Inquizative 11 exam 3

Additional variables may often add ___ or an ___ explanation for a relationship.

nuance --- alternative

viewing violent tv - becoming desensitized to violence - aggressive behavior

- mediator - Here, the original relationship is explained by the existence of the additional variable.

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home-life satisfaction on two occasions, 1 year apart. Label each correlation that Professor Horvat discovers with the type of correlation it represents. Job satisfaction at the first time point is correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point.

autocorrelation

Multiple regression can help eliminate problems with ___ by controlling for potential third variables. It sets ___ variable(s) that influence the _____ variable, which is the outcome of interest. Effect sizes in multiple-regression analyses can be represented by both __, which is a standardized effect size, and ___, which is an unstandardized effect size.

internal validity ---- predictor --- criterion --- beta -- b

A(n) _______ is conducted over a longer period of time than a typical correlational study to help establish _______. A(n) _______ considers more than two variables in the same analysis and can help improve _______.

longitudinal study --- temporal precedence---multiple-regression analysis---- internal validity

Cross-sectional correlations measure

two variables at only one time; they therefore cannot establish temporal precedence.

Which of the following phrases in popular media articles suggest that multiple regression was used in the study being reported?

"controlled for" "adjusting for" "considering"

Identify the false statements about multiple-regression analyses.

- A multiple-regression analysis that accounts for third variables can establish causality. - Multiple regression establishes temporal precedence as long as it controls for potential third-variable problems.

cross - sectional correlation graph

- Here, two different variables are associated at the same point in time. For example, the two variables TV violence and aggression are measured and associated in third grade.

Which of the three causal criteria is usually established in a bivariate correlational study with a statistically significant association?

- If there is a significant association between two variables, covariance will be established. - COVARIANCE

Sammy wants to find out whether self-esteem in elementary school predicts behavior problems in middle school.

- LONGITUDINAL STUDY - Sammy wants to see whether there is temporal precedence—that is, whether self-esteem comes first in time before behavior problems. To achieve this goal, she should run a longitudinal study.

Indra wants to investigate the relationship between job status (whether or not they have a job) and grades among college students. She goes to the student center and hands out a survey with two questions about job status and GPA. She finds that at her institution, students with jobs have higher grades than students without jobs. Which of the three causal criteria are established in Indra's study?

covariance

Sammy wants to find out whether self-esteem and behavior problems have a mutually reinforcing relationship.

- LONGITUDINAL STUDY - Sammy wants to see whether there is a cyclical relationship between self-esteem and behavior problems (whether low self-esteem leads to more behavior problems and more behavior problems lead to low self-esteem). She can run a longitudinal study and examine the pattern of cross-lag correlations to achieve this goal.

Sammy wants to find out whether there is an association between self-esteem and behavior problems even after adjusting for experience with bullying.

- MULTIPLE REGRESSION STUDY - Sammy wants to examine whether experience with bullying is a third variable that explains the association between self-esteem and behavior problems. Multiple regression can help her achieve this goal because it can account for several variables at once.

Sammy wants to find out whether parenting style explains the association between self-esteem and behavior problems.

- MULTIPLE REGRESSION STUDY - Sammy wants to examine whether parenting style is a third variable that explains the association between self-esteem and behavior problems. Multiple regression can help her achieve this goal because it can account for several variables at once.

Identify the true statements about multiple regression.

- Multiple regression tests whether the predictor and criterion variables are related after controlling for third variables. - The b is based on the original measurements of the predictor variable. - Unstandardized b is an effect size computed from the original measurements of the predictor variable. It can be useful for seeing how much of each original unit (e.g., dollars, degrees, inches) is affected by the predictor variable. - By considering multiple variables at once, multiple regression allows researchers to see what the impacts of other variables are on the relationship between the two primary variables.

Jonide comes across a newspaper article with the headline, "Bigger Weddings Lead to Happier Marriages." She reads that researchers recruited 418 married couples from a local shopping center and collected their responses to a variety of survey questions, including some asking about the number of guests at their wedding and their relationship happiness (measured with questions about spousal satisfaction). This table presents the results of the study. Identify the validities that are reasonably established in this study.

