made up of vessels that carry lymphatic fluid through the tissues of the body and back to the thoracic duct which delivers fluid to the heart (through the subclavian vein).
What is the Lysogenic cycle?
The lysogenic cycle is another way bacteriophages can spread. In the lysogenic cycle, the bacteriophage incorporates itself into the host genome. As the host replicates, the bacterial DNA replicates with it, and each daughter cell will carry the information to make viruses.
Which is the third quantum number?
The magnetic quantum number, ml
How can there be a range of static frictions?
The magnititude of static friction depends on factors like the amount of surface area in contact (more = higher).
What does it mean to be a male bacterium?
The male bacterium is the bacterium that has an F+ plasmid and therefore can construct a conjugation bridge.
What is the number following the element name when describing an isotope?
The mass number. For example. Carbon-12 has a mass number of 12.
What causes the neurons in the medulla oblongata to automatically adjust the rate of breathing?
The medulla oblongata neurons contain chemoreceptors that are primarily sensitive to Carbon Dioxide in the blood. As CO2 rises (hypercarbia or hypercapnia), the medulla oblongata increases the respiratory rate so CO2 is exhaled more quickly and taken out of the blood. Also respond to low oxygen levels in blood (hypoxemia)
What is the menstrual cycle?
The menstrual cycle is the monthly process where a primary oocyte is allowed to complete Meiosis I, become a secondary oocyte, and potentially be fertilized by a sperm.
What is a Metaphysis?
The metaphysis is the section of the bone at the end of both sides of the diaphysis that swells outward. Full of marrow
What is the function of the mineralcorticoids?
The mineral corticoids are used in salt and water homeostasis.
What is the mitochondrial matrix?
The mitochondrial matrix is the space inside the mitochondrion's inner membrane.
What is the function of the mitochondria's outer membrane?
The mitochondrial outer membrane serves as a selective barrier between the cytosol and the inner environment of the mitochondrion.
What evolutionary purpose do segregation and (semi-)independent assortment serve?
The mixing of mother and father alleles and the recombining of chromosomes serve to increase the genetic diversity of offspring. Genetically diverse offspring is an evolutionarily advantageous trait.
What is the molar solubility?
The molar solubility is the concentration of an ion in molarity in its saturated solution.
Why does surface tension occur at the surface?
The molecules in a liquid experience an attractive force with one another known as cohesion. Under the surface of the liquid, each molecule is completely surrounded by other liquid molecules. This results in the cohesion forces being felt in all directions, causing them to cancel out. At the surface, on the other hand, molecules are only experiencing cohesion forces from beneath them. This causes the molecules at the surface of the liquid to be pulled inward, leading to the tension force at the surface.
How do the moles of a molecule relate to the moles of the atoms that make it up?
The moles of a molecule are related to its subsitituent atoms by their subscripts. For example, one molecule of H2O is comprised of 1 oxygen and 2 hydrogens. Therefore, to make 1 mole of H2O I would need to collect 1 mole of Oxygen and 2 moles of Hydrogen, and combine them together to make 1 mole of H2O. Notice that there are 2 moles of Hydrogen in 1 mole of H2O because H2O explicitly calls for twice as many hydrogens than oxygens.
What quantity will be equivalent before and after a dilution?
The moles of solute present.
Increased variability in the gene pool correlates to increased {{c1::fitness::fitness or mortality?}} in a population.
The more mutants we have in our population, the better chance that one of them will have some weird mutation that allows them to get a competitive advantage in the ever changing natural world. Therefore, genetic diversity increases fitness.
How does the stomach create its acidic internal conditions?
The mucosa of the stomach contains glands that secrete various substances that contribute to the environment of the stomach.
What happens when the muscles run out of oxygen to use in aerobic respiration?
The muscles switch to anearobic respiration (glycolysis) which produces lactic acid.
What is the basic functional unit of the kidney?
The nephron
What are the neural crest cells and into what will they develop?
The neural crest cells are cells at the tip of both of the neural folds. These cells will migrate from the neural folds and develop into the entirety of the peripheral nervous system (sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla, schwann cells) as well as specific cell types in other tissues (calcitonin producing cells of the thyroid, melanocytes in the skin, etc.) Cells derived from ectoderm
What is the function of the nodes of ranvier?
The nodes of ranvier are small breaks in the myelin sheath. The nodes allow the neurons to maintain the intensity and speed of the signal as it travels down the axon. Action potential generated at each node so it appears to be jumping from one node to the next. generates faster travel so that the action potential isnt generated millions of times over short distances.
What is the normal force?
The normal force is a contact force that keeps objects from passing through one another. The normal force is perpendicular to the plane of contact between two surfaces.
In optics, all angles are measured from what line?
The normal line
How do the nose and mouth affect the air we breath?
The nose and mouth contain cilia that trap dirt and irritants, protecting our lungs. The nose and mouth also warm and humidify the air before it reaches the lungs. The nose is more efficient in both of these processes, but the mouth is bigger and can let more air in at a time.
What is the notochord and what is its function in Neurulation?
The notochord is a long rod of mesodermal cells. During Neurlation, the notochord induces a segment of the ectoderm to slide inward. This establishes the neural folds and the neural groove.
What is the nucleolus?
The nucleolus is a structure in the nucleus that synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA). It appears as a large dark spot in the nucleus.
What is the atomic number of an element equal to?
The number of protons in the element's nucleus
What is period?
The number of seconds it takes a wave to complete one oscillation. Represented by a capital T.
What do groups allow us to easily ascertain?
The number of valence electron an element has.
What is the rule that describes the way atoms join to form compounds and what does it state?
The octet rule. The octet rule states that to have a full octet of electrons in the outermost shell is the most stable state for an atom, and atoms will give/take/share valence electrons in such a way so as to ensure that both (or more) atoms in the compound have noble gas configurations
What is the function of the valves in the heart?
The opening and closing of valves helps the heart build up sufficient pressure to pump blood. The valves also prevent blood from flowing backwards.
What is the order in terms of kinetics?
The order is the number a reactant is raised to. Remember, the order of the reactant must be experimentally determined. The balanced equation will not predict the order.
What is a muscular origin?
The origin is the largest of the two attachments a muscle has to bone. The origin point is usually proximal compared to the insertion.
What are the structural features of an osteon?
The osteon is a microscopic canal surrounded by concentric circles of bony matrix known as lamellae. The microscopic canal makes room for blood vessels and nerves in the bone.
What is the function of the ovary?
The ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone and are filled with thousands of follicles which hold all a female's eggs.
What are the basic structural components of the female reproductive system?
The ovary, the fallopian tube, the uterus, the cervix, and the vagina.
What is the overall order of a reaction?
The overall order of a reaction is just the sum of the orders of the individual reactants.
What is the pancreas?
The pancreas is a endocrine gland that controls the level of blood sugar.
Describe the papillary layer of the dermis
The papillary layer is the upper layer of the dermis and it is composed of loose connective tissue.
What are the parathyroid glands and what are their functions?
The parathyroid glands are 4 small glands on the thyroid gland. Their function is to increase the level of calcium in the blood.
What is the parietal pleura?
The parietal pleura is the membrane that is further out from the lung and not adjacent to its surface.
How does cooperative binding make hemoglobin a very efficient oxygen delivery system?
The partial pressure of oxygen in resting muscles is only about 20 mmHg higher than the partial pressure of oxygen in exhausted muscle. Despite this small difference in partial pressure, the need for oxygen in exhausted muscle is significantly higher than the need for oxygen in resting muscle. Notice that, on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, the steep part of the sigmoid falls perfectly in between the partial pressure for resting muscle and exhausted muscle. This makes it so that oxyhemoglobnin keeps basically all of its oxygen in resting muscle and then deposits basically all of its oxygen in exhausted muscle, despite the relatively small difference in their partial pressures. Cooperative binding is what creates the sigmoid shape of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, and the sigmoid shape of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is what makes it so efficient at delivering large amounts of oxygen to the tissues that need it quickly. The body is even capable of shifting the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to affect the efficiency of this process even further in situations of need.
Describe the strength of the peptide bond.
