Intro to African History Final Exam

League of Nations Mandates

- Only one not released from system of governance after WWII was Union of South Africa, used control over Namibia until 1989 o Togo and Cameroon- France; Tanganiqa- Britain, Namibia- Union of South Africa

Someto Uprising

-1976 (Soweto refers to the South West Township), there were a number of changes taking places in south Africa across social and political levels which created a more militant political culture, which led to the creation of more civic groups (people who gathered around a mutual interest ie youth groups, women's clubs, etc.) renewed interest in public groups where people could share ideas about this regime they were living under -series of protests led by high school students in South Africa that began on the morning of 16 June 1976

Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act, Act No 67 of 1952 a.ka. / commonly known as the Pass Laws

-Africans broke the pass laws and Indian/Asian/White volunteers entered African townships without permission- brought closer cooperation between different social groups, like the South African Indian Congress, and led to the formation of new organizations -form of internal passport system designed to segregate the population, manage urbanization, and allocate migrant labour. Also known as the natives law, pass laws severely limited the movements of black African citizens by requiring them to carry pass books when outside their homelands or designated areas. Before the 1950s, this legislation largely applied to African men, and attempts to apply it to women in the 1910s and 1950s were met with significant protests. Pass laws would be one of the dominant features of the country's apartheid system, until it was effectively ended in 1986.

Libya, 1951

-Libya formally declares independence and creates own constitution. -the first piece of legislation to formally entrench the rights of Libyan citizens following the post-war creation of the Libyan nation state.

Julius Nyerere

-Tanzanian statesman who served as the leader of Tanzania, and previously Tanganyika, from 1960 until his retirement in 1985 -he helped form the Tanganyika African National Union

Eritrea: Unionist party v. Muslim Leagues

-elections 1956 -Elections had previously been held in 1952 during the British administration. Following the elections, article 45 of the new Eritrean constitution required that the Legislative Assembly pass a new electoral law to replace the 1951 proclamation and establish an Electoral High Commission prior to the next elections. In 1953 the Assembly rejected a draft law, and the government obtained confirmation from the Attorney General that the 1951 proclamation would still be applicable. However, this had not been done, and in the months leading up to the 1956 elections the Muslim League asked the Supreme Court to declare them unconstitutional. -The Eritrean police force began harassing opponents of the Unionist Party government in September 1955 under the leadership of pro-Unionist Tedla Ogbit.[3] The federal authorities also intervened to "frighten off any possible opposition", and one anti-Unionist candidate, Muhammed Omar Akito, had a bomb thrown into his living room - Mostly Unionists were elected -in1962 this led to the annexation of Eritrea by Ethiopia

Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Columbia Alum 1912

-founder and President of the African National Congress. He was the first black South African lawyer. -attended CU 1912

Dedan Kimathi

-leader of the Mau Mau which led an armed military struggle known as the Mau Mau uprising against the British colonial government in Kenya in the 1950s. -A highly controversial character, Kimathi's life has been subject to intense propaganda by both the British government who saw him as a terrorist, and Kenyan nationalists who view him as the heroic figurehead of the Mau Mau rebellion.[1] Despite being viewed with disdain by the Jomo Kenyatta regime and subsequent governments, Kimathi and his fellow Mau Mau rebels are now officially recognised as heroes in the struggle for Kenyan independence by the incumbent government.[2]This follows passage of a new Constitution in 2010 calling for recognition of national heroes. His capture and execution in 1957 led to the eventual defeat of the uprising by the British colonial government. -Kimathi is viewed as a national hero by the Kenyan people

Nkrumah

-led Ghana to independence from Britain in 1957 and served as its first prime minister and president. Nkrumah first gained power as leader of the colonial Gold Coast, and held it until he was deposed in 1966. An influential 20th-century advocate of Pan-Africanism, he was a founding member of the Organization of African Unity and was the winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1962.

West African Pilot

-newspaper launched in Nigeria by Nnamdi Azikiwe ("Zik") in 1937, dedicated to fighting for independence from British colonial rule.[

Jomo Kenyatta

-political leader, jailed, ascends to presidency -arrested and jailed during the Emergency -first president of kenya

Felix Eboue

-proposed a reconstruction of power and said that French policy was not appropriate for Africa: tradition is important and local leaders should be used to propagate the success of the colony -was a Black French Guianan-born colonial administrator and Free French leader. - he helped build support for Charles De Gaulle's Free French in 1940, leading to broad electoral support for the Gaullists faction after the war. He supported educated Africans and placed more in the colonial administration, as well as supporting preservation of African culture -daughter married Leopold Senghor

