Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Central Tendency

*What this is: When a rater always uses the mid-range of a rating scale, regardless of the employee that is being rated Example: Margaret is reluctant to give poor ratings to her subordinates for fear of "ruffling feathers." Consequently, she tends to be unusually easy in her ratings

Assessment centers (personnel selection tool)

*What this is: involves structured, group activities designed to assess how well prospective executives function in simulated situations requiring leadership, *Research: Relatively highly correlated with measures of job performance

Example of BARS Rating Clinical Empathy

7: Is very supportive and concerned if patient is distressed. 6: Makes appropriately-timed interventions. 5: Allows patient freedom to express him or herself. 4: Inquires if patient has any feelings he or she wishes to discuss. 3: Speaks a lot about him or herself. 2: Discusses patient with colleague in an exhibitionistic manner. 1: Is often late to begin sessions and/or often cancels sessions.

Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, 1970)

A cognitive theory of motivation that asserts: · Goals: 1) are the basis for motivation; 2) direct behavior · Key factor: conscious acceptance of and commitment to goals contributes to a willingness to work when people accept goals, they intend to achieve them, and are willing to put the effort in to do so. · Underlying assumption: Behavior is regulated by a person's conscious goals and intentions · Goal attainment is maximized: When goals are specific and moderately difficult; when frequent feedback is provided; when workers participate in goal-setting

Personnel Selection

A process that involves determining whether job applicants have the knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics (KSAPs) required by the job.

Advantages and Disadvantages of BARS

Advantages o This kind of rating scale produces information that is useful for employee feedback. o Its format and development process may improve rating accuracy. Disadvantages o Time-consuming to construct and o Usually specific to the particular job for which it was developed.

Process consultation

Approach that centers on distinguishing and changing obvious behaviors that disrupt the normal social processes of a job. A distinctive feature of process consultation is its assertion that behavior change is the main concern and precedes attitude change.

Program Evaluation (steps to conduct)

Bloom (1972) noted that program evaluation (also known as evaluation research) entails the following four sequential steps: 1. Specifying the program's objectives and goals; 2. Defining the relevant parameters (e.g., the target population, the criteria used to define the target behavior, the criteria used to determine whether the program's goals have been met); 3. Specifying the techniques and procedures used to achieve the program's goals; and 4. Collecting the relevant data

Motivation (definition)

Defined as "the sum of the forces that produce, direct, and maintain effort expended in particular behaviors" (Jewell, 1985).

Organizational Justice

Degree to which employees believe they are being treated fairly; all aspects for Organizational Citizenship Behavior are related to this, which includes: · Distributive justice- perceived fairness of outcomes such as hiring, performance appraisals, raise requests, layoff decisions · Procedural justice- perceived fairness of the process by which outcomes are allocated; best predictor of work performance & counterproductive work behavior · Interactional justice- Perceptions of interpersonal exchange between an individual and supervisors or a third party · Informational justice- Amount of information or appropriateness of explanations provided about why procedures were used or outcomes were distributed in a certain way · Interpersonal justice- How an individual was treated by a supervisor or third party involved in executing procedures or determining outcomes

Weighted Application Blank

Empirically derived biodata form in which: · Items are given different weights (numerical values) based on their correlation with a measure of job performance. · By summing the weights, a total score can be derived for each applicant.

The Biographical Information Blank (BIB)

Empirically derived biodata form which: · Assesses a wider range of biographical and attitudinal issues than a Weighted Application Blank · Presents items in a multiple -choice format. · Disadvantage: They are specific to the job and to the organization for which they were devised. In addition, although items correlate with job performance, they may lack "face validity" (i.e., they may not look like they have anything to do with job performance).

Justice Perceptions

Employee judgments about whether their work situation is fair and have been found to be related to: job satisfaction, performance, withdrawal and counterproductive behaviors and organizational commitment.

Compromise (Gottfredson)

Expansion of occupational preferences in recognition of and accommodation to external constraints (e.g level of effort required, accessibility, cost) encountered in implementing preferences.

Consideration vs. Initiating Structure (leadership; Ohio studies, 1950s)

Factor analysis was used to categorize leader styles; revealing 2 dimensions that are independent (a leader can be high on both; low on both, or high on one and low on the other). Updates previous studies of leader behavior, which had placed related dimensions along a single continuum of leadership ranging from employee to production-centered. 1. Consideration- leaders high on this are person-oriented, focus on human relations aspects of supervision; most strongly related to employee satisfaction with leaders 2. Initiating Structure- leaders high on this are more task-oriented, focus on setting goals, ensuring subordinates follow the rules, and clarifying subordinate and leader roles

Altruism (OCB: Organ et. al)

First factor defined by Organ as behaviors directed toward a specific person such as helping co-workers with work-related tasks.

Reciprocal interdependence

In this kind of interdependent workplace, there is a network of two-way relationships that tie a collection of people together.

Existence Needs (ERG Theory, Alderfer)

These are material needs that are met by environmental factors such as pay and benefits; most concrete.

Job selection (ideal proportion of base rate/selection ratio)

Job selection tests are useful to the degree that the o correlation between test scores and job performance is high, o the base rate is moderate, and o the selection ratio is low.

Training (focused on speed and accuracy)

Learning complex motor skills, best approach is to emphasize speed of performance initially then focus on accuracy

Within Group Norming (mitigating adverse impact)

Method for remediating the problem of different subgroups scoring lower on selection tests that involves: · Converting raw scores to standard scores, percentile ranks, or other norm-referenced scores within each group · Using the same predetermined cutoff for both groups. · Members of different groups can obtain different raw scores on a test but the same norm-referenced score.

Gain sharing (profit-sharing)

Most common group and organization-wide incentive plans used in organizations. · Research: Associated with increased productivity, especially gainsharing which more closely links bonuses to individual and group performance. · Examples: shared performance incentives for group performance

Interviews (personnel selection)

Most commonly used personnel selection technique Research: · Only moderately accurate in predicting job performance. · One meta-analysis reports the average validity coefficient for interviews is .37 (McDaniel, Whetzel, Schmidt, and Mauer, 1994). · Validity: Depends on the- o Content of the interview (situational, job related, or psychological)- Situational have higher validity o Nature of the criterion (job performance, training performance) o How the interview is conducted (structured vs. unstructured; individual vs. panel). Structured interviews have been found to have higher predictive validity than unstructured interviews, .51 and .38, respectively (Schmidt and Hunter, 1998) and structured board interviews using consensus ratings are associated with the highest corrected validity (Wiesner and Cronshaw, 1988).

Sportsmanship (OCB, Organ et. al)

Organ's 3rd of 5 factors, behaviors such as tolerating trivial or minor inconveniences without complaining or initiating a grievance.

Courtesy (OCB, Organ et. al)

Organ's 4th of 5 factors, involving anticipatory acts that help someone else prevent a problem such as consulting with others when making decisions that may affect them or providing relevant information in advance.

Civic virtue (OCB, Organ et. al)

Organ's 5th factor that consists of constructive involvement or participation in the overall organization and may include attending meetings regarding the organization.

Conscientiousness (OCB: Organ et. al)

Organ's second of 5 factors, this is defined by behaviors a "good work" engages in, such as arriving on time, and not wasting time while at work. These behaviors go above and beyond minimal expectations of good workers in areas such as attendance, timeliness, and conservation of resources

Circumscription (Gottfredson)

Progressive elimination of least preferred options or alternatives that occur as kids become aware of occupational differences in gender or sex-type prestige, and then field of work.

Base Rate (Incremental Validity)

Proportion of employees hired using current techniques who are successful.

Eliminating bias (best approaches)

Rating scales can help, but the best way is training. Most effective when: o It focuses less on rating errors and o More on accuracy — o Example: On teaching raters to recognize the multiple contributors to good job performance and to evaluate behavior in an objective way.

Work performance (formula)

Reflect a combination of motivation and ability, as expressed by the following equation: · P = A X M, where P = performance, A = ability, and M = motivation. · Ability is more important than motivation in explaining differences in job performance.

Personnel Psychology

Relates to the selection and evaluation of staff; Both used to facilitate many decisions related to day-to-day functioning of an organization. Involves job analysis, performance appraisal, personnel selection, training & career counseling.

Multiple Hurdles vs. Multiple Cut-off (Combining predictors to mitigate selection bias)

Similarities: · Both techniques for combining predictors involve administering a series of predictor measures to prospective applicants. · In both cases, the examinee must succeed on all predictors in order to be selected. Differences: · In multiple hurdle, predictors are administered in a successive order. If the applicant fails on any predictor, he or she no longer completes subsequent ones. · When multiple cut-off is used, examinees usually take all the predictors and the predictors are not necessarily administered in any particular order.