The peptide bond is resonance stabilized (partial double bond from N lone pair) , and is thus very strong. More often than not, we need to use special enzymes to break these bonds down.
What is the periosteum?
The periosteum is a fibrous sheath that covers the bone. This protects the bone and serves as a site for muscle attachment. Its cells can differentiate into osteoblasts
What is the peripheral nervous system?
The peripheral nervous system is the nervous system comprised of the nerves and ganglia on the outside of the brain and spinal cord.
What is the pharynx?
The pharynx is a segment of the throat just deep to the back of the mouth.
What is unique about the phase diagram for water?
The phase diagram for water has a negative slope for the solid<>liquid equilibrium line. This is out of the ordinary. Almost every phase diagram will only have positive slopes on its equilibrium lines. This is due to the hydrogen bonds in water and how they space out the crystalline structure of ice.
What is the phase difference between waves?
The phase difference is the extent to which the waves are offset. The higher the phase difference, the more offset the wave.
What is surface tension?
The phenomenon by which a liquid forms a thin but strong layer at its surface. This is caused by cohesion.
What is the pineal gland?
The pineal gland is an organ deep in the brain that secretes melatonin.
What is the function of the pleurae?
The pleurae forms a sac against which the lung can expand. This protects the lungs.
What is the triple point?
The point on the phase diagram where the gas, liquid, and solid phases are in equilibrium.
What is potency in the context of stem cells?
The potency of a cell determines the types of cells into which it can differentiate.
What is the function of melatonin?
The precise function of melatonin is still unclear, but levels of melatonin in the blood are correlated with feelings of sleepiness. Melatonin has also been shown to affect circadian rhythm.
What drives breathing?
The pressure differentials that can be created across the pleurae.
What is the primary immune response?
The primary immune response is the slow initial response to an infection. The reason it is slow is because the naive B-cells in the lymph nodes need to spend time developing good antibodies.
In a developing embryo, what can the primitive gonads eventually develop into?
The primitive gonads will develop into Testes if there is a Y chromosome or Ovaries if there are only X chromosomes.
Which is the first quantum number?
The principal quantum number, n.
What is the principle of superposition?
The principle of superposition states that when waves interact with eachother, the displacement of the resultant wave will be equal to the sum of the displacements of the two interacting waves. This means waves add when they have the same sign and they subtract when they have opposite signs.
What is heat?
The process by which energy is transferred between two objects by virtue of their difference in temperature
What is the name of the semilunar valve on the right side of the heart?
The pulmonary valve
What is the name of the sphincter that food passes through when it travels from the stomach to the small intestine?
The pyloric sphincter.
What is the radius/center of curvature for a spherical mirror?
The radius/center of curvature is the distance to the center of the theoretical sphere that the mirror would make if it was a complete sphere.
What is power? (No calculation, qualitative)
The rate at which energy is transferred from one system to another.
What is a rate determining step?
The rate determing step is the slowest step of the reaction mechanism because it acts like a kinetic bottleneck.
What is a rate law?
The rate law is just another term for the rate equation.
What is acceleration?
The rate of change of velocity m/s2
How do we calculate the rate of a reaction?
The rate will always be equal to the rate constant of the reaction times the concentration of the rectants raised to experimentally determined exponents.
What does it mean for an image to be real?
The rays of light actually converge at the position of the image.
What is the reaction quotient?
The reaction quotient, Q tells you the ratio of products to reactants at some point other than equilibrium. The reaction quotient can be compared to the Equilibrium constant for a given reaction and used to determine if the reaction is going to progress forward, backwards, or stay where it is.
What is the refractory period?
The refractory period is the amount of time associated with the membrane's hyperpolarization when it is harder or impossible to trigger another action potential. Because the the membrane is even more negative than usual, it is harder to stimulate the membrane to fire again.
What is the relative refractory period?
The relative refractory period is when it is possible to trigger another action potential, but you will need more stimuli than usual.
Describe the portal system in the kidney?
The renal portal system consists of the following two capillary beds in series. The first capillary bed is the glomerulus in the bowman's capsule. Instead of returning to venous circulation, blood leaves the glomerulus in the bowman's capsule and enters the capillary bed surrounding the loop of henle known as the vasa recta.
What is the renal portal system?
The renal portal system is the portal system composed of the capillary bled in the glomerular capsule going to the large capillary bed known as the vasa recta that surrounds the nephron before going back to the vein highway. It may be hard to see the two capillary beds in the picture below, so they have been marked with a 1 and 2. 1 is the capillary bed in the glomerular capsule, 2 is the vasa recta.
What does an Ohmeter measure?
The resistance of a circuit element. Does not require circuit to be on unlike voltmeter and ammeter. Often has its own battery of known voltage. Also has ammeter function to get current. Can calculate resistence from known voltage and current. Neglidgeable resistence
When blood pH is too low, how will the respiratory system compensate?
The respiratory system will increase respiration, causing carbondioxide to be blown off, causing the bicarbonate buffer to shift left, which lowers the amount of H+ and therefore increases the pH of the blood.
When blood pH is too high, how will the respiratory system compensate?
The respiratory system will slow the respiration rate, increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood, which pushes the equilibrium to the right towards more H+, which decreases the blood pH.
What is the restriction point?
The restriction point is the quality control checkpoint between G1 and S. If the cell passes the restriction point inspection, it will commit to replicating. If the cell does not pass the restriction point inspection, it will go into G0 or spend some more time in G1 and try to pass the restriction point again.
Describe the reticular layer of the dermis
The reticular layer is the deeper and more dense layer in the dermis. This is where sweatglands, blood vessels, and hair follicles reside originate from.
Which side of the heart drives the force in the pulmonary circuit?
The right side
What is torque?
The rotational force that occurs when a force is applied to a lever arm on a fulcrum of some length.
How does one calculate the wavelength and frequency of the standing wave in an open pipe?
The same way you do it for a string, except both ends are anti nodes instead of nodes. frequency is same too Where L is the length of the pipe and n is a non-zero positive integer known as the harmonic (corresponds to the number of half wavelengths on the string).
What is a sarcomere?
The sarcomere is the basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle. Sarcomeres lay end to end in a muscle and fill it up to provide the overall contractile motion of the muscle. Sarcomeres are what you are seeing in the striations of skeletal muscle.
What is the Sarcoplasm?
The sarcoplasm is a modified cytoplasm that is located just outside the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a modified endoplasmic reticulum filled with Calcium ions that that surrounds the myofibrils (which are just long chains of sarcomeres).
What happens to the secondary oocyte following ovulation?
The secondary oocyte will leave the ovary and enter the abdominal cavity. It will then be pushed to the fallopian tube where it can potentially be fertilized.
What is the secondary response in the immune system?
The secondary response is the fast and effective immune reaction the body has to the second exposure of a pathogen. This happens so fast because we have memory B-cells that already have the right antibody loaded.
What are the semilunar valves?
The semilunar valves are the valves between the ventricles and the circuits into which they flow. (both have three leaflets)
What is the function of the seminiferous tubules?
The seminiferous tubules are where new sperm cells are created. These sperm are created in help by the Sertoli cells, which nourish the growing sperm cells. MNEMONIC: S goes with S. Seminiferous tubules are where Sertoli cells help to Synthesize new Sperm
What happens in normal relaxation?
The signal at the neuromuscular junction degrades, which causes calcium to be cleared from the sarcoplasm, which causes the muscle to relax.
What is a solute?
The solute is the compound you add to the solvent. In this example, the blue powder is the solute because it was a solid before mixing and in the liquid phase with water after.
What is the solvent?
The solvent is the component of the mixture that stays in the same phase after mixing. For example, water is the solvent because it was a liquid before mixing and after. If both remain in the same phase, the solvent is the one in greater quantity.
What are the two components of the PNS?
The somatic and the autonomic nervous systems.
What is the somatic nervous system?
The somatic nervous system consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed through the skin, muscles, and joints. The sensory neurons allow us to consciously sense changes in our environment, and the motor neurons allow us to consciously move our bodies. Effectively, the somatic nervous system is the peripheral nervous system that we consciously control to make voluntary movements.
