immunity

antigenic drift

Minor change in influenza virus antigens due to gene mutation

PAMPs

(pathogen-associated molecular patterns) Molecules associated with groups of pathogens, that are recognized by cells of the innate immune system.

Endotoxins

- are lipopolysaccharides contained in the cell walls of *gram-negative bacteria* and released during lysis or destruction of the bacteria -Bacteria that produce endotoxins are called pyrogenic bacteria because they stimulate the release of inflammatory mediators and produce fever and the local and systemic effects of inflammation. -Release of sufficient amounts of endotoxin can lead to endotoxic or septic shock and damage to multiple organs due to widespread inflammation, dilation, drop in BP, etc. -Leading cause of death in intensive care units -Most common cause of septic shock is proliferation of gram-negative

exotoxins

- are proteins released during bacterial growth. They are usually enzymes and have highly specific effects

mhc 2

- presents exogenous (extracellular) antigen - expressed only on antigen presenting cells, b-cells, epithelial cells

clotting cascade

-Dependent on calcium - form on phospholipid membranes -Rich in phosphatidylserine and have "tenase" activity -Factor X begins a common pathway in which Xa complexes with Va and prothrombin (PT), with calcium and phospholipid membranes, to form an active prothrombinase (activates prothrombin into thrombin). Thrombin is an enzyme that cuts high-molecular-weight fibrinogen into fibrin molecules. Fibrin polymerizes to form a clot. -Leads to activation of fibrin by exposure to thrombin which cuts high-molecular-weight fibrinogen into fibrin molecules.

IgM antibodies

-Largest of the immunoglobulins -First antibody produced during the initial or primary response to antigen - circulates in body fluids; pulls antigens together in clumps ex) antibody formed against a and b blood types, but too large to cross the placenta so baby with O mother is safe 5 units- causes agglutination (clumping) of antigens

IgE antibodies

-Least concentrated of any of the immunoglobulin classes in the circulation -Very specialized functions as a mediator of many common allergic responses found in mast cells, activate allergic response and parasitic infections (think eosinophils)

IgG antibodies

-Most abundant class -Constitute 80-85% of immunoglobulins -Protective activity against infections -Able to cross the placental barrier providing passive immunity to the fetus - antibody against Rh, so rh- mom will produce immune response against rh+ fetus (for second baby)

clotting system

Plasma protein system that forms a fibrinous meshwork of fibrin, platelets, and other cells at the inflamed site - prevents spread of infection to adjacent tissues -Traps microorganisms and foreign bodies at the site -Forms a clot that stops bleeding -Provides a framework for future repair

vascular response`

skin is natural barrier, when skin is punctured and pathogens enter the area the inflammatory process starts, causing redness and heat, oozing of fluids and small molecules of out the vessels causes edema, clotting system activated to form clots and granulocytes migrate through the tissues into the vessels in a process called diapedesis

bacteria capsule

sticky layer of polysaccharides or protein surrounding the cell wall that can aggregate or protect themselves

membrane attack complex (MAC)

structure typically formed on the surface of pathogenic bacterial cells as a result of the activation of the host's alternative pathway, classical pathway, or lectin pathway of the complement cascade.; the complex of terminal complement components that forms a pore in the membrane of the target cell, damaging the membrane and leading to cell lysis.

recombinant vaccines

subunit vaccines produced by genetic modification ex) Hep B

SLE

systemic lupus erythematosus; type III hypersensitivity

cell mediated adaptive immunity

t cell receptors stimulated by antigen; t effector cells proliferate to attack the pathogen or activate other cells; t helper cells signal for help; t cytoxic cells kill foreign invaders;

Th1

t memory cells; helps t cells differentiate into Tc and t memory cells

Differentiation in the thymus

t-cells display multiple surface receptors during this time, go from expressing cd2 to cd3 then to cd4 and cd9

antibiotics

target organisms and target what we want to do with the organism

tissue tropism

the range of tissue types that a pathogen can infect

Interphase

the resting phase between successive mitotic divisions of a cell, or between the first and second divisions of meiosis.