Goal-setting Theory (evaluation)

Studies on this cognitive theory of motivation found: · Combining goal setting with feedback has a significant positive effect on performance, but adding incentives has little additional effects (Pritchard, 1988) · Individual differences in the effects of goal setting. Example: People with high self-esteem are more likely to accept difficult goals than people with low self-esteem · Employees work harder on goals when they participate in goal setting (though this is a necessary component of the model) - Latham, et. al, 1988 · For teams, difficult individual goals produce poorer performance than group goals or no goals · Similar benefits across genders (Locke and Latham, 1990)

5 Developmental Stages of Career Development (Super)

Super proposed 5 stages: Growth (birth- 15 years); Exploration (15-24 years); Establishment (25-44 years); Maintenance (45-64 years); Decline (65+ years)

Contrast Effect

Tendency to give ratings on the basis of comparisons to other ratees. For example, when rating employees, if the first three employees are very poor workers, the rater might give the fourth employee (who is actually mediocre) inaccurately high ratings.

Skill utilization (job satisfaction)

The degree to which a job permits the person to utilize his or her skills is an important determinant of job satisfaction; strongest predictor of job success for a wide variety of jobs.

ADA (Examples of discrimination)

The following types of discrimination are prohibited by law: · Classifying a job applicant or employee based on a disability in a way that adversely affects that person's opportunities or status. Using qualification standards, employment tests, medical tests, or other selection criteria that screen out individuals with a disability, unless the selection criterion is shown to be job-related. Failing to select and administer employment tests in a manner that ensures that test results accurately reflect the skills of a person with disabilities Not making reasonable accommodations to the known physical or mental limitations of an otherwise qualified individual with a disability, unless it can be demonstrated that the accommodation would impose an undue hardship on the organization. "Reasonable accommodation" includes making facilities accessible to people with disabilities, job restructuring, adjusting work schedules, modifying examinations, and providing qualified readers or interpreters. Specific exclusion for individuals who are "currently engaging in the illegal use of drugs" from protection under its provisions. However, it does protect past substance abusers as long as they are participating in or have completed a supervised rehabilitation program and are not currently using drugs. Drug testing is not prohibited by this law

Holland's Personality Types (measurement instruments)

The personality types can be measured with the following instruments; all yielding a 3-letter code. · Vocational Preference Inventory · Self-Directed · Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory Example: A career counselor has an SEA profile- his personality is Social, Enterprising, and Artistic (in that order)

Flextime (outcomes from meta-analytic results; Baltes et. al, 1999)

The results of a meta-analysis concluded that flextime has positive effects on: · employee absenteeism (effect size .93), · productivity (.45) · satisfaction with work schedule (.32) · job satisfaction (.15)- lower than previously reported findings

Life Space (Super)

The varied social roles adopted at different points during the life span (e.g. child, student, worker, spouse)

Results of job re-designs (based on data from job characteristics)

There are improvements in satisfaction, absenteeism, turnover, and motivation. Work quality is less likely to be affected.

Growth needs (ERG, Alderfer)

These needs are met by opportunities for personal development such as the chance to develop abilities that are important to the person; Most abstract.

Relatedness needs (ERG Theory, Alderfer)

These needs are met by relationships with superiors, co-workers, and subordinates.

Theory Y Managers (McGregor, 1960)

This human relations management approach is more likely to lead to an effective organization, as these kind of managers believe: · Under proper conditions, work is as natural as play · Most workers are self-directed and responsible and ambitious · Workers require freedom and autonomy · Advises managers to smile, to treat workers with respect, to bend some of the rules to get the job done, and to be easy-going in their management styles.

Pooled interdependence (interdependent workplaces)

This kind of interdependent workplace happens when individuals have a shared source of resources but little else in common.

Sequential interdependence

This kind of interdependent workplace involves a series or chain of one-way interactions in which individuals rely on those who precede them in the chain.

Causes of Adverse Impact

This negative impact has many causes, including (1) differential validity; and (2) unfairness

Adverse Impact (when it might be permissible)

This negative impact may be permitted when: · Selection criterion is a "bona fide occupational qualification" (BFOQ). · Valid reason for hiring a substantially larger proportion of a particular subgroup. · If an employer can demonstrate that it is job related and a business necessity, the employer may be able to continue using the procedure. · Example: If a job requires heavy lifting, a measure of physical strength would be acceptable even though its use results in hiring more men than women. · Onus for employer: Does not mean that unfair discrimination has occurred; however, if it is established, the employer is responsible for demonstrating that the selection procedure used is valid and necessary

Work-life conflict (strain-based explanation)

This problem occurs when the strain experienced in one role domain interferes with effective performance of role behaviors in the other domain.

Banding (mitigating adverse impact)

This technique for remediating the problem of different subgroups scoring lower on a selection test involves: · Treating scores within a given score range (or band) as equivalent. · Example: o All scores between 91 and 100 might be assigned to Band 1, o All scores between 81 and 90 might be assigned to Band 2, etc. Applicants scoring within a given band are viewed as equivalent.

Frame-of-reference training

Training designed specifically to help raters recognize the multidimensional nature of job performance and to ensure that different raters have the same conceptualizations of job performance (Woehr, 1994).

Separate Cutoffs (mitigating adverse impact)

Way of adjusting for lower scores of certain minority groups by setting different scores on the selection test for different groups.

Organizational Surveys

What are they (broadly): Instruments used to assess employee attitudes and opinions about various aspects of work such as organizational philosophy, policies, procedures, feedback, and leadership. • Uses: Gauge reactions to new programs or recent decisions. • Confidentiality: Usually kept anonymous or confidential so employees can express their opinions in a non-threatening format. • Standardization vs. Customization: Standardized scales can assess some of these variables, which offers the advantage of being able to compare the information to norms from other organizations. Custom-made items or scales are also used and have the advantage of addressing issues unique to a particular organization. • Research: Mostly yielded positive results. Increases in job satisfaction and employee reports of job conditions were found after surveys were introduced (Spector, 1996).

Critical incidents technique- (CIT, performance appraisal)

What this is: Developed as a method of performance appraisal in the 1950s. It involves: o Having the supervisor follow an employee around for a period of time and record the behaviors that relate to outstanding or very poor job performance o Identified behaviors are put into a checklist that are used in the future to evaluate the behaviors of employees who do the same job o The term is now used more generally to describe specific job behaviors that are incorporated in other kinds of rating scales

Job enrichment (outcomes)

When a job is redesigned to give workers more challenge, responsibility, decision-making authority, and opportunities for advancement, the results could be: · Increased job satisfaction · Decreased tardiness and absenteeism * Increased quality, but not quantity of job performance

Leniency or Strictness Bias

When a rater either uses the high or the low end of the rating scale

Halo Effect/Bias

When this happens: Occurs when an evaluation of an individual on one dimension of performance effects how we rate that person on unrelated dimensions 1) Positive Example: If a supervisor happens to highly value communication, you might give an employee high ratings not only on communication, but on behaviors that have nothing to do with communication, such as decision-making or willingness to assume responsibility 2) Negative Example: An employee has a bad reputation for showing up late and being unmotivated; his supervisor rates him low in all areas. 3) Impacts different employees differently- for the example: those with high communication skills will attain high ratings across the board, those with average skills will receive average ratings across the board; those with poor communication will get low ratings

Work samples (used as trainability tests)

When used in this way, they are · Designed to identify people who are likely to benefit from training; not do well on a job · Include a period of structured, controlled learning followed by an evaluation of work performance.

BARS- Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales

When using this kind of rating scale, employees are rated on several dimensions of job performance. For each dimension (e.g., motivation, decision-making), a set of "behavioral anchors" (critical incidents) is created, with each anchor being tied to a numerical point on a Likert-type scale.

Incremental Validity (ideal metrics)

o A measure's incremental validity is maximized when its validity coefficient is large, when the base rate is moderate, and the selection ratio is low o A high validity coefficient is always preferred since that means that test scores are accurate predictors of job performance. o A moderate base rate (around 50%) is optimal because it suggests that a new predictor is likely to be helpful. o When the base rate is high, the current procedure is already doing a good job; when it is low, this suggests that something other than selection is the problem — e.g., that the standard for judging good job performance is too high.) o When the selection ratio is low, this means that there are many applicants, which helps ensure that there will be qualified applicants to choose from.