What is a source charge?
The source charge is the charge creating the electric field of interest.
What is the intermembrane space?
The space between the outer and inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
What is the interpleural space?
The space in between the two pleura of the lungs.
How do telomeres relate to aging?
The special arrangement of base pairs in the telomere is difficult to replicate, and with each new attempted replication of DNA, there is a chance that a portion of the telomere is not replicated. Over time the telomeres shorten and the cell's DNA is no longer protected. This leads to Senescence.
What is specific gravity?
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the substance's density to the density of pure water at 1atm and 4 degrees celsius. These paramaters are chosen because pure water has a density of exactly 1g/cm3 at them.
What is the specific heat of a substance?
The specific heat of a substance is the heat energy required to raise one gram of a substance by one degree celsius or kelvin.
Which is the fourth quantum number?
The spin quantum number, ms
What important thing happens in Metaphase?
The spindles push and pull the chromosomes to the metaphase plate, which is an imaginary line that runs down the center of the cell.
What role does the spleen play in the immune system?
The spleen is where blood is stored and B-cells are activated into plasma cells.
How can we calculate the standard enthalpy of a reaction?
The standard enthalpy of a reaction will be equal to the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation for the products minus the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the reactants. Remember to multiply delta H values in table by the stoichiometric modifier in the balanced equation Plug in whatever sign is in table. Keep negatives
What is the standard enthalpy of formation?
The standard enthalpy of formation of a compound, ΔHfo is the enthalpy required to produce one mole of a compound from its elements in their standard states. For example, the standard enthalpy of formation of CO2(g) would be the enthalpy required to make one mole of CO2 from 1 mole of C(s) and 1 mole of O2(g)
How can we calculate the standard entropy of a reaction?
The standard entropy of a reaction will be equal to the sum of the standard entropies of the products minus the sum of the standard entropies of the reactants.
What is the stationary phase in bacterial growth?
The stationary phase is when the bacteria have reduced resources to the point where they are starting to run out and can no longer grow as quickly.
What role does the GI tract play in the innate immune system?
The stomach is full of acid that destroys most pathogens on contact. Also gut flora out compete pathogens (unless atibiotics wipe them out, then pathogens can take over like C. diff)
What is the function of the Stratum Lucidum?
The stratum Lucidum is an optional skin layer that is only present in thick hairless skin (like the skin on the plams or the soles of the feet). It is nearly transparent and tough.
What is the stroma and of which tissue type is it usually composed?
The stroma is the support structure of an organ upon which the parenchyma depends. It is made of connective tissue.
How does one calculate the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel?
The sum of the inverses of the resistances will be equal to the inverse of the total resistance.
How does one find the equivalent capacitance for capacitors in series? How do voltages behave?
The sum of the inverses will be equal to the inverse of the total capacitance. Thus, capacitors in series cause a decrease in equivalent capacitance Voltages will add up to total voltage just like resistors in series
What is an object's total mechanical energy?
The sum of the kinetic and potential energy (basically, the usable energy).
What are the symmetric molecular geometries and why are they important to know?
The symmetric molecular geometries are... 1. Linear 2. Trigonal Planar 3. Tetrahedral 4. Octahedral 5. Square Planar It is important to know these symmetric molecular geometries because their symmetry can cause their dipoles to cancel out. This means that, even if you have polar bonds in an atom, they could cancel out in a linear/trigonal planar/etc. configuration and result in a molecule that is, overall, non-polar. Square planar and octahedral are extra special in that they can have different atoms yet still be nonpolar, ex. XeF2cl2 will be non polar in the configuration that has each atom opposite to its pair CCl2H2 will alwyas be polar however since Cl and H can never be across from eachother
What are the two components of the autonomic nervous system?
The sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems.
What is the synapse?
The synapse is the functional unit of an axon terminal, the synaptic cleft, and a dendrite
What is the synaptic cleft?
The synapse is the small space between the axon terminal of a sending neuron and the dendrite of a receiving neuron.
What is the synaptonemal complex?
The synaptonemal complex is a group of proteins that holds the two homologous chromosomes together in the tetrad.
What is a tail sheath?
The tail sheath is the long thin part of a bacteriophage. The tail sheath can act like a syringe, injecting the genetic info into the bacterium.
How is apoptosis important in fetal development?
The targeted destruction of cells allows the body to form into its desired shape. This is similar to how a marble sculptor breaks pieces of marble away from the block to make the shape he wants.
What is thermal expansion?
The tendency of objects to increase in size with increases in temperature.
What is the thoracic cavity?
The thoracic cavity is the space inside of your chest bounded by the ribs and the diaphragm.
What are the three germ layers and what is their collective function?
The three germ layers are the Ectoderm, the Mesoderm, and the Endoderm. These three layers provide the base for the development of all of the tissues in the human body. Each layer will develop into its own specific tissues.
What is the threshold potential?
The threshold potential is the potential at which an action potential will be fired. It is usually around -55 to -40 mV. If the threshold potential is not reached, then the action potential will not fire and a signal will not be sent down the axon.
What role does the Thymus play in the immune system?
The thymus is where T-cells go to mature.
What is the thyroid and what are its functions?
The thyroid gland is a endocrine organ on the anterior aspect of the trachea, just deep to the anterior neck. Its functions are to regulate metabolic rate and calcium homeostasis.
What is half life?
The time it takes for half of a sample of radioactive particles to decay.
How does titration work?
The titrant is something you know the concentration, volume, and therefore moles of. You add the titrant to the titrand/analyte until a visible reaction of some sort is completed. This is usually the color change of an indicator in an acid/base titration. Once the color change occurs, you use how many moles of titrant you added to stoichiometrically determine how many moles of titrand/analyte were in the solution.
What will the titration curve of an amino acid look like?
The titration curve of an amino acid will look like the combination of two monoprotic titration curves (or three if the side chain has an ionizable group)
What is Cardiac Output?
The total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in one minute.
What is absolute (hydrostatic) pressure?
The total pressure that is exerted on an object that is submerged in a fluid. For objects on planets with an atmosphere, the absolute pressure will be comprised of the pressure on the object from the liquid in which it is submerged and the pressure on the object from the atmosphere.
What is the trachea?
The trachea is the section of the throat after the larynx.
What is Griffith's transforming principle experiment?
The transforming principle experiment is just a manifestation of Bacterial Transformation as discussed in Chapter 1. Griffith had two bacteria, one was deadly, one was not. Griffith infected mice with non deadly bacteria, they didn't die. Makes sense. Griffith injected mice with the deadly bacteria, they did die, that makes sense. Griffith killed the deadly bacteria with heat, and then injected the mice with it. They didn't die, that makes sense. Then, Griffith killed the deadly bacteria with heat, injected the mice with it, and then injected the mice with the non deadly bacteria. What happened? Well, the living bacteria picked up the genetic info in the deadly bacteria (this is transformation) and started to express the proteins that allowed the deadly bacteria to kill the mice. So, the mice died. This experiment helped us realize that there was a molecule or substance responsible for the phenotypes of bacteria, and that this molecule could be transferred from dead bacteria to living bacteria.
What is the function of the trophoblast cells?
The trophoblast cells surround the blastocoel and give rise to the chorion and later the placenta.
What is the umbilical cord?
The umbilical cord is a thick cord comprised of two arteries and one vein encased in a gelatinous substance. The umbilical vein carries oxygen and nutrient rich blood to the embryo from the placenta and the umbilic arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the embryo to the placenta. NOTE: This is opposite of the normal situation, which is arteries carrying oxygenated blood and veins carrying deoxygenated blood.
What is the urethra?
The urethra is a tube that extends from the bladder and empties into the outside world. Urine stored in the bladder is sent through the urethra so it can be excreted.
What is the vasculature?
The vasculature is the system of pipes that delivers blood from the heart to the various tissues of the body.
What are the vena cavae?
The vena cavae are the two large veins that bring deoxygenated blood from the entirety of the body into the right atrium. The inferior vena cava holds all the blood from the below the heart and the superior vena cava holds all the blood from above the heart.
What are the venules?