Chilembwe's Uprising of 1915

-rebellion against British colonial rule in Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi) in January 1915. Led by John Chilembwe, an American-educated black millenarian Christian minister, the uprising was based around his church in the village of Mbombwe in the south-east of the country. It was centred on the black middle class and encouraged by grievances against the colonial system, including forced labour, discrimination and the new demands on the indigenous population caused by the outbreak of World War I.- John Chil was an African missionary trained by the Church of Scotland mission in East Africa and finished training in the US in 1897, opened chain of churches and vocational schools where they preached the gospel of hard labor, etiquette and saw all of these as qualities Africans could learn to earn the respects of Africans (Booker T Washington model); founded his own mission station in Nyasaland in the Shire Highlands- was known as the Providence industrial mission and preached against indigenous practices New taxes imposed on the rural population which led to rural migrant labor to earn cash to pay the taxes- pulled men from his churches to mines; the area that the churches were spread through was also hit by a hard famine and as they were losing men laborers to the mines they were also experiencing a mass movement of laborers from Mozambique into their region

NP (National Party) - 1948. What is its significance?

-returned to power and was again in government from 4 June 1948 until 9 May 1994. At this time, it began implementing its policy of separate development, known as 'apartheid'. Members of the National Party were sometimes known as Nationalists or Nats. The policies of the party included apartheid, the establishment of a republic, and the promotion of Afrikaner culture. -Upon taking power after the 1948 general election, the NP began to implement a program of apartheid - the legal system of political, economic and social separation of the races intended to maintain and extend political and economic control of South Africa by the white minority. o1989: marks the beginning of the end of Apartheid in South Africa, PW Botha (longstanding pres of the National Party ruled S Africa) was replaced by FW DeKlerk

Brazaville Conference

1944 -sweeping reforms without promise of independence -- meeting of prominent Free French leaders held in January 1944 in Brazzaville, the then-capital of French Equatorial Africa, during World War II. -During World War II, the French colonial empire played an essential role, through its gradual alignment with Free France. After the end of the Tunisia campaign, the entire colonial empire reunited in favor of the allied forces; with the exception of French Indochina, who remained loyal to the Vichy government. -Led to the Brazzaville Declaration: 1.The French Empire would remain united. 2.Semi-autonomous assemblies would be established in each colony. 3.Citizens of France's colonies would share equal rights with French citizens. 4.Citizens of French colonies would have the right to vote for the French parliament. 5.The native population would be employed in public service positions within the colonies. 6.Economic reforms would be made to diminish the exploitative nature of the relationship between France and its colonies.

Manchester Conference

1945 -5th Pan-African Congress -Colonial powers in Africa wanted native Africans to wait patiently for limited political concessions and better career opportunities. Due to their exclusion from the negotiations of the Treaty of Versailles, black ex-servicemen and educated urban classes became disillusioned. Because colonialism had been built on the foundation of capitalism, socialist ideas of equality and global collaboration appealed to these budding revolutionaries -Africans again fought in World War II. After this war, many felt that they now deserved independence. This Congress is widely considered to have been the most important -Even though Pan-Africanism as a movement began in 1776, it was the fifth Pan-African congress that advanced Pan-Africanism and applied it to decolonize the African continent -people from the African Diaspora, including Afro-Caribbeans and Afro-Americans. Manchester had a significant part to play in helping the African countries to march forward in their fight to independence including WEB DuBois

Year of Africa

1960 is referred to as the Year of Africa because of a series of events that took place during the year—namely the independence of seventeen African nations—that highlighted the growing Pan-African sentiments in the continent. The year brought about the culmination of African independence movements and the subsequent emergence of Africa as a major force in the United Nations. These rapid political development led to speculation and hope about the future of Africa as a whole; yet at the same time, the continent was beginning to face the realities of post-colonial violence. This year also saw the beginning of armed opposition to South African Apartheid government, with political ramifications across Africa and around the world.

Mandela- "First prosident?"

961, talking about liberation from apartheid and where the movement against this growing system was at that period o In 1956, Nelson Mandela was at this point one of the African lawyers appealing against various apartheid laws with Oliver Tambo: charged for high treason for violating laws against appealing to the courts; he's found not guilty in this first instance; he is a founding member of the ANC Youth League (made up of members who are actively trying to recruit the larger South African population into the ANC trying to make it a mass movement) o Nelson Mandela is being characterized by the South African government and internationally as the leader of a terrorist organization in South Africa, but he's insisting they are Freedom Fighters, not terrorists o Leader of ANC o 1962- arrested and stands trial for treason in the famous Rivonia trial of 1963, often referred to as the trial that changed South Africa o Oct 1963 10 defendants came to Pretoria on various charged of working with foreign people to work agasint south Africa, terrorism, etc. Mandela being one of the defendanet,s the case seemed to be open and shut with the outcome resulting in a guilty verdict there was no chance of levelling an arugment because of apartheid there'd be no fair trial so the defendants decided to use this forum- Mandela made a very famous speech from the dock (stand) he condemns the trial as being fundamentally illegitimate and the apartheid justice system as being anything but a justice system- needed a complete overhaul. Trial ended june 12 1964 and the court sentenced 8 of 10 to life imprisonment, sent to Robbin Island, Goldberg o Released 1989