DNA viruses

the virus enters the cell through fusion with the membrane or receptor and then enter the nucleus and use the host DNA and RNA machinery to replicate themselves

Window period of HIV

time from infection to antibody creation, usually 2-12 weeks, but can be as long as 6 months; during this time the virus multiplies rapidly. The adaptive immune system recognizes it and ends the period

toxic shock syndrome

toxemia leading to shock and organ failure

Bacterial superantigens

toxins that increase adherence between MHC class II proteins on antigen presenting cells and the T cell receptors, causing a super inflammation and cytokine storm response ex) toxic shock syndrome

toxoid vaccines

triggering immune response to fight toxic compounds that the pathogen produces

myasthenia gravis

type II hypersensitivity; involves autoantibodies binding acetylcholine receptors on skeletal muscle cells

interferons

type of cytokine; are members of a family of low-molecular- weight proteins that primarily protect against viral infections and modulate the inflammatory response.

prodromal stage

vague feelings of discomfort; nonspecific complaints

Type I interferons

interferon alpa and beta; respond to viral infections, interfere with viral replication

type ii interferon

interferon-γ, induces phagocytosis by macrophages

incubation period

interval between initial infection and first signs and symptoms

basophils

least prevelant granulocyte in the blood; release histamine

treg cells

limit immune response to prevent tissue damage

mhc i

presents endogenous antigens, present on all cells

Bacteriostatic

prevents bacteria from reproducing by disrupting bacterial wall, bacterial RNA, etc.

Peripheral tolerance

prevents recognition by lymphocytes and antibodies

interleukin-10

primarily produced by lymphocytes and suppresses the growth of other lymphocytes and the production of proinflammatory cytokines by macrophages, leading to the downregulation of both inflammation and the adaptive immune response.

eosinophils

primary defense against parasites; regulate vascular mediators released from mast cells (allergies) elevated in parasitic infections or allergic responses

transforming growth factors

produced by many types of cells in response to inflammation and induce cell division and differentiation of other cell types, such as immature blood cells.

clonal diversity

production of T and B lymphocytes

bacterial infections

prokaryotic, unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus, gram - or gram +

antibodies

protect against bacteria and viruses

fibrin

protein that forms the basis of a blood clot

perforins

proteins that poke holes in pathogens and allow granzymes to enter; Produced by natural killer cells or NK cells and cytotoxic t-cells Target cancer and virus cells

cardinal signs of inflammation

redness (rubor), swelling, heat (calor), pain (dolor), loss of function

endotoxins

released when bacteria die

exotoxins

released when bacteria grow

hypersenitivity reaction

response from immune system that creates self tissue damage

Fc fragment

responsible for most of the biologic functions of antibodies that have bound antigen including activation of the complement cascade and opsonization by binding the Fc receptors on the surface of cells of the innate immune system

primary immunodeficiency

result of a genetic abnormality

graves disease

an autoimmune disorder that is caused by hyperthyroidism and is characterized by goiter and/or exophthalmos type II hypersensitivity - caused by activation of cell receptors - anti-thyroid stimulating hormone receptor antibodies lead to increased production of thyroxine.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1)

an endogenous pyrogen (hot), stimulates naive t-cells to become th2 (t-helper cells)(which stimulates b cell differentiation into plasma cells)

Plasmin

an enzyme that dissolves the fibrin of blood clots

pandemic

an epidemic that is geographically widespread

tumor necrosis factor- alpha (TNF-α)

an inflammatory cytokine produced by macrophages/monocytes during acute inflammation and is responsible for a diverse range of signalling events within cells, leading to necrosis or apoptosis. The protein is also important for resistance to infection and cancers.

antitoxins

antibodies against specific exotoxins

paratrope

antigen binding site; The matching portion on an antibody or the lymphocyte receptor

APC

antigen presenting cell: cells that digest antigens and expose parts of them to antibodies

Fab portion

antigen-binding portion of antibody. Specific for each antigen.

macrophages, B cells, dendritic cells

antigen-presenting cells (APCs)

epitope

antigenic determinant

exogenous antigens

antigens from outside the cell that have been engulfed by the cell that displays them

immunogens

antigens that are able to trigger an immune response.

chemokines

are members of a special family of cytokines that are chemotactic and primarily attract leukocytes to sites of inflammation.

mhc 2

b cells, denditic cells, and macrophages express, interacts with CD4 on t helper cells

th17

increase phagocyte response to resistant infections; inflammation

increased wbc with left shift

increased granulocytes- something is going on

hiv

-infects and depletes a portion of the immune system (Th cells) making individuals extremely susceptible to life-threatening infections and malignancies marked by low cd4 Th cell count