The venules are the branched structures that receive blood from the capillaries and converge into veins.
What is the visceral pleura?
The visceral pleura is the membrane that is adjacent to the surface of the lung.
What determines the buoyant force an object feels?
The volume and density of the liquid that has been displaced. That's it. The buoyant force has nothing to do with the object being placed in the fluid. A bowling ball and a styrofoam ball with the same volume as the bowling ball will experience the same buoyant force despite having different masses.
What is Kw
The water dissociation constant. It is the equilibrium constant associated with the auto ionization of water.
What is the work function?
The work function is the amount of energy required to knock an electron off of the surface of a metal. This is similar to but not identical to ionization energy.
What is the yolk sac?
The yolk sac is a temporary structure from which the embryo draws nutrients and forms red blood cells. The yolk sac supports the embryo until the umbilical cord and the placenta are fully formed and can take over supplying the embryo.
What is the structure and function of the zona pellucida?
The zona pellucida is an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and allow sperm to bind to the oocyte.
What role does the skin play in the innate immune system?
Thee skin is the first line of defense against foreign invaders as it covers the entirety of our external body and serves as a tough barrier through which things cannot pass.
What would happen if you removed all the receptors for a hormone from cells?
Then the hormone would have no effect. Remember, hormones need to bind to receptors to exert their effects.
What is theoretical yield?
Theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be generated according to the balanced equation. This number is the yield associated with 100% of the limiting reactant reacting, absolutely no side reactions of any kind occuring, and no accidental loss of product during collection.
What are the general characteristics of metalloids?
There are no general characteristics of metalloids. Each metalloid is distinct from the other with a combination of both metal and nonmetal characteristics.
What is the phenotypic/genetic nomenclature used for blood types in medicine?
There are three alleles. IA and IB are Co-dominant and express the A and B antigens respectively. i is recessive to both IA and IB and expresses the O blood type of no antigens.
What does it mean to be isothermal and how does that affect the first law of thermodynamics equation?
There is no change in temperature (and therefore no change in internal energy) Q=W heat added to system=work done by system
The pulmonary and systemic circulation are wired in {{c1::series{{c2::series or parallel?}}}}
There is one path you can follow through the entirety of the cardiovascular system. That means the two circuits, the pulmonary and systemic circulation, are in series.
How does the concentration of potassium differ between the interior of the neuron and the outside of the neuron?
There is significantly more potassium inside the cell than outside the cell, and as such, there is a gradient pushing potassium out of the neuron.
How does the concentration of sodium differ between the interior of the neuron and the outside of the neuron?
There is significantly more sodium outside of the neuron than inside of the neuron, and as such, there is a concentration gradient pushing sodium into the neuron.
Of the two, which is more stable, kinetic product or thermodynamic product and why?
Thermodynamic product is the more stable of the two, more negative ΔG.
Ultimately, what determines something's solubility in a solvent?
Thermodynamics (delta G equation). If the electrostatic interactions between solvent and solute are favorable compared to the interactions between solute and solute, then the solvent will surround the solute and dissolve it.
What did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty do after they replicated Griffith's transforming experiment?
These three scientists repeated the transforming experiment, but under two new conditions. First, the experiment was done in the presence of DNA degrading enzymes. Under these conditions, no transformation was observed to occur. Second, the experiment was done in the presence of Protein degrading enzymes. Under these conditions, transformation was observed to occur. These results suggested that DNA, not Protein, was the transferrable genetic material.
How do the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system relate to one another?
They are antagonistic. That is to say, the effects of one are the opposite of the effects of the other.
What is the difference between a Monocyte and a Macrophage?
They are both phagocytic immune cells. The only difference is that Monocytes are in blood and Macrophages are in the tissues.
How do the flow of electrons and current relate to one another?
They are opposite! The flow of electrons is opposite of the flow of current in an electrochemical cell.
How do pancreatic juices get to the duodenum?
They are secreted by acinar cells into a duct that empties into the duodenum
What are the general characteristics of metals?
They are usually lustrous solid with high melting points. Metals also have the ability to be deformed without breaking (malleability and ductility). Finally, metals are usually good conductors of heat and electricity.
How do catalysts modify reaction diagrams?
They lower the activation energy by lowering the energy of the transition state.
How do bacteria use the Electron Transport Chain without mitochondria?
They use their own cell membrane to house the ETC enzymes.
What are the two types of filaments in Sarcomeres?
Thick and Thin Filaments
What are Thin Filaments of muscle made of?
Thin Filaments are made of Actin, troponin, and tropomyosin MNEMONIC: Thin filaments are made of Actin.
What kinds of molecules make good reducing agents?
Things that get oxidized well (i.e. try to lose electrons). Usually contain metal ions or hydrides (think: metals usually lose electrons)
How can you infer what an enzyme's most active pH will be?
Think of the environment in which that enzyme is found. The pH of that environment will usually be the enzyme's optimal pH. For example, Pepsin, in the acidic stomach, is best at ph = 2. Trypsin, in the basic small intestine, is best at pH = 8. Salivary Amylase, in the neutral (7.3) mouth, is best around 6.5.
characteristics of covalently bound compounds
This is usually how nonmetals bind other nonmetals because both of the nonmetals in the bond want to gain electrons. Dont form crystal lattices, compounds consist of individually bonded molecules
In an electrolytic cell, the cathode is {{c1::negative::positive or negative?}}
This makes sense because the cathode is where the electrons are going to do reduction. If the cathode is already negative, electrons don't want to go there. This means you have to put energy in to make it happen, like an electrolytic cell.
In a galvanic (voltaic) cell, the cathode is {{c1::positive::positive or negative?}}
This makes sense because the cathode is where the electrons are going to do reduction. If the cathode is positive, electrons want to go there. This means the cell will release energy from the favorable reaction, like a galvanic cell.
What are Threonine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Threonine, Thr, or T is a polar amino acid.
What is threshold frequency (fT)?
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency (and therefore energy) of light required to knock electrons off of a given metal atom. Different metals will have different threshold frequencies. if it doesnt hit threshold no electrons will leave.
What are Thrombocytes?
Thrombocytes are our platelets. Platelets are cell fragments/shards which are released by cells in the bone marrow known as Megakaryocytes. Their function is to assist in blood clotting. High concentration in blood
What is thrombopoietin?
Thrombopoietin is a hormone released by the liver and kidney. It stimulates the formation of platelets in the bone marrow.
How does the respiratory system influence the pH of blood?
Through the Bicarbonate buffer system
Glucocorticoids are potent immune system {{c1::inhibitors::activators or inhibitors}}
Thus treat autoimmune diseases
Compared to adult hemoglobin, fetal hemoglobin has a {{c1::higher::higher or lower?}} affinity for oxygen.
Thus, the curve for fetal hemoglobin is LEFT shifted
What is thymosin and what organ secretes it?
Thymosin is a hormone involved in the proper development and differentiation of T-Cells. This hormone is produced by the Thymus.
What is titration?
Titration is a procedure used to determine the concentration of a known reactant in solution.
What is the main role of the parasympathetic nervous system?
To conserve energy.
What is Calcitonin's function?
To decrease calcium levels in the blood. MNEMONIC: Calcitonin tones down the calcium levels in the blood.
What is the function of lysosomes?
To digest both foreign material that has been brought into the cell and damaged/uneeded organelles. also degrades misfolded proteins
What is the role of G-cells
To secrete Gastrin
What is the function of the alpha cells?
To secrete glucagon
What is the function of the beta cells?
To secrete insulin
What is the function of the delta cells?
To secrete somatostatin
How does one assign directionality to torques?
Torque that generates clockwise rotation is negative. Torque that generates counterclockwise rotation is positive.
What does it mean to be totipotent?
Totipotent cells can differentiate into literally any type of cell, either in the fetus or the placenta. These are the embryonic stem cells.
What are Trabeculae?
Trabeculae are the pointy projections of the lattice of spongy bone. Because of their shape, they create empty space between themselves. These spaces are filled with bone marrow.
What are the 2 main differences between tracts and nerves?
Tracts are in the CNS, Nerves are in the PNS. Tracts always carry one type of information(sensory or motor), Nerves can be mixed.