- STATS VALIDITY - CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

Social media use at Time 1 was positively correlated with self-esteem at Time 2.

- Social media use at Time 1 was positively correlated with self-esteem at Time 2. - This correlation shows how one variable measured at one point is related to another variable measured at a different point.

DeAndre is studying whether social media use predicts feelings of loneliness, and he finds that there is a positive relationship between the two variables. However, he finds after controlling for the amount of time spent with friends that social media use is no longer associated with feelings of loneliness. Identify the incorrect interpretations of DeAndre's finding.

- The amount of time spent with friends predicts social media use after DeAndre controls for the other variables. - The amount of time spent with friends is not associated with social media use.

DeAndre is studying whether social media use predicts feelings of loneliness, and he finds that there is a positive relationship between the two variables. However, he finds after controlling for the amount of time spent with friends that social media use is no longer associated with feelings of loneliness. Identify the correct interpretations of DeAndre's finding.

- The amount of time spent with friends presents a third-variable problem. - The beta for social media use will have a 95% CI containing zero.

Timur has collected some longitudinal data on self-esteem and social media use at two time points 1 year apart. He finds these correlations. What is the best interpretation of Timur's results on the relationship between social media use and self-esteem? (Note: * = p < .05)

- The cross-lag correlations reveal that social media use at Time 1 was significantly associated with self-esteem at Time 2. - students who have used more social media are more likely to have high self-esteem over time.

Identify the true statements about multiple-regression analyses.

- The largest beta in a multiple-regression analysis is the predictor that has the strongest relationship with the criterion variable. - A multiple-regression analysis can control for more than one variable at a time.

Identify the false statements about pattern and parsimony.

- The pattern and parsimony technique can be considered only with experiments. - The pattern and parsimony technique works best when all of the studies surrounding a theory use the same methodology.

Identify the true statements about pattern and parsimony.

- The pattern and parsimony technique relies on the weight of the evidence from multiple studies. - The pattern and parsimony technique exemplifies the theory-data cycle.

Abelson (1995) wanted to examine whether smoking led to lung cancer. He examined several studies, which showed the following results: 1.The longer a person has smoked cigarettes, the greater their chance of getting cancer. 2.People who stop smoking have lower cancer rates than people who keep smoking. 3.Smokers' cancers tend to be in the lungs and of a particular type. 4.Smokers who use filtered cigarettes have a somewhat lower rate of cancer than those who use unfiltered cigarettes. 5.People who live with smokers have higher rates of cancer, too, because of their passive exposure to the same chemicals. Identify the true statements about Abelson's investigation.

- The simplest explanation of these results is that the chemicals in cigarettes cause cancer. - All of the studies that Abelson investigated were correlational studies.

Abelson (1995) wanted to examine whether smoking led to lung cancer. He examined several studies, which showed the following results: 1.The longer a person has smoked cigarettes, the greater their chance of getting cancer. 2.People who stop smoking have lower cancer rates than people who keep smoking. 3.Smokers' cancers tend to be in the lungs and of a particular type. 4.Smokers who use filtered cigarettes have a somewhat lower rate of cancer than those who use unfiltered cigarettes. 5.People who live with smokers have higher rates of cancer, too, because of their passive exposure to the same chemicals. Identify the false statements about Abelson's investigation.

- The studies Abelson examined address all possible third-variable problems. - Abelson would be able to make a strong causal claim if the studies he examined had the same findings.

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home-life satisfaction on two occasions, 1 year apart.Suppose she finds that home-life satisfaction at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but that there is no correlation between job satisfaction at the first time point and home-life satisfaction at the second time point.Which statement explains why Professor Horvat can't conclude that home-life satisfaction causes job satisfaction?

- There are potential third variables that might explain the relationship. - Professor Horvat's study is longitudinal, and longitudinal studies do not help to rule out possible third variables. The only way to truly address all potential third variables is to conduct an experiment.