Blaise Diagne

Born in Goree, one of the 4 communes of Senegal for originaires, grew to become a Senegalese politician and rose to become a bureaucrat and was accultured and able to get evolue status. Ran for French Chamber of deputies in 1913 and got it in 1914, becoming the first Black African to win a seat in the French parliament. Governor general for military recruitment during WWI: gets 100k to register in exchange for exemption from the native code and expanded political rights --> very successful recruitment campaign.

Kasa-Vubu

Congo-Léopoldville (1960-65), today the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Congo's independence from Belgium, Kasa-Vubu's ABAKO party won a significant number of votes in the new parliament, but did not win an outright victory. In a political compromise, it was agreed that Patrice Lumumba, of the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) would be prime minister, and Kasa-Vubu would face Jean Bolikango, a former mentor in the ABAKO movement, for the presidency.[1] Kasa-Vubu was elected president by the Congo's new national assembly, taking office on 30 June 1960

Haile Selassie

Led Ethiopia for 45 years between 1930 and 1975 Was chairperson of the OAU (Organization for African Unity) when it was first formed in the 40s He fought against Italy under the Fascist rule of Mussolini and he with the help of the League of Nations overcame the invasion.

UDI

Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) was a statement adopted by the Cabinet of Rhodesia on 11 November 1965, announcing that Rhodesia, a British territory in southern Africa that had governed itself since 1923, now regarded itself as an independent sovereign state. The Rhodesian government, which mostly comprised members of the country's white minority of about 5%, was indignant when, amid decolonisation and the Wind of Change, less developed African colonies to the north without comparable experience of self-rule quickly advanced to independence during the early 1960s while Rhodesia was refused sovereignty under the newly ascendant principle of "no independence before majority rule" ("NIBMAR").

Ethiopia- Italy 1935 - 1941*

War o combined forces with Britain and Ethiopia were able to return rule to Ethiopia and overturn the Italians o Period of colonial destabilization as all German territories were handed over to other countries as their own colonies o Unprecedented mobilization of human resources o Armies raised thru intermediaries like chiefs required to give a certain number of people risking punishment

Bantu Education Act, Act No 47 of 1953

a South African segregation law which legalised several aspects of the apartheid system. Its major provision was enforcing racially separated educational facilities. Even universities were made "tribal", and all but three missionary schools chose to close down when the government no longer would help support their schools. Very few authorities continued using their own finances to support education for native Africans.[1] In 1959, this type of education was extended to "non white" universities and colleges with the Extension of University Education Act, and the internationally prestigious University College of Fort Hare was taken over by the government and degraded to being part of the Bantu education system.[

PNDC Provisional National Defense Council

name of the Ghanaian government after the People's National Party's elected government was overthrown by Jerry Rawlings, the former head of the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council. This was on December 31, 1981. It remained in power until January 7, 1993. In a statement explaining the coup d'état, Rawlings explained that a "holy war" was necessary due to the PNP's failure to provide effective leadership and by the collapse of the national economy and state services. The PNDC was a military dictatorship that induced civilians to participate in governance. The majority of Council members were civilians. The PNDC policies reflected a revolutionary government yet pragmatic in its approach. The economic objectives of the PNDC were to halt the economic decay, stabilise the economy and consequently stimulate economic growth. Politically, its goal was to establish structures that would effectively allow the people to express their political will. Most significantly, the PNDC, carrying with it the spirit of the June 4, 1979 Uprising, brought to the table a change in the people's attitude from a 'government will provide' position to being proactive in nation-building.

FNLA

o (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) led by Holden Roberto, ethnically grounded group most being Makongo people, late group arriving to the conflict against the Portuguese got support from Zaire, which was under a dictatorship

Gatekeeper state

o - sits astride the interface between a territory and the rest of the world, collecting and distributing resources that derive from the gate itself, customs revenue and foreign aid, permits to do business, entry and exit visas, permission to move currency in and out- survival depended on the fact that their sovereignty was recognized from outsider, valuable resources such as foreign aid or loans came straight to the government o Post Cold War: What was revealed as the external funders of these regimes withdrew their financial support was that these states had become bankrupt, so when the gatekeeper state relies on investors and citizens become less of a legitimate enforcement to be in government- don't need their wealth to maintain your financial stability. Decline of prices for raw products from African countries and the withdrawal of subsidies from the US or USSR. Fluctuating oil prices in 1970s which increased the prices of consumer goods in African countries: perfect storm of disaster for these autocratic, military, gatekeeper states that had been reliant on external backing.