What is bacterial transduction?
Transduction is when a virus accidentally traps the genetic information of one bacterium in itself and then incorporates that genetic information into the genome of another bacterium.
What is bacterial transformation?
Transformation is when a bacterium picks up foreign genetic material and integrates it into its own genome.
What are the tenets of Transition State Theory?
Transition State Theory states that when molecules collide with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy, they form a transition state in which the old bonds are weakened and the new bonds begin to form. The transition state then falls apart into the products.
Describe a translocation chromosomal mutation?
Translocation occurs when a segment of DNA on chromosome is swapped with a segment of DNA on another chromosome.
What is a transposon?
Transposons are genetic elements that are capable of inserting and removing themselves from the host genome.
What is Tropomyosin's role in the thin filament?
Tropomyosin is a long chain protein that covers up the myosin binding sites on the actin filament when the muscle is relaxed.
What is troponin's function in the thin filament?
Troponin is attached to tropomyosin, and upon the binding of Calcium, will cause tropomyosin to move out of the way of the myosin binding sites.
What are Tryptophan's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Tryptophan, Trp, or W is a nonpolar aromatic amino acid.
What is turbulent flow?
Turbulent flow is rough and disorderly flow that causes the formation of eddies, which are swirls of fluid. This type of flow dissipates energy.
What are the two components of the adaptive immune system?
Two different types of Lymphocytes. 1. B cells 2. T cells
Mitosis results in what kind of cells?
Two identical daughter cells
How do we make sounds with our voice?
Two vocal cords inthe larynx vibrate together to make sound waves. This vibration is identical to the way sounds are made by stringed instruments.
What are Tyrosine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Tyrosine, Tyr, or Y is a just barely polar aromatic amino acid.
How does Ultrasound technology work?
Ultrasound machines make ultrasonic sound waves and apply them to the surface of the patient's body. When the sound waves travel through the body, they encounter various tissues. Whenever a sound wave passes into a new tissue, some of the wave passes through the tissue and some is reflected back to the source. Different tissues allow different amounts of wave to reflect back to the source. The more the tissue reflects back to the source, the more brightly the tissue will appear on ultrasound. Using all of this, one can visualize a 2D slice of the body. One makes note of where bright/dark areas are to determine which tissues are present and where they are present within that 2D slice. You can even target specific slices of the body by manipulating the distance at which the ultrasound is operating. Distance can be calculated because you know the speed of the wave (given) and you know how long you let the wave travel (given) so you can always calculate the distance of the tissue from which the wave is reflecting. ULTRA SOUND USES TRAVEL TIME OF THE REFLECTED SOUND TO CALCULATE DISTANCE (it doesnt use intensity to calc distance) Ultrasound relies fundamentally on the proclivity of waves to reflect when they hit borders between different media.
What is a substance's standard state?
Under standard conditions (25 C, 1 atm pressure, 1 M concentration) the state (gas, solid, or liquid) a substance takes is its standard state. FOr example, oxygen, at standard conditions, is a gaseous, neutral, diatomic compound. Iron, at standard conditions, is a solid, neutral, monoatomic compound.
What is unique about the way sweat glands are innervated?
Unlike all other postganglionic sympathetic neurons, the sweat gland postganglionic neurons are cholinergic (acetylcholine). This is unique because every other postganglionic sympathetic neuron is noradrenergic (norepinephrine).
Meiosis results in what kind of cells?
Up to 4 different daughter cells
How many oxygen molecules can a single hemoglobin carry at a time?
Up to 4.
How does bile get from the gall bladder to the small intestine?
Upon release of CCK, the gallbladder contracts and pushes bile into the biliary tree. This then merges with the pancreatic duct before emptying into the duodenum.
Where are nonmetals found on the periodic table?
Upper right side.
What are ureters?
Ureters are tubes that extend from the kidney. They carry the filtrate of the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
What is a portal system?
Usually in the body, each tissue has its own capillary bed that branches off from a main artery. Portal systems are exceptions to this rule. In a portal system, two capillary beds that are associated with different tissues/organs are connected in series. So, instead of an artery independently supplying the two capillary beds, the artery supplies one capillary bed and the blood flows through that capillary bed into the next one before connecting back to a vein.
What is the Vital Capacity? (VC)
VC is the difference between the TLC and the RV. Basically, this means that VC is the maximum amount of air you could inhale or exhale.
What is VSEPR Theory?
VSEPR Theory is a system by which we can predict the shape of a molecule based on the arrangement of bonding and non bonding electrons as seen in its lewis structure.
How do vaccines work?
Vaccines are weakened or killed pathogens that are injected into the body so that the body can make antibodies on a weaker and less lethal version of a bigger and badder pathogen. Vaccines can be thought of as training for the immune system.
What is a valence electron?
Valence electrons are the electrons that are held in the farthest energy shell from the nucleus. Because they are so far from the nucleus, these electrons are weakly held and are the most likely to be involved with interactions with other elements/the environment.
What are Valine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Valine, Val, or V is a non-polar, aliphatic amino acid.
What is vapor pressure?
Vapor pressure is the pressure associated with the gas molecules floating over an equilibrated isolated liquid.
How does vasoconstriction keep us warm?
Vasoconstriction tightens the arteries, meaning less blood is at the surface of the skin where it will dump all its heat into the cold air.
What is a vein?
Veins are the blood vessels in the body that move blood towards the heart.
Why does it make sense that veins have valves?
Veins do not push blood forward with their own elasticity. Instead, the veins are acted upon by surrounding skeletal muscle contractions that cause them to slowly squeeze blood forward. Veins have to fight against gravity, and the linear speed of fluid in the veins is lower than in the arteries, so it is much more likely that blood will flow backwards. The venous valves protect against this.
What is velocity?
Velocity is a vector quantity that describes the change in displacement per unit of time.
What is a vesicle?
Vesicle is the umbrella term for small membrane bound sacs. Lysosomes, endosomes, exosomes, etc. are all examples of vesicles.
What are villi?
Villi are small fingerlike projections of the epithelial lining of the small intestine. Their purpose is to increase the amount of surface area in the small intestine to increase the efficiency of absorption.
What is viral extrusion?
Viral extrusion is when a virus leaves a cell by exocytosis instead of just killing the cell. Viruses using this are in Productive cycle
What is viral lysis?
Viral lysis is when a virus kills the host cell. The host cell spills out its contents, including the virus, which goes off to infect new cells. Disadvantage because cell can't make any more virions
What are voltage gated channels?
Voltage gated channels are proteins in the membrane that respond to changes in the voltage of the membrane. At certain voltages, these channels can be opened or closed, allowing or prohibiting ions from rushing down their electrochemical gradients.
Should you place a voltmeter in parallel or series?
Voltage is equivalent across parallel elements and split between series elements. Therefore, one should wire a voltmeter in parallel with the two points between which one wants to measure the voltage. If you place the voltmeter in series with the two points, the voltage will be split and the voltmeter will read lower than the actual voltage.
What is voltage?
Voltage is the difference in the electric potential between two points. Path independent
What are the units of potential?
Volts (V = J/C)
What kinds of moleucles need special carriers in order to travel through the bloodstream?
Water insoluble molecules
What kinds of moleucles can travel through the bloodstream with no assistance?
Water soluble molecules
What is a wavelength?
Wavelength is the distance from one feature of the wave to the next instance of that feature. For example, if one is measuring the wavelength using a crest, then the wavelength would be the distance between the first crest and the second crest.
How do we convert a first order reaction into a straight line?
We graph the ln of the concentration instead of the concentration. The slope will be equal to negative 1 times the rate constant of the reaction.
From whom do we inherit our mitochondria and why?
We inherit our mitochondria from our mother because the Ovum is the cell with all of the cytoplasm and the organelles. The sperm just contributes its half of the DNA and then degrades.
Why do we need to know about effective nuclear charge?
We need to know about effective nuclear charge because inner electrons shield the outer electrons from the charge of the nucleus. This means that, even though the electrons are all being pulled upon by the same nucleus, that pull varies for each electron.
How does one create a lewis structure for an atom/molecule?