Fibrinogen

A blood protein essential to blood clotting. The conversion of fibrinogen to its active form (fibrin) is among the final steps in clot formation, and is triggered by thrombin.

inflammatory response

1) vascular response- cardinal signs of inflammation- diapedesis, vasodilitation, increased permeability, leakage of fluid out of the vessel 2) plasma protein system-made up of the complement system , clotting system, and kinin system 3) cellular mediators- consist primarily of cells of the granulocytic or monocytic lines of leukocytes

interleukin-2

A cytokine that helps B cells that have contacted antigen differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells

fungus

A eukaryotic organism usually causing mild infections i.e. athletes' foot and ringworm (tinea pedis, tinea corporis), but in immunocompromised patients can be severe and fatal (pneumocystis pneumonia, aspegillosis); cause damage by secreting mycotoxins (fungal toxins) and activating inflammation; can be hard to kill; drugs used to treat fungal infections can cause liver failure

endotoxin

A normal component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Endotoxins produce extreme immune reactions (septic shock), particularly when many of them enter the circulation at once.

epidemic

A widespread outbreak of an infectious disease.

Anaphylotoxins

induce rapid mast cell degranulation, necessary in early inflammation, occur close inflammatory site ***important result of the complement system***

parasites

infect humans- range from tiny protozoas to large helminths in the intestines ex) giardia lambia, malaria, toxoplasmosis, and trichomoniasis

SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency)

inherited disorder in which both T cells and B cells are absent or inactive

immunogenicity

Ability of pathogens to induce an immune response

alloimmune response

An immune response to antigens not found in recipient's body, but found in members of the same species. ABO and Rh system

h2 receptors

Anti-inflammatory, present in parietal cells of the stomach mucosa and induces secretion of gastric acid

Clinical latency of HIV

Asymptomatic with minor infections. Could last for years. Declining CD4 T cell count. Macrophages and follicular dendritic cells act as reservoirs for HIV.

class-switch

B lymphocytes changes from producing IgM to producing another class of immunoglobulin

salmonella

Bacteria that causes food poisoning by producing toxins Symptoms: fever, stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea

pattern recognition receptors (PRR's)

Cells involved in innate resistance have evolved a different set of receptors that recognize a much more limited array of specific molecules

plasma cells

Cells that develop from B cells and produce antibodies.

central vs peripheral tolerance

Central = Induced to antigens inside the bone marrow Peripheral = Induced to antigens outside the bone marrow

biofilms

Colonies of bacteria that adhere together and adhere to environmental surfaces, offer some protection from immune response from host

plasma protein systems

Complement system Clotting system Kinin system these systems do not act in isolation, one can activate the other

DAMPs

Damage-associated molecular patterns: TLRs react with these non self antigens on damaged tissue, --> then release proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines Derived from: plasma membrane, nucleus, ER, mitochondria, cytosol

Type III hypersensitivity reaction

Free floating antigens and antibodies lead to circulating immune complex (usually supposed to be phagocytized) Mechanism: circulating immune complex deposit on walls of blood vessels and activates complement Leads to recruitment and activation of inflammatory cells that release tissue-damaging products Blood vessels are damaged Ultimately may damage kidneys (glomerulonephritis) and joints (rheumatoid arthritis) Not organ specific because its not attacking a specific cell type Cause- most common is antibiotics, but also food, drugs, and antibiotics Ex) autoimmune vasculitis, glomerulonephritis, systemic lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, gluten allergy

gram positive

Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally less complex and contains more peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are usually less toxic than gram-negative bacteria. retain purple dye

gram negative

Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally more complex and contains less peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria are often more toxic than gram-positive bacteria. turns pink, doesn't pick up purple dye

kinin system

Functions to activate and assist inflammatory cells Primary kinin is bradykinin Causes dilation of blood vessels, pain, smooth muscle contraction, vascular permeability, and leukocyte chemotaxis

factor XII

Hageman factor- can activate all three protein systems

pilli

Hollow tubes used to move cells or exchange DNA between bacteria by conjunction.

hypersensitivity type i reaction (immediate)