OAU

o 1963-2002 o founded in Addis Ababa one of the firs things Mbeki does is to disband the organization when he comes to its head because it was known as a dictator's club notorious for the valorization of state sovereignty over other principles. Believed to be fostering and strengthening dictatorships for being non-interventionist -established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa, with 32 signatory governments.[1] It was disbanded on 9 July 2002 by its last chairperson, South African President Thabo Mbeki, and replaced by the African Union (AU). -To co-ordinate and intensify the co-operation of African states in order to achieve a better life for the people of Africa.[1] To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states. The OAU was also dedicated to the eradication of all forms of colonialism and white minority rule as, when it was established, there were several states that had not yet won their independence or were white minority-ruled. South Africa and Angola were two such countries. The OAU proposed two ways of ridding the continent of colonialism and white minority rule. Firstly, it would defend the interests of independent countries and help to pursue the independence those of still-colonised ones. Secondly, it would remain neutral in terms of world affairs, preventing its members from being controlled once more by outside powers.

Mobutu Sese Seko

o 1965 he launches a coup d'état, rules Zaire 1960-5 o Kabila is able to displace by marching through Zaire the longstanding dictator in Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko (last saw him when he assassinated his former friend). Been in power for over 40 years and Kabila is able to overthrow him

Black Consciousness

o 1970s SASO launches the Black Consciousness Movement, a movement that advances a way of thinking, a political philosophy to thinking about blackness as a black south African and blackness as a political position rather than a bodily "condition" o Relationship between the black consciousness movement and what is happening with high school/elementary school students: the movement had filtered to the younger generations who were emboldened by the movement; the police under apartheid assigned responsibility to the movement for orchestrating uprisings of the younger, emboldened students: they weren't 100% wrong - grassroots anti-Apartheid activist movement that emerged in South Africa in the mid-1960s out of the political vacuum created by the jailing and banning of the African National Congress and Pan Africanist Congress leadership after the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960.[1] The BCM represented a social movement for political consciousness.

Lancaster House Agreement

o 1979 Lancaster House Agreement_ between liberation forces and the southern Rhodesian government allowed for one man, one vote, which was in effect was independence with majority rule

Somali - Operation Restore Hope.

o 1992-93 A US led UN sanctioned mission that combined humanitarianism and military invention in Somalia - Operation Restore Hope. Carried out food aid to this region. Military troops from UN nations are used to deliver this food aid within Somalia to the capital. 93- this mission decided to expand their mandate as long as they were already there from food aid to disarmament of the war lords and their militias as they were known in the international press. This switch in the operations brought them into conflict with the troops of the clan that had the capital in its territory- the troops of Muhammad Aideed. In this process the US had a helicopter shot down which led to a lot of violence and deaths of Somalis while trying to capture Muhammad Aideed- Black Hawk Down. The mission ended and these troops/humanitarian organizations withdrew from Somalia all together. Despite being a decentralized nation this state, calling itself Somaliland began to organize a judicial system, policemen, parliament, etc. they seemed to be no better or worse off than other developing countries.

-General Juvenal Habayarimana

o 62-67 this refugee community spreading in the region around Rwanda made about 10 attempts to return. 73 a military coup in Rwanda brought Habayarimana to power - held power until 1994. Promises to solve ethnic tensions by introducing multi party elections and negotiations with the refugees for their return.

FLN

o Algerian War: Revolutionary committee formed by Ahkmed ben Bella and other Algerian exiles who worked with a combo of guerilla attacks to immobilize the superior French forces - kidnappings, etc. -National Liberation Front

The Biafran War

o Between 1966 start of the Biafrin war or the Nigerian Civil War and 1985 Nigeria went through at least 6 military takeovers with a handful of civilian gfovernments interspersed between, the military did not pretend to exist to support the government they see themselves as political contenders. The first case: the ousting of Yakubu Gowon by Murtala Muhamad who was overthrown by Olusegun Obasanjo, many notorious dictators esp[ Sani Abacha who refused to transfer power to the civilian rule

Second Independence

o Countries around the continent moved toward democratization in the 1990s, striking aspect of these movements which are considered the second independence movements. These national conferences were references back to the meetings that preceded the French Revolution.