We will use the example of HCN to illustrate the steps of lewis dot structure construction. 1. Draw out the backbone of the compound, that is, the arrangement of the atoms. In general, the least electronegative atom will be the central atom, and Hydrogen and Halogens almost always occupy a terminal position. For now, just make single bonds between them. 2. Add the valence electrons of each individual atom in order to determine how many valence electrons you have total to use. 3. Place the electrons in the lewis structure, trying to do the best job you can of making sure everyone is in an octet and everyone has a formal charge of 0. 4. Sometimes it will be impossible to get every atom to an octet with the number of valence electrons in the compound. In this case, try to replace single bonds with double bonds/triple bonds strategically. The use of double and triple bonds will almost always allow you to get every atom to an octet.
What is an apoptotic bleb and what does it become?
When a cell breaks down during apoptosis, it forms apoptotic blebs. These are small membrane bound sacs filled with broken down cell material. Becomes and apoptotic body
What is nuclear fission?
When a large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei.
What happens when a naive B-cell is exposed to an antigen?
When a naive B-cell is exposed to an antigen, it will start to rapidly divide into two types of cells, plasma cells and memory-B cells.
What is the cortical reaction and how does it affect the ovum?
When a sperm penetrates the cell membrane of an ovum, a flood of calcium ions occurs and the ovum's cell membrane depolarizes. This serves 2 purposes. 1. The depolarized cell membrane is impenetrable to more sperm, preventing multiple sperm from fertilizing one egg. 2. The increased calcium concentration increases the metabolic rate of the newly formed zygote, helping it to grow and survive.
What is the zeroth law of thermodynamics?
When an object x is in thermal equilibrium with an object y, and that object y is in thermal equilibirum with another object z, x will be in thermal equilibrium with z.
What is gamma decay?
When an unstable nucleus emits a gamma ray AKA a high energy photon. Gamma rays are massless and chargeless, they just carry energy and their emission helps to stabilize a high energy nucleus. They do not affect the atomic number or mass number of a nucleus.
How do we form blood clots?
When endothelial cells are damaged it exposes collagen with tissue factor. When platelets contact collagen, they begin to agglutinate, and also activate integrin molecules that adhere to proteins (such as fibrinogen- which recruits more platelets). Simultaneously, coagulation factors (most are secreted by liver) trigger a long cascade that ends like so: The endpoint of the clotting cascade is when Prothrombin is converted to thrombin by an enzyme called thrombplastin. Thrombin can convert a molecule called fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrin forms small fibers that make a net like structure, which captures other cells/platelets and creates the blood clot.
When do we give heat positive or negative values?
When heat is entering or leaving the system, respectively.
When will an object sink or float in a fluid?
When its density is higher or lower than the fluid, respectively.
Explain the photoelectric effect
When light of sufficiently high energy strikes a metal it knocks the electrons off the metal and thereby produces a current. More intense light means more photons per unit time hit the electrode and thus more electrons are knocked off per unit time. This leads to greater current. Current is Directly proportional to the intensity and amplitude of the light beam when we are above threshold. when we are below, no current is produced. Kinetic energy of electrons DOES NOT relate to intensity, but rather to frequency of the light
When does light refract towards the normal?
When light passes from a low index of refraction to a higher index of refraction.
How does our hair standing on end heat us up?
When our hair stands straight up, it helps to trap a layer of heated air near the skin.
How do reactions respond to changes in pressure and volume, as described by Le Chatelier's principle? Note, these changes are only seen in gas systems.
When pressure is added to a gas system in equilibrium, the reaction will push the reaction to the side of the reaction with less moles of gas, and therefore less pressure. The opposite is true. When a system contracts and the volume goes down, the pressure goes up, and again, the reaction will push the reaction to the side of the reaction with less moles of gas, and therefore less pressure. The opposite is true.
What is nuclear fusion?
When small nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus.
How does an action potential cause the release of neurotransmitters?
When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, voltage gated calcium channels open. Calcium rushes into the cell, and the neurotransmitter vesicles fuse with the membrane and exocytose their contents.
When does light undergo total internal reflection?
When the angle of incident light exceeds the critical angle. If it is less than critical angle a light beam will emerge
What is happening when an atom is demoted to ground state.
When the electron spontaneously falls from a higher energy level to a lower energy level (THIS WILL ALWAYS HAPPEN) the atom loses some energy. This energy is lost in the form of a photon which the atom basically spits out.
When does laminar flow convert to turbulent flow?
When the fluid's critical speed has been exceeded.
When does light refract away from the normal?
When the light passes from a higher index of refraction to a lower index of refraction. NOTE: Air has a lower index of refraction than water.
In acid base titration, when is the equivalence point reached?
When the number of equivalents of acid and base are equal. Does NOT always have to be pH=7 (it is for strong acid and base)
What is reductional division?
When the result of a division is the reduction of the ploidy number.
Why is the pushing of nonpolar amino acids into the core of a protein spontaneous?
When there are nonpolar amino acids on the outside of the protein, water cannot hydrogen bind with the protein, which means it can only hydrogen bind with itself. This reduces water's options, which lowers its entropy, which makes this process unfavorable. On the other hand, if water can hydrogen bind with the outside of the protein (polar AA's on the exterior), that gives water more options and lowers the entropy of the system, which is favorable.
How do waves behave when fixed at one end?
When there is a boundary of some sort on one side of the wave, the wave will hit the boundary and then reflect its direction and invert its orientation.
What is a concentration gradient?
When there is an area of high concentration of a molecule connected to an area of low concentration of a molecule, the molecules will spontaneously be driven to go from the high concentration area to the low concentration area. We refer to this spontaneous movement of molecules as the concentration gradient.
What is the Doppler effect?
When two objects are moving in relation to one another, the frequencies of the sounds they make will be altered. When the source and detector are moving toward eachother, the perceived frequency is greater When the source and the detector are moving away from eachother, the percieved frequency is less than the actual frequency
Intensity of transmitted light through a polarizer
When unpolarized light first hits a polarizer, intensity is halved (dont use cosine equation) Itransmitted = I0cos2θ. I0 is intensity intitial theta is angle between incident and new polarizer 90 degrees means no light is transmitted, 0 degrees means all light is transmitted
How do buffer solutions resist changes in pH?
When you add straight up OH- or H+ to a buffer solution, the buffer equilibrium will respond to the change and compensate for it, according to Le Chatelier's principle. This is different in a non buffer solution where the H+ or OH- you add just gets added to the solution straight up without any response.
How do reactions respond to changes in concentration, as described by Le Chatelier's principle?
When you increase the concentration of something at equilibrium, the equilibrium will oppose this change by pushing the reaction to the other side of the equation. When you decrease the concentration of something at equilibrium, the equilibrium will oppose this change by running the reaction to the same side of the equation so it can replace what was lost.
Describe Ohm's Law.
Whenever you pass through a resistor, you lose energy in the form of a drop in electric potential. Ohm's law calculates the amount of potential you lose when you pass through a resistor. Note: You dont lose current, no charge is gained or lost upon moving through a resister. Current for a circuit is constant
How does one calculate capacitance due to physical properties of the capacitor?
Where A is the cross sectional area of the capacitor plates and d is the distance between them. E is 8.85E-12 F/m
How does one calculate the speed of sound in a given medium?
Where B is the bulk modulus of the medium (increases from gas to liquid to solid, so sound travels FASTEST IN A SOLID!!!!) and rho is the density of the medium.
Capacitors store energy by separating charges and creating an electric field in which to store energy. How does one calculate the amount of electrical potential energy in a capacitor?
Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor and V is the potential across the capacitor.
How does one calculate the modified capacitance due to a dielectric?
Where C is the original capacitance and k is the dielectric constant.
What is the Planck Relation?
Where E is equal to the energy in Joules. f is equal to the frequency in Hz and h is the Planck's constant.
What is the equation for the Nernst Equation?
Where Eocell is the emf under standard conditions, R is the ideal gas constant, T is temperature, n is the number of moles of electrons, F is the faraday constant, and Q is the reaction quotient. If the temperature is at 298 K (Standard conditions) the following simplified version of the equation can be used. For Q remember not to include solids. So for: Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) -> Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s), Q would just be zinc ion over copper ion .