IgE and mast cells trigger anaphylaxis by crossing Ige receptors on the mast cells Presensitive reaction - often result from injected or ingested allergens - once the allergen moves into the blood - only small amount of allergen required to produce a reaction - clinical manifestations: vasodilation, bronchoconstriction - vasodilation may lead to b/p drop which can lead to anaphylactic shock - Swelling on conjunctiva, running nose, swelling of lips, tongue, or throat, hives, itchiness, flushing, pelvic pain, lightheadedness, headache... Allergic Reaction Overview - The body is exposed to an external substance (interpreted as foreign invader) - Plasma cells produce IgE which binds to mast cells - Then when invader comes into contact with mast cells they will degranulate and release histamine can lead to anaphylactic shock (vasodilation and drop in BP)

Hot T-Bone stEAk

Important interleukin cytokines: IL-1: fever (hot) IL-2: T cell stimulator IL-3: Bone marrow stimulator (sim to GM-CSF) IL-4: IgE (class switching from IgG), B cell growth IL-5: IgA, eosinophils

attenuated vaccines

Live viruses or bacteria that can no longer reproduce but can cause mild form of disease; trigger the immune system to form memory cells against the antigen

Macrophages

Monocytes that migrate from the blood to the tissue

lectin pathway of complement activation

One of the three pathways of complement activation. It is activated by the binding of a mannose-binding lectin present in blood plasma to mannose-containing (carbohydrate) peptidoglycans on bacterial surfaces. (if bacteria doesn't produce mannose, this pathway will not be activated)

classical pathway of complement activation

One of three pathways of complement activation. It is activated by parts of the immune system antibodies (proteins) bound to specific targets antigen - lack of proteins can lead to underactivation of this pathway

retroviruses

RNA and DNA viruses that use their own reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA genome into DNA. Use interphase to insert new genetic materials into the host's DNA

modified vaccines

Some vaccines are killed virus or bacteria ex) MMR

adjuvant

Substance that increases the immune response to antigens; included in vaccines

Anti-nuclear antibodies

The gold standard test for detection of lupus is:

clonal selection

The process by which an antigen selectively binds to and activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for the antigen. The selected lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells and a clone of memory cells specific for the stimulating antigen. results in cellular or humoral immunity

Type II hypersensitivity

Tissue specific reactions - Leads to complement mediated phagocytosis - Inflammation and cell injury or physiologic responses without cell injury - IgG or IgM (snowflakes) attacks antigens on cell surfaces - Often involves antigens on red or white blood cells - Transfusion reactions, Rh disease, drug reactions Graves disease- antibodies stimulate thyroid hormone release Myasthenia gravis- acetylcholine receptors on muscle blocked by antibody, decreasing function Goodpasture syndrome- glomerulus and alveoli are attacked - On red (Ab or Rh) or white blood cells o ****Transfusion reactions**** o **** Hemolytic diseases of newborns*** Drug reactions- penicillins bind to red blood cell and immune system attacks

ABO system

Type A blood- Carry the A antigen Type B blood- Carry the B antigen Type AB blood- Carry both A and B antigens Type O blood-Carry neither A or B antigens

antigens

a commonly used term to describe a molecule that can react with binding sites on antibodies or antigen receptors on B and T cells

candida

a yeastlike fungus

Tissue tropism

ability of bacteria to adhere to a specific tissue such as cold adhering to respiratory tract

pathogenicity

ability to cause disease

memory b cells

act fast upon reexposure to an antigen and can turn into plasma cells which can produce antibodies

alternative pathway of complement activation

activated by gram-negative bacterial and fungal cell wall polysaccharides (if it's a gram positive bacteria, it will not be activated) (endotoxins/exotoxins/fungal cell walls)

extrinsic pathway of coagulation

activated by tissue factor (TF) (also called tissue thromboplastin) that is released by damaged endothelial cells in blood vessels and reacts with activated factor VII (VIIa) TF + VII = VIIa + TF = TF, VIIa, and X

bacteriocidal

agent that kills bacteria

biologic vector

an arthropod, insect, or other living carrier in whose body the infecting organism multiplies before becoming infective to the recipient

e. coli

bacteria

m. tuberculosis

bacteria

staphylococcus

bacterium

mold

branches

yeasts

budding

memory cells

can be b or t cells or natural killer cells

RNA viruses

can replicate themselves in the cytoplasm, do not need depend on host cell's nuclear machinery

mechanical vector

carries the microbe more or less accidentally on its body parts

plasmodium

causes malaria; parasite

IgA antibodies

causes phagocytosis by WBCs and prevent pathogens from adhering to mucous membranes; found in bodily secretions like breast milk