National Conferences

o Countries around the continent moved toward democratization in the 1990s, striking aspect of these movements which are considered the second independence movements. These national conferences were references back to the meetings that preceded the French Revolution. The first country to have a national conference was Benin: had been under the longstanding power of Kerekou who had seized power in 1972 and held onto power until 1989, which was a turning point for many thing as the end of the Cold War. In 1990 Benin was a country in crisis, civil servants were on strike, students were holding public demonstrations in the capitol, and the government's attempts to quell this by force. February 1991: national conference with representatives from all of the major sectors of public life participated in this national conference. The professionals, clergy, representatives from all of the groups including oppositional groups were there. At the conference these delegates of various parts of society voted that the national conference should be the governing structure in the country: voted themselves leading the nation. Was convened by Kerekou and the government so is like if people went to the White House at the behest of the president and then vote themselves as the national government. Vote the decisions they make there should be legally binding on the national so somewhat of a civil coup. Having the military be on board or opposed is a very politically fraught position to be in. Amazingly, following an empassioned protest and critique of the national conference, Kerekou agreed to step down and accept the decisions of the conference. Elections would be held shortly in Benin and their results would decide the government going forward. March 1991, Kerekou ran and lost. After Benin 11 other countries had national conferences and had them that ended military regimes and brought in more constitutional democracies. 1994 S Africa celebrated its liberation from apartheid was a roundly applauded development but the new S Africa faced many new problems with integration etc. New principles for collaboration and cooperation that were adopted. NEPAD was an agreement that emphasized intercontinental and regional cooperation for economic development, as opposed to thinking nationally only. OAU founded in Addis Ababa one of the firs things Mbeki does is to disband the organization when he comes to its head because it was known as a dictator's club notorious for the valorization of state sovereignty over other principles. Believed to be fostering and strengthening dictatorships for being non-interventionist. Sets up the Africa Union which upheld principles of democracy, cultural rights, conflict resolution within the continent. Seemed to subsume the principles of sovereignty beneath nationalism and the needs of only specific nations Flourishing of possibilities for African activist groups and social movements to address the challenges of these democratic nations. Such as Occupy Nigeria, which came after the decision of the president to withdraw government subsidies which is a huge part of the Nigerian government. There were massive, nationwide strikes. Could raise questions of renewable energy, etc. Civil society groups can push against their government, which was unimaginable in former governments. There are still forms of risky political activism - can open the possibility for pushing back against what is happening. Interlinking of different challenges: right to protest, threat of violence, governmental accountability. A lot of activism from S Africa from its history. Accountability issues: there are a lot of the same issues that African students are fighting for similar things as American students. Slavery still a problem especially in Mauritania. Happnening in all kinds of areas of life.

Colonial inheritances

o Debt- loans taken out for colonial projects, military operations, etc. would be inherited by the new nation-state o Undereducated populations- in the colonial period education was for the elite o Authoritarian tradition o Colonial security ideology: military as police Seychelles- got their military after their first coup so didn't inherit it from colonialism o Ethnic stratification/fragmentation Sometimes from longstanding historical differences but often came from the colonial definitions imposed by the metropole governments Tanzania former territory of tanganiqa combined with the island of Zanzibar- formed the new nation state- zanzbibar had longstanding social stratification between those who had formally been an enslaved class and the master class Prioritizing rapid development of infrastructure and mass education; very expensive, requires loan taking and bargaining on national resources, importing exports and teachers from all over the world o Colonial administrative institutions o Decide alliances in cold war period- tended to prop up dictataros, Samuel Do in Liberia, Muhammad Sied Barriet in Somalia, the Cold War propped up dictators all over the world because the two beliigerients the US and the USSR preffered to have ideologically likeminded partners rather than democratic partners where leaders would change

Algerian war of independence

o FLN vs. Colons (French settlers in Algeria) vs. France - three sided war of independence, which intensified the violence o By the end of the war, there were 300,000 Algerians dead and millions of people displaced (Algerians and settlers alike) o In1954 an Algerian ex-sergeant in the French army, Ahkmed ben Bella, joined with 8 other Algerian exiles to form a revolutionary committee known as the FLN, which launched a bid for independence in Algeria o Steady rise of guerilla tactics in Algeria until France was forced to bring in military reinforcements to support the colonial militia in the colony, eventually about 400,000 french troops would be stationed in Algeria and brought into the conflict o The FLN's tactcs for launching independence combined deliberate use of terror as well as guerilla tactics, combo strategies effectively immobilized superior French forces, strategies included kidnappings, murders, created an overall climate of fear and tension; in return there was the growth of counter-terrorism by settler community and the French army who raided villages and slaughtered the civilian population o In 1956 the war spread to the city, Algiers had cafes move to be targets rather than government buildings, etc. public spaces where civilians would congregate- sought to weaken the colons and draw as much international attention to the war raging ; ruthlessly put down and the French started to gain upper hand by using new tactics including collective punishment o French were unable to find a political solution that would be satisfactory to both the FLN and the colons, the war was tremendously unpopular internationally and international cricitism of France increased also within France o May 1958 the setller comunitity and the Algerians met to try to overthrow the French government: became the community of public safety and demanded the return of Charles de Gaulle o Secret Army Organization: colonial extremists who started to carry out a campaign of counter terrorism against the FLN and the French authority; war becoming more and more complicated o 1962 a ceasefire was arranged between the French government and Algerian leaders at Évian, France where Algerians voted for independence AND majority rule