What is the mathematical definiton of Cardiac Output CO?
Where HR is heart rate in beats per minute and SV is Stroke Volume.
How does one calculate sound level?
Where I is the intensity of the sound wave and Io is the threshold of hearing 1*10-12 W/m2
How do you calculate the change in volume and molarity during a dilution?
Where Mi is the initial Molarity, Vi is the initial volume, Mf is the final molarity, after dilution, and Vf is the final volume, after dilution.
How does one calculate the volume and concentration of a titrated species?
Where N is the normality of the titrand and the analyte, and V is the volume of the titrand and the analyte.
How does one calculate the work done by gases?
Where P is pressure in pascals and V is volume in meters cubed.
What is the equation for calculating the absolute(hydrostatic) pressure on an object?
Where Po is the ambient pressure on the liquid (usually atmospheric pressure but not always) and pgz is the pressure due to being submerged in the liquid. z indicates the depth at which the object is submerged. Rho is density of fluid
What is the equation for Poiseuille's Law?
Where Q is the flow rate, r is the radius of the space or pipe, Delta P is the pressure gradient, eta is the viscosity of the fluid, and L is the length of the pipe. The important things to notice here are the ways changes in variables affect flow rate. Increasing radius increase the flow rate a lot. Increasing length decreases the flow rate a little. Slight change in radius has huge effect on pressure gradient assuming constant flow rate
How do you calculate the Delta G of a reaction at non standard conditions?
Where Q is the reaction quotient of the reaction, T is the temperature of the reaction, and R is the ideal gas constant.
How does one relate the equilibrium constant for a reaction and the standard gibbs free energy of the reaction?
Where R is the ideal gas constant 8.314, T is the temperature, and Keq is the equilibrium constant.
How does one calculate the energy required to promote an electron from one energy level to another?
Where RH is 2.18E-18, ni is the initial energy level and nf is the final energy level. Or they could give you R as 1.09E7 in which case the Eq would be
What are the formulas for voltage?
Where Vb is the potential at point b, Va is the potential at point a, Wab is the work required to move a charge from point a to point b, and q is the charge of the moved particle.
What is the equation for the delta G of an electrochemical cell?
Where delta G prime is the standard gibbs free energy, n is the number of moles of electrons exchanging between the anode and the cathode, F is the Faraday constant, and Ecell is the standard electrode potential. Since F is in coulombs (J/V), delta G must be in joules
How does one calculate the velocity of a wave?
Where f is frequency and lambda is wavelength.
How does one calculate the Doppler effect?
Where f' is the perceived frequency, f is the original frequency, v is the speed of sound, vd is the speed of the detector, and vs is the speed of the source. Use upper signs when the detector or source is moving toward the other object, and the bottom signs when the detector or source is moving away from the other object Ex. you are driving and an ambulance is approaching your rear. EVEN THOUGH ambulance is getting closer, YOU are still driving AWAY from the ambulance, so use bottom sign in numerator (negative). the ambulance is driving TOWARD you, so the top sign is used in the demoniator (negative) MNEMONIC Use the TOP sign when the detector/source is moving TOWARDS the other object.. Use the bottom sign when it is going away.
How do you relate the standard potential of a reaction to its equilibrium?
Where n is the number of moles of electrons exchanging in the reaction. F is the Faraday Constant, R is the ideal gas constant, T is the temperature, and Keq is the equilibrium constant of the reaction. If Keq is greater than 1, Ecell will be positive, meaning delta G will be negative and thus the reaction is spontaneous. If Keq=1, Ecell is 0.
How do you calculate osmotic pressure?
Where pi is osmotic pressure, i is the number of ions into which the solute dissolves, M is the molarity, R is the ideal gas constant (.0821atm-L/mol-k), and T is the temperature.
How does one calculate a fluid's critical speed?
Where v is the critical speed. Eta is the viscosity. p is the density. D is the diameter of the tube. NR is a constant known as Reynold's number which changes based on the size and shape of objects within the fluid.
How does a lysosome digest something?
Whether it is digesting food or unneeded organelles, the lysosome must interact with a membrane bound carrier of some sort(usually something ending in -some). The lysosome will fuse its membrane with the carrier, inject its hydrolytic enzymes into the new macro structure, and digest whatever the original carrier was carrying. Lysosomes fuse with vesicles to exert their effects!
What does the magnetic quantum number tell you?
Which orbital the electrion is in given a subshell. For example, in the p subshell there are three possible orbitals, Px, Py, and Pz. The magnetic quantum number will tell you which orbtial the electron is in.
What is the difference between white fat and brown fat?
White fat helps is permanent fat that helps insulate the body. Brown fat is semi-temporary fat (we lose most of it as we grow out of infancy) that is purposefully energy inefficient so it loses a lot of chemical energy in the form of heat. This helps keep the body warm.
What is the difference between white matter and grey matter?
White matter is myelinated (axon), grey matter is not (cell bodies and dendrites)
How do we experimentally determine the rate constant and the orders of a reaction?
With experimentally determined data! This will almost always be given to you in the form of a chart.
How do the X and Y axis of the hemoglobin dissociation curve explain the way hemoglobin is delivered to tissues?
Within different tissues, the partial pressure of Oxygen is different. For example, in the lungs, the partial pressure of oxgen is very high. In exercising muscle, the partial pressure of oxygen is much lower. This is represented on the x-axis of the curve. Notice that, in the lungs where partial pressure of oxygen is high (far right on the x-axis), hemoglobin is almost completely saturated with oxgen (high up on the y-axis). This makes sense because the lungs already have a lot of oxygen in them. The lungs don't need more oxygen and so hemoglobin keeps all its oxygen molecules bound. However, in exercising muscle (far left on the x-axis) the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin is very low (very low on the y-axis). This makes sense because the exercising muscle needs the oxygen, so the hemoglobin gives its oxygen away.
What are some common diamagnetic materials?
Wood, plastics, water, glass, and skin
What is the difference between work function and ionization energy?
Work Function is the energy required to knock an electron off the surface of a metal, where as ionization energy is the energy to remove a bound electron from a gaseous atom/molecule.
What are X-linked traits and how do they play into punnet squares?
X-linked traits are traits that are only found on the X-chromosome. This drastically changes the expression seen in males as they have only 1 X-chromosome. This must be accounted for in a punnet square in order to accurately determine the phenotype/genotype of offspring. The way we account for this is we enter the man as an XY pair with his allele type on the X chromosome, and we enter the woman as a XX pair with both of her allele types on their respective X-chromosomes. We then conduct the punnet square. assume x linked are recessive unless otherwise stated
What is yellow bone marrow?
Yellow bone marrow is mostly just inert fat (adipose) in the bone.
Is electrostatic force a vector?
Yes
Is the electric field a vector?
Yes
Do nonionic solutes contribute to the conductance of an electrolytic solution?
Yes, but negligibly. The concentration of the ionic solutes in the solution will always be more important than the nonionic solutes for determing conductance.
Do real gases follow the ideal gas law?
Yes, but not at all ranges. Real gases do not follow the ideal gas law at high pressures, low volumes, and low temperatures.
How do you pick a good indicator?
You pick a good indicator by making sure the color change (which happens at the pKa of the indicator) is close to the pH you want the indicator to change at (equivalence point).
How do we convert a second order reaction graph into a line graph?
You plot 1/concentration versus time. The slope of the line will be equal to the rate constant.
What is the equation to calculate the centripital force and centripital acceleration on an object?
ac=v2/r
During bone formation, calcium, phosphate, and other important ingredients are brought from the blood into the bone or pulled from the bone into the blood
brought from the blood into the bone
What is the law of constant composition? (And other name)
example: every sample of water contains 2 H per 1 O
The internal intercostal muscles can be recruited to aid in inhalation or exhalation?
exhalation
How does one calculate the wavelength/ frequency of the standing wave in a closed pipe?
f= (nv)/4L Where L is the length of the pipe and n is limited to odd integers above zero (1,3,5... etc.). n represents the number of quarter wavelengths. limited to odd harmonics
What is the equation for the wavelength and frequency of a standing wave on a fixed string?
f=(nv)/2L where v is velocity (speed of sound for sound waves) Where L is the length of the string and n is a non-zero positive integer known as the harmonic (corresponds to the number of half wavelengths on the string).