Critical incidents (ways to identify)

o Conduct a job analysis o Construct a BARS behavior scale o Instrument that involves a complex construction process o Raters take part in its development o Similar to a Likert Scale, but the bars are anchored with critical incidence or behaviors that represent different levels of job performance § Example: If a job involves meeting deadlines on time, a critical incident for high performance can be- can be expected to meet deadlines regularly by delegating work appropriately to subordinates § Critical incident for low performance- fails to meet deadlines most of the time due to a failure to get the additional help needed to complete the work on time

Performance Evaluation

o Evaluations of employee performance are made to assist in decisions about raises and bonuses, promotions and dismissals, and to provide employees with feedback about their performance. o Measures of job performance (criterion measures) can be objective (data that can be easily quantified, such as dollar amount of sales and number of units produced) or subjective (ratings by supervisors, peers, or employees themselves). o Subjective measures are affected by rater biases, including the halo effect, the central tendency bias, the leniency bias, the strictness bias, and the contrast effect. Subjective rating methods include Personnel Comparison Systems, Critical Incidents, Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales, Behavioral-Observation Scales, and Forced-Choice Checklists.

Procedural Justice vs. Distributive Justice (example)

o Judgments of distributive justice are based on comparisons between one's own outcomes to those of others; fairness is perceived when those outcomes are perceived as equal. o Judgments of procedural justice depend on perceptions of fairness in the processes that lead to outcomes. o Example: A person would not mind losing money in a civil judgment following a trial as much as she would mind losing it to a thief = procedural justice. Outcomes are equal, but processes are different

Construction of BARS

o More complicated to construct. o Different groups of workers and supervisors are responsible for identifying job dimensions and the critical incidents for each dimension o The dimensions must be ranked the identified critical incidents in terms of their importance to job performance.

Selection Ratio (Incremental Validity)

o The ratio number of job openings to the total number of applications for a single job; o Example: If there are 100 applicants for a single job, the selection ratio is low; if there are only three applicants, the selection ratio is high (undesirable for it to be high); we want a lot of applicants to choose from

Krumboltz Social Learning Theory (relevant worldviews and beliefs)

· 4 Types of Influences- that interact to create worldviews and beliefs the person has about themselves 1. Genetic characteristics & special abilities- physical appearance and characteristics 2. Environmental conditions & events- Social, cultural, economic, and political influences 3. Learning experiences- § instrumental learning- rewards & punishments § associative learning- classical conditioning 4. Task approach skills- Personal standards of work performance, work habits, emotional responses developed from interactions among the other influences

McClelland's Motivator (nAFF)

· A high need for affiliation is another motivator, along with nACH and nPOW · Example: People with a high need for affiliation (nAFF) are motivated by good interpersonal relationships; they are sensitive to criticism and prefer to avoid conflict whenever possible.

McClelland's Motivator (nPOW)

· A high need for power is another motivator, along with nACH and nAFF · Example: People with a high need for power (nPOW) are motivated by control over others, visibility, prestige, status, and recognition. · Effective role: Leaders high in nPOW tend to be more effective managers than those who are low in this need.

Return on investment (ROI)

· Additional "level 5" adding to Kirkpatrick's evaluation steps, proposed by Jack Phillips, used to calculate the return on investment of an intervention or training. · Encourages ROI evaluations for each of the first four levels.

Job commitment (3 kinds)

· Affective commitment- Employee's psychological attitudes toward the organization; · Normative commitment- Employee's perceived obligation to stay with the company · Continuance commitment - Costs of leaving the company. Least related to job satisfaction and other job-related attitudes and more to practical considerations.

Job Satisfaction (effects of personal characteristics)

· Age is significantly correlated with job satisfaction: Older employees report more satisfaction · Level in an organizational hierarchy is correlated with more satisfaction; managers report more · Race/ethnicity: Folks of color are more likely to express dissatisfaction with their jobs than white folks · Disposition: Some people are generally happy and satisfied with their work while others are dissatisfied and unhappy; attitudes have little to do with the actual work · Stability: Job satisfaction is stable over time and across different jobs

Exploration phase of career development (Super)

· Ages: 15-24 years; Super's 2nd phase · Development: Self-examination, role tryouts, occupational exploration take place in school, leisure-time activities, and part-time work · Career-related behaviors: Career choices are narrowed, but not finalized

Establishment phase of career development (Super)

· Ages: 25-44 years; Super's 3rd phase · Development: · Career-related behavior: Efforts are made to establish a permanent place in the chosen occupational field; changes may occur in the position, job, and employer, but not in the occupation

Maintenance phase of career development (Super)

· Ages: 45-64 years; Super's 4th phase · Development: · Career-related behavior: Continuation of the person's established pattern; person is concerned with maintaining the position and status established in the previous stage.

Decline phase of career development (Super)

· Ages: 65+ years; Super's 5th and final phase · Development: The person has to find non-vocational sources of satisfaction, and must modify their self-concepts · Career-related behavior: Characterized by a decline in work output and eventual retirement

Growth phase of career development (Super)

· Ages: Birth - 15 years; Super's 1st phase · Development: capacities, attitudes, interests, needs associated with vocational self-concept · Career-related behaviors: fantasy, play, and later, thinking about abilities and job requirements

Big Five Personality Traits (Stability over Time)

· All of the Big Five traits are relatively stable throughout adulthood. · Extraversion is the most stable trait, while neuroticism is the least stable over time. In a meta-analysis of 152 longitudinal studies, researchers obtained the following stability coefficients: Extraversion (.55), followed by Agreeableness (.52), Openness (.51), Conscientiousness (.49), and Neuroticism (.46)

Big Five Traits and Mental Health Disorders

· Antisocial Personality Disorder was found to be associated with low scores in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness and generally higher scores in Neuroticism and Extroversion. · Low conscientiousness yields consistently strong effects for each common mental disorder examined (i.e., MDD, dysthymic disorder, GAD, PTSD, panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, specific phobia, and SUD (meta-analytic work) Common mental disorders examined were defined by high neuroticism, most exhibited low extraversion, only SUD was linked to agreeableness (negatively), and no disorders were associated with Openness

Systems Approach (in organizations)

· Approach that emphasizes that an organization is an open system that receives input from both within and without · Changes in one part of the organization affect all other parts · The whole organization is an entity greater than the sum of its constituent parts. · Most applicable in organizational psychology to situational or contingency approach. These approaches share the following assumptions: 1) Workers have diverse needs; 2) organizations vary in terms of structure, culture, and other characteristics; and, as a result, 3) there is no one managerial strategy that will work for all people and all organizations at all times.

Self-directed work teams

· Are self-directed; i.e., they determine their own goals, plan their own work processes, and may even hire their own replacements. · Members are generalists (versus specialists), and each member has (or learns) a broad range of skills. · Disadvantage: A possible downside of this kind of team is that they are associated with higher absenteeism than more traditional work groups.

Theory X vs. Theory Y Leaders (McGregor, 1960)

· Asserts leaders can be described on the basis of their beliefs about work and workers · Theory X- largely negative view of work & workers · Theory Z- positive framing of work & workers

Reinforcement theories for motivation (basic assumptions)

· Background: applies the principles of operant conditioning to work motivation, proposes 1. People keep doing things that have rewarding outcomes—reinforcement strengthens behavior 2. People avoid doing things that have negative outcomes— punishment reduces the likelihood that a behavior will occur 3. People eventually stop doing things that don't have rewarding outcomes-without reinforcement behavior eventually extinguishes

Management by Objective (MBO)

· Based on goal-setting theory (Locke) · Involves having an employee & supervisor agree to specific, measurable goals that the employee will accomplish during a specific time period · At the end of the agreed time period, progress towards goals is evaluated, and necessary changes are made

Need Theories of Motivation

· Based on the premise that people are willing to exert effort when effort will lead to fulfillment of certain deficiencies or needs. · Examples: Maslow's need hierarchy, Alderfer's ERG Theory, Mclelland's Need for Achievement, Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, job characteristic model.

Job enrichment vs job enlargement

· Both methods of job redesign help reduce boredom · Job enlargement simply increases the number and variety of tasks a worker performs · Job enrichment provides workers with more challenge, responsibility, opportunity, decision-making authority · Example: If a person's pay is based on output, his or her output is likely to increase, but the quality of work will not necessarily increase. This makes sense -- if you are working so fast in order to produce more so that you can get paid more, the quality of your work is likely to suffer. In addition, increased pay is likely to decrease job dissatisfaction, as predicted by Herzberg's two-factor theory.