Jerry Rawlings

o Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings- Ghana took power in 1979 but the government was considered generally ineffective so he started another coup, the military is imagining themselves to be overseers of the workings of the government -member of NDC party

Communaute Francaise

o French Colonies in West and Central Africa getting independence from colonial rule but entering this new formation of the French communauté being guided and controlled by the French president, bearing a lot of resemblances to the former colonial situation o 1950: Communauté Française the other territories go the way of Guinea and reject this community and gain full independence becoming discrete sovereign states - post 1960 period the institutions de Gaulle sets up after the dissolution of the communaute serves as a strong relationship between France and the colonies: preserved for decades even after he's left office o Concentrated its efforts in keeping france as a primary influence in Africa, a series of cooperation agreements except for Guinea, fRench covernment created a ministry of cooperation in charge of facilitating collaboration o Franc zone: support the burgeoning African economic environment; currency cooperation agenda between France and 14 African states; French Treasury in France was in charge, the currency used in Africa was a variation on the Franc: CFA, the first pillar in what would become France's neo-colonial structure within Africa after independence - centralize currencies within the French Treasury, certain amount of currency stability and fairly low inflation rates at first and promoted foreign investment into the French zone o Massive trade deficits in African trade territories and finaly france decided to devalue the CFA by 50% in 1994 and the African countries affected had no autonomous control over this development, was devastating to these African economies and becomes an ongoing legislature into the 90s o The timing of the Comm Fran's offer of independence (complicated)

Charles Taylor

o In 1989 Tolbert was deposed in a coup by Charles Taylor an American with Liberian descent, whose forces were initially accepted by the Liberian pop but they soon faced opposition from Prince Johnson who was an ally of Doe, who organized a militia in Liberia based on ethnicity. Proved to be a three sided war, which intensified the violence. While Johnson's forces were able to route Doe's army they couldn't overcome Taylor's. Ultimately a civil war begins and in 1990 the war threatens to spill throughout the West African region and demands the intervention of ECOWAS. The ECOMOG also becomes involved, invading Liberia defeating Samuel Doe's forces, handing him over to Prince Johnson, who tortured and killed him. An interim, coalition government was set up in Liberia and elections were called for as a frequent response to civil War conflicts. Elections held in 1997 and Charles Taylor rose as the winner. Taylor remained in power until 2003, when another rebellion and international pressure forced him to step down and seek refuge in Nigeria

Bantustan

o In 40s and 50s there was urbanization, more children in the cities who needed schools which led to investments in African education mostly in the Bantustans, forcing people to leave the cities because there wasn't an expansion of educational systems for African students in the cities. Some African parents tried to develop their own schools to compensate for the education that was lacking but they were voluntarily formed and unsustainable compared to government provided education o some wanted to maintan this system of the Bantustan with their own country, etc. Mandela and many other political prisoners were released and multi-party elections were held with one vote for one person (Lesotho and Swaziland stayed as Bantustans) -was a territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia), as part of the policy of apartheid. Ten Bantustans were established in South Africa, and ten in neighbouring South West Africa (then under South African administration), for the purpose of concentrating the members of designated ethnic groups, thus making each of those territories ethnically homogeneous as the basis for creating "autonomous" nation states for South Africa's different black ethnic groups.

ANC Origins

o In the 1950s the ANC launched the defiance campaign of largely nonviolent disobedience against this growing racist apartheid regime and its proliferating laws; Africans broke the pass laws and Indian/Asian/White volunteers entered African townships without permission- brought closer cooperation between different social groups, like the South African Indian Congress, and led to the formation of new organizations -Umkhonto we Sizwe or MK, translated "The Spear of the Nation", was the military wing of the ANC. Partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre of 1960, individual members of the ANC found it necessary to consider violence to combat what passive protest had failed to quell. MK commenced the military struggle against apartheid with acts of sabotage aimed at the installations of the state, and in the early stages was reluctant to target civilian targets.[7] MK was responsible for the deaths of both civilians and members of the military. Acts committed by MK include the Church Street bombing and the Magoo's Bar bombing. In co-operation with the South African Communist Party, MK was founded in 1961[8] and integrated into the South African National Defence Force by 1994.