Identify the false statements about multiple regression.

- You should compare b to b only from the same regression table. - If a third variable is associated with the criterion variable, the relationship between the key predictor and criterion variables is spurious.

Iva wants to find out whether weight in the fall is correlated with weight in the spring.

- autocorrelation - An autocorrelation is a correlation of one variable with itself, measured on two different occasions.

Social media use at Time 1 was positively correlated with social media use at Time 2.

- autocorrelation - This correlation shows how one variable might be related to itself at a different point in time.

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home-life satisfaction on two occasions, 1 year apart. Suppose she finds that home-life satisfaction at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point, but there is no correlation between job satisfaction at the first time point and home-life satisfaction at the second time point. Which of the following three criteria for causation are established in Professor Horvat's study?

- covariance - temporal precedence - Because Professor Horvat finds that there is a significant correlation between home-life satisfaction and job satisfaction, covariance is established.

Iva wants to find out whether the number of cafeteria uses in the spring is correlated with weight in the spring.

- cros sectional correlation - A cross-sectional correlation is a correlation of one variable with another variable, measured at the same point in time.

Iva wants to find out whether weight in the fall is correlated with the number of cafeteria uses in the spring.

- cross lag correlation - A cross-lag correlation is a correlation of one variable at one point in time with another variable at another point in time.

Social media use at Time 1 was negatively correlated with self-esteem at Time 1.

- cross-sectional correlation - This correlation shows how the two variables are related to each other at one point in time.

A negative parenting style is the reason that marital violence is linked with childhood aggression. moderator, third variable, or mediator?

- mediator - Negative parenting style is a variable that explains the relationship between marital violence and childhood aggression, but it is not a third variable that provides an alternative explanation.

Friendship explains why social media use and happiness are related. moderator, third variable, or mediator?

- mediator - Friendship is a variable that explains why the two variables of social media use and happiness are linked, but it is not a third variable that provides an alternative explanation.

Stress is associated with negative health outcomes only when the stress is viewed negatively. moderator, third variable, or mediator?

- moderator - In this case, the way in which stress is viewed changes the relationship between stress and health outcomes.

Inspiration has a stronger influence on creativity in people who work harder. moderator, third variable, or mediator?

- moderator - Whether or not someone works hard alters the relationship between inspiration and creativity.

hrs of exposure related to both of these - viewing violent tv - aggressive behavior

- moderator -In this example, the outside variable alters the relationship between the two original variables, so that the original relationship depends on the additional variable.

Dr. Soulis conducts a study that finds that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years, but only among men, not among women. In the relationship between having a cognitively demanding job and cognitive benefits later in life, gender plays what role?

- moderator - A moderator changes the association between two key variables depending on its levels. In this scenario, the association between a cognitively demanding job (A) and cognitive benefits (B) depends on the levels (male and female, C types 1 and 2) of a moderator, gender (C).

Mohamad hypothesizes that lack of sleep before the age of 7 results in substance abuse later in life. He realizes that it would be unethical to conduct an experiment depriving children of sleep and that a correlational study could not establish temporal precedence. Mohamad decides to conduct several different studies to establish multiple association claims that point to his hypothesis. What is Mohamad's approach called?

- pattern and parsimony - While each individual association claim still suffers from the same problems that prevent true causality from being established, several well-designed studies taken together can reveal the simplest explanation of a phenomenon.

Jonide comes across a newspaper article with the headline, "Bigger Weddings Lead to Happier Marriages." She reads that researchers recruited 418 married couples from a local shopping center and collected their responses to a variety of survey questions, including some asking about the number of guests at their wedding and their relationship happiness (measured with questions about spousal satisfaction). This table presents the results of the study. A skeptic of this research says that the only reason that couples with larger weddings have happier marriages is that rich people can afford large weddings and rich people are happier. Which statement is the correct response to this critic?