Tiedeman and O'Hare's Decision-Making Model (1963)

· Builds on Super's theory with the assumption that career choice and development should reflect both "making a living" and "making a life" · Based on Erikson's 1969 psychosocial theory- framework for understanding differentiations and re-integrations o Crisis resolutions have career correlates: trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, integrity o Differentiation: realization that an occupation is not fitting with personality o Implementation: Making a different choice; might not always lead to successful reintegration; could take place many times in a career life

Adverse Impact (calculation)

· Calculation: Can be determined mathematically using the 80 percent (4/5ths) rule. · Incidence: We know this is occurring when the selection rate for a minority group is less than 80% of the selection rate for the majority group. · Example: If 60% of male applicants are hired, at least 48% (.80 x .60 = .48) of female applicants must be hired. If the rate for females is less than 48%, then adverse impact is occurring.

Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman's Decision Making Model (1979)

· Career decision-making model that defines two kinds of reality: personal & common 1. Personal authoritative reality: Defined as thought, act, direction, or behavior an individual feels is right 2. Common reality: What "they" say you should do- If you don't get a good education, you don't get a good job

Relative or comparative rating scale (mitigating rater bias)

· Comparing employees to each other; example: Paired comparison technique- start out with a list of job behaviors and rate employees in pairs on each behavior- for each behavior, you indicate which of two employees is best or most effective. · Advantages: Can help alleviate rater biases, allows for precise differentiation of each person in the group evaluated. · Disadvantages: Aren't used too often, because: o Rates and raters don't like them o They can be cumbersome to use, especially when there are many employees to rate- this is particularly true of the paired comparison technique o Relative measures don't really provide useful information for giving individual employees feedback about what they are doing well and what they are doing poorly · Design the rating scale so that it incorporates critical incidents- specific behaviors that are associated with successful or unsuccessful job performance.

Work-Life Conflict (Behavior-based conflict)

· Conflict stemming from incompatible behaviors demanded by competing roles. · Recent research, using a systems perspective, demonstrates that one member of a dyad can impact the other's experience of work-family conflict. The effects of this work and family stress and strain are referred to as "crossover effects." (See: Barnett, R. C. and Hyde, J. S. (2001)

Theory Z (Maslow, 1969; Ouchi 1981)

· Context: Proposed by Maslow, developed further by Japanese management styles · Integrative: Incorporates aspects from traditional American (Theory A) and Japanese (Theory J) management philosophies. · Topline message: This theory represents a middle ground, for example, emphasizing long-term employment versus short-term or lifelong and a moderately specialized career path instead of specialized or nonspecialized · Examines how workers contribute and proposes that workers naturally wish to cooperate and are loyal to the organization · Increasing loyalty and providing jobs to life with a strong focus on well-being of the employee, on and off the job

Self-concept (Super)

· Definition: A person's abilities, interests, values, personality traits, physicality · Outcome: Super stated people achieve job satisfaction when they are able to express themselves and develop this through their work roles

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB: Organ, 1983, 1997)

· Definition: Discretionary, voluntary behaviors that are not part of an employee's specified role requirements · Not formally rewarded by the organization · Contribute to organizational effectiveness by enhancing the "social and psychological context that supports task performance" · 5 Factor Modle: Altruism, Conscientiousness, Sportsmanship, Courtesy, Civic Virtue

Congruence (Holland)

· Definition: The fit between personality type and occupational environment · Outcome: When this is attained, the worker will be satisfied, productive, and likely to stay in that environment · Example: If a person with the realistic type is working in a realistic environment, there is congruence

High degree of differentiation (Holland)

· Definition: When an individual scores high on 1 of the 6 interest areas and low on all others · How is it calculated: Level of definition or distinctness of a profile is thought of as the difference between an individual's highest and lowest summary scale score on the SDS · Outcome: Personality- environment match is most accurate as a predictor of job-related outcomes

Group Cohesion (Schmuck & Schmuck, 2000)

· Definition: relation of individual group members to the group as a whole. · Factors influencing impact on productivity: o Management supportiveness is one of several variables that moderates the relationship between group cohesiveness and group productivity-- associated with higher levels of productivity o Management hostility or indifference being associated with lower productivity.

Person-organization (P-O) fit (findings)

· Degree to which an individual's beliefs and values match the organization's culture. · Research findings: Has positive effects on individual satisfaction, commitment, and productivity but may have negative long-term effects at the organizational level.

Low LPC leaders

· Describe their least preferred co-worker in negative terms (e.g. as unpleasant and unfriendly) · Task and achievement-oriented: "The first one to hand in this budget report wins the office lottery pool" · Performs best in situations that are either very favorable or very unfavorable in terms of control

High LPC leaders

· Describe their least preferred co-worker in positive terms (e.g. as pleasant and friendly) · Primarily relationship-oriented · Most effective when a situation is moderately favorable

Theories of Career Choice (general information)

· Divided into 2 main types: 1. Emphasis on personality variables that lead a person to a chosen occupation- Hollland's Personality & Environmental Typology & Roe- Topline message: Match personality to job characteristics 2. Focuses on the sequence of stages a person passes through in his or her vocational development- Super's Career & Life Development Theory

Interest Inventories (as personnel selection tools)

· Examples: Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) or Kuder Occupational Interest Survey · Validity: Low validity for predicting occupational success. · Use: Vocational counseling and for predicting job satisfaction, job persistence, and job choice.

Big Five Personality Traits (CANOE or OCEAN)

· Extraversion, agreeableness, openness, emotional stability/neuroticism, and conscientiousness has shown that conscientiousness is an accurate predictor of job performance and training success across a wide range of settings. · Repeatedly identified by factor analyses as the core traits that underlie all other personality characteristics. Believed to underlie all other personality characteristics

Needs Analysis (training)

· First step in training program development · Involves determining if and what kind of training is necessary · Four components: 1. Organization analysis- Is the training what the organization needs to solve its problems? 2. Task analysis- Similar to job analysis; involves determining what knowledge, skills, and abilities are required to perform a job satisfactorily; yields a set of objectives that will serve as instructional goals 3. Person analysis- Helps determine if employees have deficits in areas identified by task analysis 4. Demographic analysis—Helps determine the training needs of employees from different groups (older vs. younger employees)

Interactional justice

· Focuses on the interpersonal treatment of individuals when procedures are implemented and consists of two components: o Interpersonal justice-- the degree to which individuals affected by decisions are treated with dignity, respect and politeness by third parties or authorities involved in executing procedures or determining outcomes, o Informational justice-- explanations provided to individuals conveying information about why procedures were used in a certain way or why outcomes were distributed in a particular manner.

Predictive validity across ethnic groups (of job selection tests)

· Group differences exist between African-Americans and Caucasians on test performance (that is why mean scores differon these various standardized tests) · It has not been shown conclusively that predictive validity coefficients of the tests are differentially moderated by ethnic group membership. · A test is likely to have the same validity coefficient for all subgroups of the same population -- even though those subgroups may score differently, on the average, from each other.

Utility analysis

· Historical context: originally, a method for evaluating the organizational benefits of using systematic procedures (e.g., proficiency tests) to improve personnel · Current use: Evaluation of any intervention that attempts to improve human performance. · Method: Quantitative method that estimates the dollar value of benefits generated by an intervention based on the improvement it produces in worker productivity. · Value: Provides management with information that can be used to evaluate the financial impact of an intervention, including computing a return on their investment in implementing it.

Adverse Impact (definition, context)

· History: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has developed the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures, which provide standards for tests and other procedures that are used as a basis for employment decisions. · Definition: A selection procedure has this negative impact when it produces a substantially different rate of selection for different groups that are defined on the basis of gender, race/ethnicity, age, etc.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (applications)

· Job enrichment is the best known application of this theory. · Redesigning a job so that the worker has more challenge, responsibility, decision-making authority, and opportunities for advancement. · Ensures that a worker's motivator needs are fulfilled so that the worker is satisfied and motivated.

Vestibule Training

· Kind of training that attempts to combine on- and off-the-job training · Provided in a physical replication or simulation of actual work environment & conditions · Examples: mock-up assembly line & flight simulator · Advantages: When the consequences of errors are too serious for on-the-job-training; when repeated practice or special coaching is needed

Work samples (used as realistic job preview)

· May also include a written description of the job, interviews, group discussions with current employees, and other activities. · Purpose: To prevent unrealistic expectations about a job in order to reduce turnover.

Criterion (Personnel Selection)

· Measures of behavior or performance · May serve many functions in an organization, but used for performance appraisals- used to evaluate an employee's performance to determine whether or not an employee deserves a raise or promotion, needs training, or should be fired

Multiple Cutoff (mitigating selection bias)

· Method of combining predictors · Applicants must score above a minimum cutoff point on each predictor in order to be hired. · Noncompensatory technique: A low score on one predictor cannot be made up for by a high score on another. · It is a useful procedure whenever a minimum level of competence in multiple domains is necessary to succeed. · Example: If an airline is using tests of visual and auditory acuity, motor skills, and job knowledge to hire pilots, it would probably prefer the multiple cutoff technique to multiple regression.