The Emergency

o Kenyan independence: December 12, 1963 o 30 out of 60,000 Europeans were killed, 100,000 Africans died, including civilians- war escalated after October 20, 1952- when the colonial governor of Kenya Evelyn Barron declares a state of emergency in Kenya "The Emergency" which set a number of things in motion such as Kenyan political leaders such as Kenyatta were arrested and jailed, all African political organizations were legally banned, 50,000 British troops were imported from Europe to defend the settler community in Kenya, curfews were imposed within the colony, a network of detention camps were created across Kenya and any suspected civilian accomplices to rebel fighters and those fighters were sent to the camps, once there they were force to perform hard labor, were interrogated, tortured, raped, mutilated; the tenant farmers who were squatting on plantations were made to resettle to other parts of the countries, considered too dangerous a threat, 1million people were resettled during this period and estimates are that 100,000 people died from exhaustion or starvation o The war raged on after the declaration of the Emergenct: a lot of press, expensive: moral capital of England, war was unpopular with government troops sent to fight, British citizens in the UK, the war made it impossible for England to argue that colonialism could confer some beneficent qualities

Revolutionary United Front

o Key rebel group in SL is RUF become notorious for abusing the civilian population, proliferation of amputation by this group. Became notorious for the systematic use of rape as part of their campaign of revolution against the state. ECOMOG intervened in 1998 and again staged a democratic election process that resulted in the election of Tejean Kaba. The ECOMOG forces were strongly challenged by the RUF and weren't able to consolidate peace in Sierra Leone until 2000 with collaboration with British forces working with them.

-General Paul Kagame

o Leader of the RPF, born in Uganda o Kagame launches two very controversial counter-insurgency wars in Zaire - foreign nation wars between these Hutu nationalists and the Rwandan government. Violates the laws of state's sovereignty. The rebels sponsored by Kagame won the first war and spilled over to destabilizing political power within Zaire itself.

Sharpeville Massacre

o March 21, 1960: Sharpeville Protest: leave passes at home and go to police station surrendering themselves to arrest, flooding the jails; the police opened fire on the protesters who came to their station, killing 69 and injuring 180 others. Sharpeville Massacre

NEPAD

o New Partnership for Africa's Development: OAU agreement promoting economy cooperation -economic development program of the African Union. NEPAD was adopted at the 37th session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government in July 2001 in Lusaka, Zambia. NEPAD aims to provide an overarching vision and policy framework for accelerating economic co-operation and integration among African countries.

Rwandan Genocide of 1994

o One of most famous and traumatic events in African history was not a cold war casuality. Roots lie in pre wwi Belgian colonial period. Under these regimes the Rwandan population was split into the Hutu and Tutsi, each of whom had different value in society. The Tutsi was seen as more civilized, though the majority they were seen as the dominant group. Hutus made up 80% and the Tutsis was 18% and the Twa was 1-2% who were part of the country but ignored. Before the colonial era the Tutsis occupied high status in this great lakes area in Rwanda but social status and ethnicity weren't as tied as they became in the colonial period. Majority rule threatened the entrenched power assigned as the higher and ruling class. The looming threat of independence provoked interethnic violence in the late 50s and again in 1963. The first colonial power Germany lost possession in WWI and placed under Belgian admin. In the late 50s these tensions increased in Rwanda and there was a Hutu political movement that stood to gain from the coming of majority rule which gained momentum as the segments of the Tutsi establishment fought against democratization. In 1959 there was a Hutu uprising in which hundreds of Tutsis were killed and forced to flee Rwanda. Marked the uprising of the Hutu Peasant Revolution, which lasted from 1959-1961. Signified the end of Tutsi domination for the revolters and the sharpening of ethinic tention within the country. In 1962, 120,000 people primarily Tutsis had fled the country taking refuge elsewhere to escape violence. A lot fled to Uganda, Tanzania, and Burundi. 62-67 this refugee community spreading in the region around Rwanda made about 10 attempts to return. 73 a military coup in Rwanda brought Habayarimana to power - held power until 1994. Promises to solve ethnic tensions by introducing multi party elections and negotiations with the refugees for their return. In the 90s his move to begin negotiating with the communities of Tutsis and their descendents to Rwanda brought him a lot of opposition. Outside of Rwanda there was a new organization known as the RPF Rwandan Patriotic Front that was made up of children of Tutsi exiles that had been born in bordering countries. They organized themselves under a member Kagame. Organizing in order to stage returns to Rwanda. In 1990, the RPF was able to launch attacks into Rwanda with the help of Uganda, where Kagame was born. 1mil people lost their lives in 100 days and hundreds of thousands of women were raped and the UN withrdrew a nation that hd been formed in 1993 to oversee these political transformation. Troops reduced to 270. Outside of this the only foreign troops found in Rwanda once the genocide began were 200 election monitors who were in thr country at the time who saved 1000 lives. RPF launched an invasion capturing the capital and established a new government even setting up a Hutu as the president but most thought that Kagame was really in charge, as he was. Despite the moves of the RPF toward reconciliation most Hutus who participated in the genocide of 1milion people