- the critic is incorrect because the number of guests at the wedding is associated with relationship happiness even after the researchers controlled for personal income. - The critic suspects that personal income is a third variable that explains away the association between relationship happiness and the number of guests at the wedding. Since the beta for the number of guests at the wedding is still significant (β = 0.32, 95% CI [.12, .52]) even after the researchers controlled for personal income, we can conclude that personal income does not create a third-variable problem.

The correlation between weight and vocabulary is actually a function of age, not a true association. moderator, third variable, or mediator?

- third variable - Age is the reason that weight and vocabulary are associated; they would not be related otherwise.

having lenient parents lead to both - viewing violent tv - aggressive behavior

- third variable - The additional variable is associated with both variables and renders their relationship spurious, rather than explaining or changing it.

Warm temperatures cause ice cream sales to be associated with crime rates, though they otherwise would not be associated. moderator, third variable, or mediator?

- third variable - In this example, warm weather provides an alternate explanation for the relationship between ice cream sales and crime.

Indra wants to investigate the relationship between job status (whether or not they have a job) and grades among college students. She goes to the student center and hands out a survey with two questions about job status and GPA. She finds that at her institution, students with jobs have higher grades than students without jobs. Which of the following variables could be alternative explanations for the association between job status and grades?

- time-management skills - conscientiousness - students might be more likely to both have a job and study, so conscientiousness could be an alternative explanation for the relationship.

Dr. Soulis conducts a study that finds that having a cognitively demanding job is associated with cognitive benefits in later years, but only because people who are highly educated have cognitively demanding jobs, and people who are highly educated have better cognitive skills. In the relationship between having a demanding job and cognitive benefits in later years, amount of education plays what role?

-third variable - A third variable is an outside variable that provides an alternative explanation for the association between two variables, rendering the relationship spurious. In this scenario, cognitively demanding jobs (A) and cognitive benefits (B) are only related because of amount of education (C).

The beta of _____ suggests that the relationship between the number of absences and grades is ______ in that a(n) ___ number of absences is associated with higher grades when the study controls for ___.

.44--- POSITIVE --- GREATER---IQ

autocorrelation graph

Here, a variable measured at two different times is associated with itself. For example, TV violence measured in third grade is associated with TV violence measured in thirteenth grade.

cross lag correlation graph

Here, one variable measured earlier is associated with a different variable measured later. For example, TV violence measured in third grade is associated with aggression measured in thirteenth grade.

Dr. Saetang conducts a study that finds that praise from supervisors is associated with higher levels of work productivity, but only because highly motivated people are praised more often, and highly motivated people are more productive. What role does employee motivation play in the relationship between praise and work productivity?

THIRD VARIABLE

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home-life satisfaction on two occasions, 1 year apart. Label each correlation that Professor Horvat discovers with the type of correlation it represents. At the first time point there is a strong correlation between work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction.

cross - sectional correlation

Professor Horvat designs a study to assess the work satisfaction and home-life satisfaction of a group of graduate students. She administers the same measures of work and home-life satisfaction on two occasions, 1 year apart. Label each correlation that Professor Horvat discovers with the type of correlation it represents. Home-life satisfaction at the first time point is strongly correlated with job satisfaction at the second time point.

cross lag correlation

In a(n) ___________, two variables measured at the same time are associated. If an earlier measure of a variable is associated with a later measure of the same variable, a(n) _______occurs. In a(n) ______, an earlier measure of one variable is associated with a later measure of a different variable. These three types of correlations are usually found in _____ designs.

cross-sectional correlation--- autocorrelation---cross-lag correlation---longitudinal

A mediator is a variable that

explains why two other variables are associated. This differs from a variable that makes the association between two other variables spurious—these variables cause third-variable problems.

A ____ explains why two variables may be related based on an internal factor that connects them.

mediator

A ___ is a variable that explains how the two main variables are related in different ways depending on the situation.

moderator

Multiple regression uses

multiple predictor variables to control for potential third variables. We can compare standardized beta values within one table to see which predictor has the strongest effect size, but we cannot compare bs because they are unstandardized.

Cross-lag correlations

tend to be researchers' main focus because they help establish temporal precedence by measuring the relationship of one variable to another over time.