Multiple Regression (mitigating selection bias)

· Method of combining predictors · Used to estimate an applicant's score on a criterion on the basis of his or her scores on two or more predictors. · Example: Scores of an applicant for a sales position on three measures — a cognitive ability test, a job knowledge test, and a weighted application blank — might be plugged into a multiple regression equation to predict the dollar amount of sales the applicant will generate for the company during a six-month period. · Compensatory technique: This means that an applicant who gets a low score on one predictor can "make up for it" by doing very well on another predictor.

Mclelland's Need for Achievement

· Method: Used individuals' responses to TAT cards to investigate the needs that underlie motivation. · Key takeaway: Primary motivator is the need for achievement (nACh). · Example: People with a high need for achievement desire autonomy and personal responsibility, prefer moderately difficult goals, and seek recognition for their efforts. They are highly motivated to put effort into their work and tend to stay on the job longer and perform better. · Training: People with a low need for achievement could develop higher levels of this need. · Research: Strongly related to entrepreneurial success.

Job satisfaction (research on consequences)

· Moderately and negatively related to absenteeism and turnover · Highest - correlation (-.40) is between satisfaction and turnover moderated by performance level, with turnover and satisfaction having a significant relationship for poor performers, but not good performers · Satisfaction and performance: weak positive correlation (.14); moderated by the degree pay is linked to performance · Physical and mental health: job satisfaction was found to be a better predictor of longevity than either physical health or tobacco use! o Negative health impacts of dissatisfaction: fatigue, headache, loss of appetite, ulcers, arthritis, substance abuse, cardiovascular disease. Mental health: anxiety, worry, impaired relationships.

Theory X Managers (McGregor, 1960)

· Most consistent with scientific model management; believe: o Work is inherently distasteful o Most workers lack ambition and need to be directed o Motivation is dominated by lower level needs · Example: managers believe workers have just enough self-motivation to show up, punch a time clock, and do the minimum

Training

· Most frequent: occupation specific; computer related, managerial/supervisor training · Steps in training program development: 1. Needs analysis 2. Program design 3. Program evaluation

Reinforcement theories for motivation (intrinsic & extrinsic)

· Most of these models focus on extrinsic rewards · Intrinsic motivation model (Deci, 1972)- intrinsic motivation (feelings of pride & accomplishment & satisfaction) is more important to motivation than extrinsic; extrinsic actually reduces the motivation of those who get intrinsic rewards from their work

Big Five Personality Traits (Correlations to job satisfaction, Judge et al, 2002)

· Neuroticism: Strongest, most consistent correlate of job satisfaction (-.29) · Conscientiousness: displayed the second strongest correlation (.26); also significant correlations with measures of job proficiency, training proficiency, and performance data in personnel records. · Extraversion. Extraversion (.25) · Agreeableness (.17), and · Openness to Experience (.02) · Overall findings: The findings support previous reviews that lower neuroticism and higher extraversion are associated with higher job satisfaction. The study also notes Conscientiousness, previously found to have positive effects in terms of job performance, has been overlooked in studies in terms of job satisfaction.

Satisfactoriness (TWA Theory)

· Organization or employer's satisfaction with the worker. · Example: How well the worker's skills fulfill the requirements of the job and is able to perform the job.

Outcome justice vs. procedural justice

· Outcome justice- the fairness of outcomes such as raises and promotions · Procedural justice- perceptions (rather than actual practices) of fairness of procedures used to determine outcomes; affected by perceptions of consistency of treatment across people and time; suppression of bias; accuracy of information · Equity theory focuses on how perceptions of outcome justice affect motivation

Work-Family Conflict (general information)

· Outcomes: High levels of this are related to negative outcomes for the individual (life dissatisfaction, anxiety, poor health), for relationships (increased interpersonal conflict, divorce), and for the organization (absenteeism, tardiness, loss of talented employees). · Causes: This problem can be time-based, strain-based, or behavior-based. · Bi-directional: Work can interfere with family and family can interfere with work. These are referred to as work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict

Big Five Personality Traits (History of development)

· Overall approach: Lexical approach was first used by Sir Francis Galton in the 1880's. · What this entailed: Use of a dictionary, in this case, to identify personality traits. Atheoretical approach and was used to identify the Big Five Personality traits by performing a factor analysis on all the personality traits found in the dictionary.

Biodata (advantages & drawbacks as a selection tool)

· Particularly useful for predicting turnover, which is important to companies that are concerned about the costs of hiring and training employees who will stay on the job for only a short period of time. · Drawback: empirically validated instruments lack face validity- ask about things that don't have to do with the job; decreasing motivation for applicants to fill out the form correctly · Research: o Cascio (1976) reported validity coefficients of .77 and .79 for predicting the turnover of whites and African-Americans, respectively. o Not only confirm the predictive accuracy of biodata but also indicate that biodata is equally valid for members of different racial/ethnic groups.

Job Satisfaction (effects of job characteristics/pay)

· Pay: relationship between job satisfaction and pay is not entirely clear; but is complex- positively correlated; but some of this could be associated with benefits that come with high pay- · Greater autonomy, challenge & control · Perception that pay is fair may be more important than actual salary o Extent to which pay is related to level of performance o Extent to which pay is equitable based on what peers with similar qualifications receive

Maslow's Need Hierarchy

· People have five basic needs that can be arranged in the following hierarchical order of importance: 1. Physiological needs (water, food, etc.); 2. Safety needs (security); 3. Social needs (company of and acceptance by others); 4. Esteem needs (recognition from others); and 5. Self-actualization needs (self-fulfillment). · Lowest unfulfilled need is the most prepotent (i.e., the strongest motivator). Once a need is satisfied, it ceases to motivate behavior and the next one in the hierarchy becomes prepotent.

General Mental Ability (also called cognitive ability and general intelligence)

· Personnel selection tool involving cognitive ability tests · Thought to be most valid predictors of job performance across jobs and settings, · Validity increases as the complexity of the job increases. · Meta-analyses results: Inconsistent, but obtained validity coefficients for cognitive ability tests vary depending on who is conducting the analysis and what the criterion of success is. For instance, Schmitt, et al. (1998) report an average validity coefficient of .51 when cognitive ability tests are used to predict performance ratings; Hunter and Hunter (1984) report an average validity coefficient of .75 when such tests are used to predict performance on a work sample.

Job Knowledge Tests

· Personnel selection tool that is job specific · Used: When individuals have previous experience or training, and are considered good predictors of performance. · Research: o Less research on these instruments than on cognitive ability tests. o One meta-analysis of the studies indicates that the average validity coefficient for job knowledge tests is .62, which is higher than the coefficients usually reported for cognitive ability tests (Dye, Reck, and Murphy, 1993). Validity of these tests increases as job complexity and job-test similarity increase.

Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM; 1996)

· Proposes career transitions result from learning experiences (based on operant conditioning) and unplanned encounters with people, institutions, and events in each person's particular environment · Behavioral theory of career development- learned experiences are the most important factors in career choice & preference · Self-observation generalizations and world-view generalizations · Example: Self-observation generalization that one is very good at logical reasoning, and the world-view generalization that jobs in computer programming will pay more than other jobs in the future might lead one to pursue a career in computer programming

Objective criterion measures

· Quantitative measures: number of units made, measures of behavior: number of absences, raises, and promotions *Objective measures aren't available at all for many workplace behaviors

Structured Interview (Interview Schedule)

· Questions: For this job selection tool, a series of job-related questions with predetermined "correct" answers are used consistently with all interviewees for a particular job. · Methods: Subject matter experts are one of several methods for determining scores to responses · Advantages: o Provision of individual item scores and a total score that are derived from prespecified criteria. o Reduces the impact of examiner subjectivity · As a predictor of job performance: the score can then be combined with scores on other selection procedures in a multiple regression equation or similar technique.

Satisfaction (TWA Theory)

· Refers to a worker's satisfaction with the job. · Established by the degree to which the worker's needs are satisfied by the provided rewards of the job.

Criterion deficiency

· Refers to what is missed or deficient in the criterion used. · Example: If typing speed is used as the sole criterion for determining successful job performance by a secretary, it would be deficient since typing speed is only one of several skills needed to be a successful secretary.