Type IV hypersensitivity reaction

cell mediated and delayed reaction no antibodies t- cells respond to an antigen and then travel to that location to activate a more sustained immune response at that location or tissue type tend to collect in lymph tissue direct cell mediated cytotoxicity - T helper cells, cytotoxic t cells - Viral reactions may cause this - Ultimately may involve macrophages Delayed type hypersensitivity (type IV) - Contact dermatitis (poison ivy, nickel jewelry) - PPD (TB test) - Multiple sclerosis -graft rejection in transplant patient or graft versus host disease

Central tolerance

cells that bind to "self" cells are eliminated in bone marrow

4 stages bacteria causes disease

colonization- occurs by coming into contact with infected person, environment, or vector invasion- adhering to the tissue multiplication- bacteria begins to multiply and spread spread- pathogen spreads across tissues, damaging the host damage to host can be from effects of swelling or directly from the bacteria

adaptive immune system

complex, specific, and provides long lasting immunity recognizes surface markers on cells and destroys them for better or worse inflammation associated with infection usually initiates an adaptive response that results in long term and effective immunity to microorganisms slow to develop, but has memory to quickly target and eradicate a second infection with a specific disease causing organism

graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)

complication that occurs following a stem cell or bone marrow transplant in which the transplant produces antibodies against recipient's organs that can be severe enough to cause death; occurs in immunosuppressed individuals

complement system

composed of plasma proteins; potent defenders of inflammatory response; activation of the complement cascade may destroy pathogens directly and can activate and collaborates with virtually every other component of the inflammatory response; membrane attack complex (MAC) structure formed on pathogenic bacterial cells as a result of the activation of the host alternative pathway, classical pathway or lectin pathway of the complement system; also causes cell lysis; clarification- complement system is part of the innate immune system but the adaptive immune system can recruit the complement system to find pathogens; activation of the complement pathways can occur in 3 different ways: classical pathway, alternative pathway, and lectin pathway; The most important part of complement activation is the production of protein fragments that contribute to the inflammatory response: anaphylotoxins and chemotactic factors. The end result of the complement system is cell lysis and destruction of the pathogen

Killed virus vaccine

consists of virus particles which are grown in culture and then killed using a method such as heat or formaldehyde Ex) Hep A

endemic

constant rates in particular population

intrinsic pathway of coagulation

contact pathway; the vessel wall is damaged and Hageman factor (factor XII) in plasma contacts negatively charged subendothelial substances factor XII--> factor XIIa--> IX, VIIIa, and X

miRNA spiked protein vaccines

covid vaccines

conjugate vaccines

created by attaching bacterial capsule polysaccharides to a toxoid ex) HIB

interleukins

cytokines and biochemical messengers produced predominantly by macrophages and lymphocytes in response to stimulation of PRRs or by other cytokines. More than 30 interleukins have been identified. Their effects include the following: 1. Alteration of adhesion molecule expression on many types of cells 2. Attraction of leukocytes to a site of inflammation (chemotaxis) 3. Induction of proliferation and maturation of leukocytes in the bone marrow 4. General enhancement or suppression of inflammation 5. Mediation of development of the acquired immune response

t-helper cells

interact with APC and produce cytokines which enhance response of immunocompetent lymphocytes

NK cells

destory cells that stop producing MHC1 or suppress it

thrombin

enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin during coagulation

Fungal infections

eukaryotic cells, have thick rigid cell walls and have ability to form complex structures, harder to kill Ex) candida albicans which can be systemic and spread to blood- amphotericin B treats it

tb test

example of type iv hypersensitivity; arises slowly so that's why it takes a few days to be read

mhc 1

expressed on almost all nucleated cells, not expressed on RBC, Binds to CD8 on T cytotoxic cells; examples = HLA

molds

filamentous fungi grow as multinucleate, branching hyphae, forming a mycelium (ringworm)

hageman factor

first factor activated when a blood vessel or cell is injured; starts the cascading reaction of the clotting factors, activates the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin to dissolve clots, and activates the kinin and complement systems responsible for activation of the inflammatory response