What is gram equivalent weight?
gram equivalent weight is the molar mass of an acid/base divided by the number of protons/OH it gives to solution.
How do you name an acid of the form HA, where A is a single anion?
hydro- anion name - ic acid.
What is mole fraction, X?
if the give percent of each gas, assume that's the mole fraction
The external intercostal muscles can be recruited to aid in inhalation or exhalation?
inhalation
What are the common brush border enzymes and what do they break down?
isomaltase, maltase, lactase, sucrase, aminopeptidase, dipeptidase Break down disaccharides and peptides Do not break down starch
What is the difference between k and Keq
k is the rate constant for the rate law equation. Keq is the equilibrium constant for the equilibrium expression.
How do you calculate Keq from k?
k of the forward reaction (kf) divided by k of the reverse reaction (kr)
What paramater defines the strength of an acid or a base?
ka or kb
What does the azimuthal quantum number represent?
l describes the subshell in which the electron resides. Each type of subshell, s, p, d, etc., has an l value.
What are the 2 process functions?
mechanical Work and Heat
What is the specific heat of water?
or
What are common units for density?
or (A mL is equal to a cm3)
What are the formulas for electric potential? How do you determine sign?
or Sign is determined by sign of source charge. Positive source will have positive V
what is p(x)?
p(x) is equal to -log(x)
How do we convert from pH of a solution to the pOH of the solution?
pH + pOH = 14
What is the equation for the heat of transformation?
q = mL where q is heat, m is the mass of the substance, and L is the heat/g of the phase change in question.
What is the formula for calculating the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of a circular loop of wire?
r is radius of wire multiply by N turns
Describe the graph of a first order reaction?
rate=k[A]1 or rate=k[B]1 A first order reaction means the rate of the reaction is dependent on the concentration of one reactant. So, as the reaction progresses and the amount of reactants decreases, the reaction rate decreases. So the less reactant there is, the more slowly it gets used up. This manifests in the graph as a fast decline that gradually flattens out. A.K.A, an inverse exponential graph. NOTE: We cannot calculate the slope of this graph, it must be converted into a line graph.
Are electrical potential energy and electric potential scalars or vectors?
scalars
What are the equations for electric field?
where Fe is the electrostatic force on the test charge, q is the charge of the test charge, Q is the charge of the source charge, and r is the distance from the source charge.
What is the equation to calculate Gibbs Free Energy?
where G is gibbs free energy, H is the enthalpy, T is the temperature, and S is the entropy.
What is the formula for calculating the force on a current carrying wire placed in a magnetic field?
where I is the current, L is the length of the wire, B is the strength of the magnetic field, and theta is the angle between the magnetic field and the length of the wire.
What is the specific heat equation?
where c is the specific heat of the substance. mass in grams when using c=4.184 MNEMONIC: Q=MCAT
How does one calculate the frequency of the vibration of a string?`
where f is frequency, T is tension in the string, p is the linear density (mass per unit of length), and lambda is equal to the wavelength.
How does one calculate the power of a lens?
where f is the focal length in meters.
How does one calculate the energy of a photon?
where f is the frequency of the proton and h is planck's constant
How does one calculate the magnification of an object?
where i and o are the distances to the image and the object, respectively.
What is the formula for elastic potential energy?
where k is the spring constant and x is the distance from the equilibrium position
What is snell's law for the index of refraction?
where n is the index of refraction, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and v is the speed of light in the medium in question.
What is the formula for the net torque on a dipole?
where p is the magnitude of the dipole moment, E is the magnitude of the electric field, and theta is the angle between them.
What is the formula for calculating dipole moment? vector or scalar
where q is charge of the dipole and d is the distance. This is a vector
What is the equation to calculate the force on a charged particle moving into a magnetic field?
where q is the charge, v is the velocity of the particle, and theta is the angle between the magnetic field and the velocity vector of the particle Note: a charge moving parallel or antiparallel to the field will experience no magnetic force because sin of 0 is 0
What is the equation for the heat absorbed or released due to change in temperature?
where q is the heat, m is the mass (in grams when using c=4.184), T is the temperature, and c is the specific heat of the substance.
What is the formula for Coulomb's law?
where q1 is the charge on the first particle, q2 is the charge on the second particle, r is the distance between the particles, and k is the Coulomb constant = 9*109
How does one calculate resistance?
where rho is the resistivity (ohm*m), L is the length of the resistor, and A is its cross-sectional area.
What is snell's law of refraction?
where the n's are the indices of refraction for the two media and the theta's are the angle from the normal of the two media. It is important to make sure you know exactly which angle is which and how to identify them on test day. Picture below clearly labels the angles.
What is the formula for calculating the magnetic field produced by current traveling through a wire?
where u is the magnetic susceptibility constant (4piE-7 (T*m)/A), I is the current in the wire, and r is the distance from the wire.
What is the formula for kinetic friction?
where uk is the coefficient of kinetic friction and N is the normal force.
What is the equation for the continuity equation?
where v is linear speed, A is cross sectional area of the pipe, and Q is flow rate
In nuclear fission, energy is {{c1::released::consumed or released?}}
you may think it would take energy to split atoms, but The products are more stable than starting nuclei (because the starting nuclei are unstable radioactive elements), so it releases enrgy
What are the 9 state functions?
1. Pressure (P) 2. Density 3. Temperature 4. Volume 5. Enthalpy 6. Entropy 7. Potential Energy 8. Gibbs Free Energy 9. Internal Energy
What is a process function?
A process function is a thermodynamic property that is a function of the path taken to a certain state.
What is a free body diagram?
A visual accounting of all the forces on an object.
When multiplying vectors, what type of product should be used to create a new vector?
Cross Product
What is mechanical advantage?
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of magnitudes of the force exerted on an object by a simple machine to the force actually applied to the simple machine.
How does mechanical advantage work?
Mechanical advantage is when we use a machine of some sort to reduce the amount of force needed to achieve some outcome. This reduction in force is accomplished through an increase in distance through which the force has to be applied, thus conserving energy. (Work is the same both with and without pulley)
Describe the tail to tip method?
The tail to tip method is a way of calculating the sums (or substractions) of vectors. Simply put the vectors tail to tip (flip the vector for negative)
Explain how something like work is a process function
The work done by or on a system is defined by the path the work took. Work can be calculated using W = F*d*costheta where F is force and d is distance. Therefore, differing path lengths (d) are built into the equation and must be considered. For further elaboration, consider the following. Two weights are at a height of 10 meters. The first weight was brought from 0 meters to a height of 10 meters, which took some amount of work. The second weight, on the other hand, went up 10 m, left 5 meters, and then right 5 meters. Both weights are in the same final position, 10 meters above ground level, but the second case took more work.
What is the work energy theorem?
The work energy theorem says that the total change in energy (work) of an object can be calculated by determining the change in an object's kinetic energy. Work also equals negative change in potential energy for conservative forces
What is uniform circular motion?
When an object's instantaneous velocity vector is tangent to the circular path but centripital force (which is pointed radially inward) keeps the motion circular.
How does one calculate the amount of work done on an object?
Where F is the force, d is the distance over which the force was applied, and theta is the angle between the force and the displacement vector
How does one relate mass and weight?
Where Fg is the force of weight (gravity), m is mass, and g is acceleration due to gravity.
How does one calculate power in terms of work?
Where W is work, t is time, and E is total mechanical energy
What is the formula to calculate an object's kinetic energy?
Where m is mass and v is speed
What is the formula for static friction?
Where us is the coefficient of static friction and N is the magnititude of the normal force.
Where should one assign the zero point when calculating gravitational potential energy?
Wherever is most convenient. We can pick a zero point wherever we want. Try to pick a zero point that eliminates variables.
What should the change in total mechanical energy of an object be equal to when only dealing with conservative forces?
Zero