Structured Interview (ways to improve predictive validity)

· Research: Schmidt and Hunter (1998) report measures of general mental ability are the most valid predictors across different jobs. · Structured and unstructured interviews: validity coefficients of .51 and .38, respectively. · Enhancing predictive validity: When an interview is combined with another selection procedure, especially a general mental ability test, the predictive validity of interviews is increased

Program Design (training)

· Selection of training format, based on cost factors, materials to be taught, characteristics of trainees. · General rule: Training should teach skills that closely approximate skills necessary for the job · Types of training: on-the-job training, classroom training, programmed instruction

Alderfer's ERG Theory

· Similar to Maslow's need hierarchy, but no hierarchical order · Distinguishes between 3 rather than 5 needs (that Maslow considered to be physiological safety needs): 1) Existence- 2) Relatedness, and 3) Growth · These three categories exist on a continuum from concrete to abstract; existence needs are the most concrete and relatedness needs are the most abstract.

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990; 1994)

· Statutory Language: This legislation prohibits employers, employment agencies, labor organizations, and joint labor-management committees from discriminating against "a qualified individual with a disability because of the disability of such individual in regard to job application procedures, the hiring, advancement, or discharge of employees, employee compensation, job training, and other terms, conditions, and privileges of employment." Under this act, a qualified individual with a disability is a person whose physical or mental impairment substantially limits one or more of his/her major life activities but who can perform the essential functions of the job with or without reasonable accommodation.

On-the-Job-Training

· What it involves: Having a trainee perform the job under guidance of an experienced employee, supervisor, or training instructor; types: o Job rotation: rotating employees through several jobs to increase their range of skills; economic advantage · Disadvantages: Often poorly planned; danger production rates will slow and accident rates will increase; current workers may not make the best trainers.

Autocratic, democratic vs. laissez-faire leaders (Lewin, Lippit & White, 1939; 1951)

· Study methods: Classic study by Kurt Lewin and colleagues was conducted with 10-year old boys in an arts & crafts club · Identified three types of leaders: 1. Autocratic leaders- make decisions alone and instruct subordinates about what to do; productivity is highest; especially when the work is routine 2. Democratic leaders- involve subordinates in the decision-making process; workers are more satisfied, have better relationships with leaders, are more likely to continue working in the absence of a leader; produces highest quality of work 3. Laissez-faire leaders- allow subordinates to make decisions on their own with little guidance or help; least successful, resulting in significantly lower quality and quantity of work as compared to the other two styles

Archway (Super, 1994)

· Super's depiction of personal and environmental factors that combine to determine a person's career paths (interests, self-concept, peer groups, economy) · Clarifies the influence of biographical-geographical, psychological, and socioeconomic components on career development.

Personality Tests

· Tests that measure specific characteristics have been found to be more accurate predictors of job performance than those measuring more global traits. · Research: a mean validity coefficient of .50 has been reported for a test of agreeableness and emotional stability in predicting the performance of workers in customer service jobs (Hogan, Hogan, and Roberts, 1996)

Job Characteristics Model (Supporting instruments)

· The Job Diagnostic Survey (Hackman and Oldham, 1975) · Job Characteristics Inventory (Sims, Szilagyi, and Keller, 1976) are used to assess a job in terms of these characteristics and to obtain the information needed for job redesign. · Research: When jobs are redesigned according to the job characteristics model, there are improvements in motivation, satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover. However, work quality is less likely to be affected (e.g., Loher et al., 1985). The model seems to apply particularly well to workers high in "growth need strength; i.e., those with a strong need for personal growth and development."

Enhancement theory (work-family conflict)

· Theory for addressing work-family conflict · Quality multiple roles provide additional sources of social support, increased skills, and heightened self-esteem and well being. · Positive spillover, both from work to home and from home to work, continues to be found.

Gottfredson's Theory of Circumscription and Compromise (2002)

· Theory of career choice that addresses how gender and prestige influence and limit career choice · Expressions of aspirations emerge as a process of elimination or outcome of circumscription & compromise · 4 Stages of Cognitive Development 1. Orientation to size and power- 3 - mid-adolescence 2. Orientation to sex roles - 3. Influence of social class 4. Introspection & perceptiveness

Biographical Information (Biodata, personnel selection)

· These inventories ask for information about an applicant's work history, education, and personal interests and skills. · Can be highly predictive of job success when they have been empirically validated — that is, when items are included because they correlate highly with job performance. · Highest correlation with job turnover · Thought to be only slightly less valid than cognitive ability for predicting job performance (Tett, Meyer, and Roese, 1994).

Peer evaluations

· These kind of evaluations aren't used often in organizations · Research has actually found peer evaluations to be as psychometrically sound as supervisor evaluations for criterion/performance measures. · Particularly valid for predicting supervisor ratings, promotions, and training success.

comprehensive interdependence

· This is the most complex form of interdependent workplace, as everyone involved is reciprocally interdependent on one another. · Greater potential for conflict and the loss of individuals due to turnover becomes more important as the intensity and complexity of interdependence increases from pooled to this type · This form of interdependence can stimulate greater flexibility and enable groups to adapt more quickly to environmental changes.

Model for Evaluating Training (Donald Kirkpatrick's 1959, 1998)

· This model for evaluating training and learning programs includes four levels: reaction, learning, behavior and result. · Each level is used to assess the effectiveness of training programs and the effects of the training on the employees: 1. Level 1 / reaction - focus on the individual's response to the training or intervention. 2. Level 2/ learning- measures what has been learned, often using pre/post-tests or end-of-course tests. 3. Level 3 Evaluations- assess the impact of the intervention on the individual's behavior or performance in the workplace 4. Level 4/ Results - measure the impact of training on the organization's results.

Burnout

· This phenomenon is most suffered by compulsive workaholics who are insecure and unfulfilled in their personal lives. · These workers are not lazy, nor are they fulfilled in their outside lives. · Happens to workers who tend to be in dead-end jobs with little hope for promotion.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Evaluation)

· This theory has not been entirely supported by the research. 1. Motivators do appear to be more effective than hygiene factors in increasing employee motivation and satisfaction 2. The distinction between factors that produce satisfaction and dissatisfaction has not been well-supported. 3. Hygiene factors and motivators both contribute to satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Holland's Personality & Environmental Typology (1985)

· Topline message: All behaviors are a function of personality and the social environment · 6 Personality Types (RIASC) 1. Realistic: Prefers activities involving manipulation of machinery or tools 2. Investigative: Analytical, curious, methodological, precise; enjoys working alone and solving complex problems 3. Artistic: Expressive, nonconforming, original, introspective 4. Social: Enjoys working with others; avoids ordered systematic activities involving tools or machinery 5. Enterprising: Leans towards activities which entail manipulating others in order to attain organizational goals 6. Conventional: Enjoys systematic manipulation of data, filing records, or reproducing materials

ERG Theory vs. Maslow's hierarchy

· Topline message: In ERG- needs are not in a hierarchical order · Both a continuum; ERG attempts to overcome the shortcomings of Maslow's hierarchy · A person can move back and forth on the needs continuum in ERG · Difficulties in satisfying the more abstract needs causes frustration regression, or a greater focus on fulfilling needs on the next level below.

Self-efficacy (research, Stajkovic and Luthans, 1998)

· Topline message: Self-efficacy is positively related to work-related performance and that the relationship is moderated by task complexity and situational factors present in work environments. · Complexity: moderator that weakens the relationship · Situational factors and organizational practices: Also weaken the relationship- accuracy of task descriptions, definitions and circumstances of the tasks; instruction on necessary technical means and how to use them for successful task performance; physical distractions in the work environment; · Interventions to enhance self-efficacy: o Enhance employees self-efficacy beliefs of what they can do with the skills they already possess; o Develop effective behavioral and cognitive coping strategies, becoming more task-diagnostic, o Conceptualize ability as an incremental skill; timing of program implementation; clarity and objectivity of performance standards; and personal consequences contingent on performance.

Mixed Standard Scale (mitigating bias)

· Topline message: This is a kind of scale that reduces bias by obscuring order-of-merit when describing work-related behaviors · What it addresses: Tries to overcome halo, leniency, and similar rater biases · How it works: Arranges, in a non-hierarchal manner, items that describe performance as either good, average, or poor and then the rater rates whether the individual performs better, equal to, or worse (+, 0, -) than the behavior described in the item.

Equity Theory (Adams, 1965)

· Topline message: people assess both their inputs (contributions) and outcomes (rewards) in any work situation, and compare their input/output ratio to colleagues · Equity is attained when input/output ratios are comparable · Inequity: If input/output ratios are not attained, workers strive to create equity

Training (method used to eliminate rater bias)

· Training must focuses on matters such as the multi-dimensionality of work performance, objective recording of behavior, and rating people in terms of actual job requirements, training the raters won't work.