Neutrophils

first responders; predominant phagocytes in the early inflammatory site- 6 to 12 hours after injury

endogenous antigens

foreign antigens that are present inside body cells; cancer cells

IgD antibodies

found on the surface of B cells; acts as antigen receptor

histoplasma

fungal cause of Ohio Valley fever

mycosis

fungal infection

aspergillus

fungus; yeast

clostridium

gram positive bacteria

yeasts

grow as ovoid or spherical, single cells multiple by budding and division

interleukin-6

growth and differentiation of blood cells in the bone marrow

Th2 cells

help immunocompetent b cells differentiate into plasma cells and b memory cells; humoral immunity; suppress th1

H1 receptors

histamine released from mast cells promote inflammation by binding to ______

uticaria

hives

cellular immunity

immune response that relies on T cells to destroy infected body cells; t regulatory cells, cytotoxic t-cells, memory t- cells

allergy

immune system response to environmental triggers common allergens: pollen, animal danders, foods

chemotactic factors

important part of the complement system; these are biochemical substances that attract leukocytes (granulocytes) to the site of inflammation; they are required for a much longer period than anaphylatoxins and occur distal to the inflammatory site to attract leukocytes from the circulation

Plasminogen

inactive precursor of plasmin

Toll-like receptors

located on the surface of many cells that have direct and early contact with potential pathogenic microorganisms. These include mucosal epithelial cells, mast cells, neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, and some subpopulations of lymphocytes. TLRs recognize a large variety of PAMPs located on the microorganism's cell wall or surface (e.g., bacterial lipopolysaccharide [LPS], peptidoglycans, lipoproteins, yeast zymosan, viral coat proteins), other surface structures (e.g., bacterial flagellin), or microbial nucleic acid (e.g., bacterial DNA, viral double-stranded RNA). Some TLRs recognize host factors that are produced by "stressed" or damaged cells (e.g., breakdown products of extracellular matrix proteins, chromatin). Interactions between PAMPs and TLRs, with the collaboration of other cellular receptors (e.g., CD14), can result in activation of the cell and the release of soluble products (e.g., cytokines) that increase local resistance to the pathogenic microorganism. TLRs are also one of the bridges between innate resistance and the adaptive immune response through the induction of cytokines that increase the response of lymphocytes to foreign antigens on the pathogens. Genetic polymorphisms in TLRs may explain some observed differences among individuals' resistance and susceptibility to infections.

secondary immunodeficiency

loss of immune functioning as a result of an illness or treatment

clonal diversity

lymphoid stem cells travel from bone marrow to thymus gland or stay in bone marrow. They then differentiate into t-cell (from thymus) and b-cells (from bone marrow). They will travel from the systemic circulation into secondary lymphoid organs such as spleen and lymph nodes. These cells are exposed to an antigen presented by an APC.

antibodies

made up of two light chains and two heavy chains

antigenic shift

major antigenic changes or recombination during which the human virus obtains a new HA or NA antigen

MHC

major histocompatibility complex; glycoproteins found on all cells except red blood cells; responsible for antigen presentation

Cytokines

majority of important ones are interleukins or interferons; constitute a large family of small-molecular-weight soluble intercellular-signaling molecules that are secreted, bind to specific cell membrane receptors, and regulate innate or adaptive immunity (Fig. 7.10). Cytokines may be either proinflammatory or antiinflammatory in nature, depending on whether they tend to induce or inhibit the inflammatory response. These molecules usually diffuse over short distances, but some effects occur over long distances, such as the systemic induction of fever by some cytokines (i.e., endogenous pyrogens) that are produced at an inflammatory site. Binding of cytokines to a target cell often induces synthesis of additional cellular products. For example, binding of the cytokine TNF-α to a cell may result in synthesis and release of IL-1.