Personality Traits (leadership)

· Traits associated with leadership include: intelligence, drive, creativity, stress tolerance, self-confidence, integrity (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991) · Research: Disappointing & inconclusive; no single set of traits that distinguishes good leaders from poor leaders · Moderators: characteristics of workers, type of task, nature of the work environment

Guttman scale

· Type of scale that items are arranged in an order so that an individual who agrees with a particular item also agrees with items of lower rank-order. · Example- social distance scale developed by Bogardus, which is used to assess a person's attitudes toward particular subgroups. On this scale, agreement with an item such as "I would marry a New Yorker," implies agreement with lower-level items, such as "I would not mind having a New Yorker as a neighbor."

Subjective criterion measures

· Used as a result of objective measures not being available · Based on judgment or opinion · Often take the form of a Likert Scale- supervisor or other rater rates the employee on job performance in terms of 5-7 categories o 1 dimension: communication skills- rater will indicate on a 5-point scale ranging from poor to excellent how well the employee communicates on the job · important limitation- they are susceptible to rater biases. Because they depend on the rater judgment, the results of the rating scales sometimes reflect the rater more than the person being rated; particularly true of graphic scales such a the Likert Scale

Job Enrichment (research)

· Usually results in increased job satisfaction and decreased absenteeism · Improvements in performance are related more to the quality of work than its quantity · The studies suggest that the effects vary from worker to worker, as well as according to the culture, context, and setting of the work (Hackman and Oldham, 1975). More positive effects on workers who are younger, well-educated, and high in need for achievement.

Integrity Tests (personnel selection)

· Validity: Lower in terms of predicting job performance · Uses: Selection of employees with reduced probability of counterproductive job behaviors · Examples: helpful for selecting out things like sabotaging equipment, stealing, drinking, using drugs or fighting on the job, etc.

Multiple Hurdles (mitigating selection bias)

· Way of combining predictors · Noncompensatory Technique: Applicants must also meet a minimum level of performance on multiple predictors in order to be selected. · Predictors are administered one at a time, in a predetermined order, with each predictor being administered only if the applicant was successful on the previous one. · Cost-saving: the multiple hurdle technique can save time and money, especially because it may not be necessary to administer all predictors to each applicant

Positive feedback (systems organizational approach)

· What is it: Refers to information that encourages disruption from the status quo. · How it works: it is used to correct or change a pattern; in response the system deviates from homeostasis, or the status quo; could force changing roles in a family or organizational system (e.g. family: a mom going back to work)

Work Samples

· What is this: Selection tool that involves examining a sample of work behavior in standardized, job-like conditions. · Examples: Include dexterity test for dental students; shorthand and stenography tests; programming tests for computer programmers; and the in-basket test for managers. · Research: o Generally good predictors of job performance. o A meta-analysis by Roth, Bobko and McFarland (2005), an observed mean correlation between work sample tests and measures of job performance of .33 was found when measures of job performance (e.g., supervisory ratings) were corrected for attenuation. o Samples of motor skills have more validity than work samples of verbal skills (Asher and Sciarrino, 1974). · Advantages: Acceptable to applicants and are less likely than other methods to unfairly discriminate against members of minority groups.

The Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976)

· What it does: identifies five job characteristics that influence internal work motivation as well as job satisfaction, work quality, and absenteeism and turnover: 1. Skill variety: The more skills required by a job, the more meaningful it is. 2. Task identity: Jobs that constitute a whole piece of work are more meaningful than those that consist of some portion of the whole job. 3. Task significance: Jobs that have clear importance to others are more meaningful than those that don't. 4. Autonomy: Jobs are more meaningful to the degree that they allow for worker independence, freedom, and decision-making authority. 5. Feedback: Jobs providing built-in feedback are more meaningful than those that do not.

Super's Career and Development Theory (1953; 1996)

· What it is: A lifespace, lifespan theory of career development; based on the assumptions that career development can be described in terms of a predictable number of life stages. Each stage must be mastered for the individual to move to the next stage · Topline message: Individuals choose occupations that are consistent with their self-concept, which develops in a predictable sequence of stages · Key concepts: self-concept, life span, career maturity, life space, life-career rainbow

Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA, Dawis & Lofquist, 1984)

· What it is: A person-environment fit theory that proposes that job performance, satisfaction, and tenure are determined by the worker's satisfaction and satisfactoriness. · Satisfaction - worker's satisfaction with the job and depends on the degree to which the worker's needs and values are fulfilled by the job, · Satisfactoriness - employer's satisfaction with the worker and depends on the degree to which the worker's skills match the skill demands of the job (i.e., the degree to which the worker is able to successfully perform the job). · Emphasizes assessing a person's need, values, and abilities to identify his/her optimal work environment.

Forced Choice (method to address rater bias)

· What it is: Consists of pairs of statements about job performance that both appear equally favorable or unfavorable, but the statements in each pair actually differentiate between good and poor performing individuals. · What it addresses: It is one way to reduce the leniency or strictness bias

Life Career Rainbow (Super, 1994)

· What it is: Depicts the 9 major roles that an individual adapts during the 5 different stages of career development based on Super's life-span, life-space approach to career development · Content: This model communicates how determinants that are personal (values, needs & interests) and situational (community, school, and social policies) influence when and how people play particular life roles and the degree of importance these roles have · Visualized: As a longitudinal and two-dimensional graphic · Roles: child, student, worker, spouse, parent, citizen, homemaker, leisurite, pensioner; model emphasizes that individuals are involved in several roles simultaneously and that roles affect each other.

Career maturity (Super)

· What it is: Extent that a person has mastered the tasks related to his/her developmental stage/age; also called career adaptability · Measurement: Super's Career Developmental Inventory or Crites's Career Maturity Inventory

Organizational Commitment

· What it is: Extent to which a person identifies with an organization and is willing to work to help the organization achieve its goals. · Research: This is greatest when the job provides opportunities for personal growth and responsibility. The studies also indicate that, like job satisfaction this has a moderate to strong negative correlation with absenteeism and turnover (Mueller & Price, 1990). · Negative impact: It may increase resistance to change.

Fiedler's Contingency LPC Theory (1971)

· What it is: Proposes a leader's effectiveness is determined by style and characteristics of the situation · Least Preferred Coworker Scale- Describe leader's style · No single leadership style is most effective in all situations

Classroom Training

· What it is: Simulated work environment is set up in a separate facility · Purpose: Solely training, no focus on production · Advantages: More personalized attention for trainees; no worries about slowing production or damaging equipment

Favorableness (Fiedler)

· What it is: The degree to which a situation enables a leader to control and influence subordinates · 3 influencing factors: 1. Relationship between the leader & subordinates 2. Structure of the task 3. Leader's ability to enforce compliance · Example: A situation is very favorable when a leader has good relationships with subordinates, task is highly structured, leader has control over rewards & punishments

Herzberg's Two Factor Theory (1966, general information)

· What it is: Theory of both motivation and satisfaction, two separate states and that each is affected by different factors. · Topline message: satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate phenomena · Hygiene factors: o Fulfill Maslow's lower-order needs: pay, benefits, and relationships with co-workers. o When absent, a worker is dissatisfied o When present- no effect on satisfaction · Motivator factors: o Fulfill Maslow's higher-order needs: opportunities for responsibility, decision-making, and growth o Adequate = worker is satisfied and motivated o Inadequate/Absent not dissatisfied · Example: Raising salaries or instituting better supervisory procedures will not increase satisfaction but will only keep workers from becoming dissatisfied. To increase satisfaction and motivation, a job must provide motivator factors.

Formative Evaluation

· What it is: These kinds of evaluations are conducted during the delivery of the intervention to identify ways to improve it. · Uses: Assesses variables internal to the program · Purpose: identify necessary changes to the program that can be made while it is in progress.

Compressed work week (CWW; research)

· What it is: This arrangement increases the number of hours worked per day and decreases the number of days worked in a given work period. · Example: work week might be compressed into four days a week, ten hours a day. · Research: Mixed findings; Baltes et. al (1999) meta-analysis: o positive effects on supervisor ratings of employee performance, o employee overall job satisfaction, o employee satisfaction with the work schedule o NOT found to have a strong impact on objective measures of job performance or absenteeism. o Previous findings: Inconsistent with earlier conclusions that the four-day (compressed) workweek is associated with a decrease in absenteeism. Productivity is usually unaffected, although depending on the job, may even be negatively affected (e.g., fatigue from work requiring a great deal of physical activity)

Programmed Instruction

· What it is: This kind of training presents information that has been broken down into logical, organized sequences · Formats: paper & pencil; computer-assisted · Advantages: useful for memorization; Allows learners to move at their own pace · Disadvantages: Not effective for teaching complex skills

Summative evaluation

· When are these performed: These kinds of evaluations are conducted at the end of the intervention to evaluate its effectiveness and participants' reactions to it. · What question can they answer: Did the program meet its goals?

Incremental Validity

· What it is: Usefulness of a selection test in terms of decision-making accuracy. · Ways to determine: o When data from a criterion-related validity study are available, incremental validity can be calculated by subtracting the "positive hit rate" by the "base rate." § Example: Data indicates that 50% of employees hired using current selection procedures turn out to be good workers. In this situation, the base rate is 50%. If the data from the validity study show that, when the new selection test is used, 70% of those hired will be good workers, then the positive hit rate is 70%. When the base rate of 50% is subtracted from the positive hit rate of 70%, we get 20%, which means that the incremental validity of the test is 20% — i.e., that use of the new selection test will increase the company's decision-making accuracy by 20%. Incremental Validity = Positive Hit Rate - Base Rate = 70% - 50% = 20%

Incentive Theory

· What it is: a reinforcement theory of motivation used on organizational settings that draws on operant learning · Focus: Incentives that motivate employees to be more productive · Examples: external, material rewards such as salary and fringe benefits are viewed as being the most flexible; same type of reward can be used to encourage different activities or behaviors · Research: In a manufacturing firm, defined- benefit pension plan—determined to offer the most flexibility and raised productivity by 6%.

Flextime/ flexible working hours

· What this is: Allows employees to determine their own daily schedule as long as they work the total number of required hours and are present at work during certain core hours (e.g., between 10 and 3). · Research: Associated with increased job satisfaction, satisfaction with schedule, productivity and decreased absenteeism. The effects on performance are not clear, with some studies showing an increase and others showing no significant effect.

Model of Facet Satisfaction (Lawler, 1972)

· What this is: Model of job satisfaction conceptualized in terms of different facets of an individual's job; a compilation of feelings of satisfaction on an array of situational, biological, social and educational factors. · Comparison: Specifies that workers compare what their jobs should provide in terms of job facets to what they currently receive from their jobs. · Facets: gender, age, race, work load, job security, working conditions, workplace location, supervisor-subordinate relations, status and prestige of job, compensation.

Expectancy Theory

· What this is: Posits motivation is a function of 3 variables- Expectancy-Instrumentality-Valence: 1. Expectancy beliefs- Effort will lead to successful performance 2. Instrumentality beliefs- Successful performance will result in certain outcomes 3. Valence- Desirability of those outcomes · Example: You will be motivated to study if you think that studying will help you do well; and that doing well will allow you to advance your career, something that you highly value.

Opponent Process Theory (Landy, 1978)

· What this is: Theory of job satisfaction hypothesizes that job attitudes emanate from a person's physiological state. · Assumptions: When a person experiences an extreme emotional state, his or her central nervous system mechanisms attempt to bring him or her back to a state of emotional equilibrium or neutrality. · Return to neutrality: Emotional state may even surpass equilibrium and progress to the opposite emotional state. · Example: Patrick was complimented on a job he did by his superviser, and felt great. However, he returned to his desk and started feeling frustrated and angry. Patrick initially felt elated when informed of the praise then when the positive emotional state waned over time it continued to the opposite emotional state of anger.

Roe's Fields and Levels Theory (1956)

· What this is: Theory of vocational choice that links children's experiences with their parents to their later occupational choice, and level they achieve within that occupation · Parenting Experiences: 1. Overprotective 2. Avoidant- gravitate towards object-oriented fields such as science & technology; if they had to work hard to get their needs met as kids, likely to achieve higher educational levels within their chosen fields 3. Accepting · Other identifications: 8 Occupational fields; 6 occupational levels · Key takeaway: Parenting orientation affects personality traits and influences occupational outcomes

Selection bias

· What this is: This kind of adverse impact occurs when a test has different levels of predictive validity for different groups. · How can find out if this is the case: Statistically, this is determined by comparing the regression lines for the two groups to see if there is a difference in their slopes and/or the Y-intercept. If there is, then using a common regression line to make selection decisions for members of both groups may result in an underestimate of criterion scores for one group and an overestimate for the other group.

Differential validity

· What: A case of adverse impact · When it happens: When the validity coefficients for two subgroups differ significantly. · Example: A selection test that has a high validity coefficient for males but a very low validity coefficient for females. · Research: Suggests that this is actually a rare phenomenon and, it negatively affects the majority group just as often as the minority group (McCormick and Ilgen, 1985).

Differential Prediction

· What: A cause of adverse impact · When it happens: Regression line (either is slope or its y-intercept) is different for different subgroups. Given scores on a predictor test are associated with different outcomes for different subgroups. A test can be equally valid for two subgroups, but the actual outcome or criterion scores are different for a given result on the predictor. · How often it happens: Rare, but not as rare as differential validity · Who it impacts: Some research shows that when it does occur, it tends to favor minority groups over majority groups (at least with SAT scores)

Unfairness

· What: A cause of adverse impact · When it happens: When one group consistently scores lower than another group on a selection test, but both groups perform equally well on the job. · Predictive validity: In this situation, the selection test might be a valid predictor for both groups (i.e., there may be a high correlation between the selection test and job performance for both groups), but because members of one group consistently score lower on the test, they are much less likely to be hired.

Score Adjustment (remediating adverse impact)

· What: For certain tests, women and members of some minority groups tend to score lower than men and members of the majority group. · Remediation: Several methods for compensating for this bias have been suggested (Sackett and Wilk, 1994), including separation cutoffs and within group norming, and banding

Criterion contamination

· When does this happen: Occurs when a rater knows how a ratee did on a predictor test, and this knowledge affects the rating. · Example: If an employee obtained a very high score on the post-training test and the supervisor knows this, the supervisor's ratings of the employee's on-the-job performance might be biased upward. · Unexpected outcome: artificially inflates the validity coefficient (because of how well scores on a predictor predict the criterion) · Prevention- To prevent this, the rater should have no knowledge of the ratees' predictor scores.

Overpayment equity (Adams)

· When this happens: If a person perceives her input/output ratio to be less than other workers—they are not putting in as much and getting more out · To establish equity: person will increase work quality or quantity, or change their evaluation of the imbalance

Underpayment equity (Adams)

· When this happens: If a person perceives his/her input/output ratio to be greater than other workers—putting in more and getting less back · To establish equity: The person will decrease work quality or quantity or attempt to obtain better outcomes; or change their evaluation of the imbalance · Research: this condition has a greater impact on work performance than the opposite kind of inequity · Example: A person might decide her contribution is not as valuable as she originally thought or that she is getting rewards for her work she didn't originally consider. When inequity is extreme, a person may quit.

Combining Predictors

· Why do this: Multiple predictors are often preferred because they provide more information about applicants than just one predictor. · Correlations: o High correlations: Each predictor should have a high correlation with the criterion. o Low correlations: to ensure that predictors aren't providing redundant information, each predictor should have low correlations with the other predictors. (The term multicollinearity is used to describe the situation when predictors are highly correlated.)

Job Analysis

· Why is this done: To describe the precise requirements of a job; study what a job actually entails · Products: Produce information that is job-oriented, worker-oriented, or a combination of the two. · Purpose: For the development of a new job selection measure that will assess candidate's abilities to succeed in a job based on components identified in the analysis · Methods: Include interviews, questionnaires (e.g., the Position Analysis Questionnaire), direct observation, and work diaries.

Work-family conflict (time-based causes)

· Why this happens: The cause of this problem occurs when role pressures stemming from the two different domains compete for the individual's time, · Frequency: It is the most common cause of this problem. · Mechanism: Based on the scarcity hypothesis, that the sum of a person's energy is fixed; therefore multiple roles inevitably reduces the time and energy available to meet all role demands, resulting in strain and work-family conflict.

Maslow's Need Hierarchy (examples & research)

· Workers will exert effort to meet their lowest unsatisfied needs. · Examples: Someone who has just graduated from college may be trying to meet physiological or safety needs and, consequently, will be motivated to work hard by the promise of a raise. By contrast, an executive who has been earning a big salary for a number of years may be motivated by esteem needs (e.g., recognition from others) or self-actualization needs (e.g., opportunities for personal growth). · Evaluation: Higher-level employees, for example, rate esteem and actualization needs as more important, while lower-level employees place greater importance on physiological and safety needs. No support for 5 needs that are predicted. Does not have much empirical support. The notion that pay does not matter to lower level workers once they have job satisfaction has not borne out.