plasmodium

malaria; spread from the bite of a mosquito where it travels to the liver, they then infect the liver and return to circulation. They then enter the red blood cells and wait to be sucked up by another mosquito

low protein

malnourishment, low albumin, may reduce ability to fight infection due to lack of protein that will work in protein pathways

b cells

mature in the bone marrow; lymphoid cells interact with stromal cells and begin to mature, developing surface markers (like interleukin 7) and formation of b cell receptor (Igm- before differentiation)

humoral immunity

memory b cells, plasma cells

innate immune system

natural barriers such as physical barrier skin and lining of GI, GU, and respiratory tract - epithelial barriers and inflammation - biochemical barriers - synthesize or secrete substances to trap microorganisms - plants and fungi also have innate immune system - quick acting and generic

Granulocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells; have enzyme containing granules in their cytoplasm

viruses

not technically alive; do not contain organelles found in eukaryotic cells or bacteria, made up of a nucleic acid- DNA or RNA- surround by a protein capsid and may also incorporate parts of cell membrane from the infected cell in its membrane

c1 esterase inhibitor

one of many molecules that exists to attenuate the protein pathways; inhibits the complement system

cytotoxic t-cells

only target one antigen because they are part of the adaptive/specific immune system; can induce apoptosis through perforins and caspases like NK cells

parasitic infection

organisms range from unicellular protozoal to large worms. Symbiotic relationship with host. ex) tapeworm

giardia

parasite that can affect the small intestine

natural killer cells

part of innate immune system; lymphocytes; will kill cells that downplay Mhc I; roam the body and look for anything abnormal; look at proteins on cell surfaces, can be activated or inhibited depending on mhc I presence or absence or irregularities in surface proteins; normal proteins on normal mhc 1 will inactivate NK cells; use perforins to create a hole in the cell and uses granzymes and granulysomes to activate caspases to digest the cell through apoptosis so that virions do not spread

Diapedesis

passage of blood cells (especially white blood cells) through intact capillary walls and into the surrounding tissue

atopic

people who tend to be allergic, may have more IgE receptors

debridement

plasminogen to plasmin

neutrophils

predominant phagocytes present in the inflammatory site 6-12 hours after injury; protect against bacterial and fungal infections

CD1 molecules

present lipid molecules instead of proteins; similar to mhc

h2

when histamine binds to _____, results in the degranulation of mast cells during an IgE-medicated hypersensitivity reaction

autoimmunity

when the immune system fails to make the distinction between self and foreign it may attack cells expressing particular self antigens causing damage to own tissues ex) Addison's, thyroid, DM I, rheumatic fever, MS, myasthenia gravis

alloimmunity

when the immune system is triggered by antigens from another person ex) transplantation of organs, transfusions, mother to fetus

b and tell cell deletion

when they have specificity to self antigens

factor x

where the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways merge; Activation of factor X begins a common pathway leading to activation of fibrin that polymerizes to form a fibrin clot.

adaptive immune system

works in concert with inflammatory response to protect the body from pathogens; can remember recognition molecules on pathogens

antibody

§Also called immunoglobulins §Serum glycoprotein produced by plasma cells in response to a challenge by an immunogen §Each particular set of immunoglobulins has specificity against a known antigen §Five molecular classes characterized by antigenic, structural and functional differences

influenzae and covid

§Antibodies against the hemagglutinin (HA) protein and neuraminidase (NA) are responsible for protection against influenza infection. §The protection is seasonal and does not carry over from year to year because HA and NA antigens undergo yearly change. §Usually antigenic variation is minor and results from mutations - called antigenic drift §Periodically will undergo major antigenic changes or recombination during which the human virus obtains a new HA or NA antigen - called antigenic shift

systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

§Chronic multisystem inflammatory disease is one of the most common, complex, and serious of the autoimmune disorders. §Occurs most often in women (20-40 year old age group) §More often in AA than Caucasian §Frequent exacerbations and remissions §Goals of treatment §Control symptoms §Prevent further damage by suppressing the autoimmune response §Non-steroidal and anti-inflammatory drugs reduce inflammation §Immunosuppressive drugs are used to treat severe symptoms involving internal organs §Ultraviolet light can worsen symptoms - protection from exposure is helpful symptoms - butterfly rash across cheeks and nose (malar rash), distoid (raised patches and scaling) §Oral or nasopharyngeal ulcers §Nonerosive arthritis of at least two peripheral joints §Serositis §Renal disorder §Neurologic disorders §Hematologic disorders §Immunologic disorders Presence of antinuclear antibody (ANA)