Mau Mau / Land and Freedom Army

o Originally between the British settler community (the militia known as the home guards) and the Land and Freedom Army made up of the Kikayu ethnic group in Kenya, referred to as Mau Mau in the international press, British forces later enter and they come in to support the Home Guards o Late 1940s- late 50s -1952 and 1960

Pan African Congress

o PAC- Pan African Congress, formed specifically in response to what happens in Kliptown through the passage of the Freedom Charter; formed in 1959 as a breakaway organization from the ANC, yet also a descendany of the ANC, under the leadership of Robert Sobukue, the members wanted to sound a protest against some of the ideas embedded in the Freedom Charter Maintained that the South African government should be constituted to the South African people, owing their allegiance only to Africa, government of the Africans, by the Africans, for the Africans, democratic rule of the African majority: quite specific in their conception of the people of South Africa

Lumumba

o PM of Zaire (now DRC) was Lumumba, the Congolese army mutinies against their generals for higher wages, they want to assume higher positions within the army and at the same time one of the provinces which we now know for being a mineral rich area, Katanga province, declare theyu're going to secede from the Congo o Patrice Lumumba, elected prime minister of the Republic of Congo in 1960, worked with Che

MPLA

o Popular movement for the independence of Angola led by Agostinho Neto) spoke Portuguese as their first language, socialists, had mixed race majority, were associated with the left, got support from the castro regime in Cuba when they couldn't get help from the US

Africa Union

o Replaces OAU (1963-2002) which was disbanded by South African president Thabo Mbeki -continental union consisting of 54 countries in Africa. The only African state that is not a member is Morocco, due to the status of the Western Sahara. The AU was established on 26 May 2001 in Addis Ababa and launched on 9 July 2002 in South Africa,[6] with the aim of replacing the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). The most important decisions of the AU are made by the Assembly of the African Union, a semi-annual meeting of the heads of state and government of its member states. The AU's secretariat, the African Union Commission, is based in Addis Ababa.

Era of the Strong Man

o Rise of autocratic rule, form of governance that had a grip on the continent for until the 90s -authoritarian regime.

Matthew Kerekou

o Ruler of Benin; holds first national conference, Feb 1991 -After seizing power in a military coup, he ruled the country for 19 years, for most of that time under an officially Marxist-Leninist ideology, before he was stripped of his powers by the National Conference of 1990. He was defeated in the 1991 presidential election, but was returned to the presidency in the 1996 election and controversially re-elected in 2001. -Kérékou seized power in Dahomey in a military coup on 26 October 1972, ending a system of government in which three members of a presidential council were to rotate power (earlier in the year Maga had handed over power to Justin Ahomadegbé).

Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)

o Rwandan Patriotic Front that was made up of children of Tutsi exiles that had been born in bordering countries. They organized themselves under a member Kagame. Organizing in order to stage returns to Rwanda. In 1990, the RPF was able to launch attacks into Rwanda with the help of Uganda, where Kagame was born. 1mil people lost their lives in 100 days and hundreds of thousands of women were raped and the UN withrdrew a nation that hd been formed in 1993 to oversee these political transformation. Troops reduced to 270. Outside of this the only foreign troops found in Rwanda once the genocide began were 200 election monitors who were in thr country at the time who saved 1000 lives. RPF launched an invasion capturing the capital and established a new government even setting up a Hutu as the president but most thought that Kagame was really in charge, as he was. Despite the moves of the RPF toward reconciliation most Hutus who participated in the genocide of 1milion people • Ascendance of the RPF: made up of the children of exile from the 60s who had grown up outside of Rwanda with this history of being pushed out, and the RPF being an organization coming from Uganda led by Paul Kagame and their entry into Uganda post-genocide and their ability to defeat the genocidaires and establish a new government in the Kigali after invading the country and set up a new government with initially a Hutu President, Bizimungu o Fuels a mass exodus of Hutus who had been implicated in the genocide in various ways over 1.5milliuon fleed the country to neighboring Zaire, especially the eastern part. Forming their own Rwandan refugee population this time largely Hutu dominated. The camps they set up became staging grounds from which Hutu nationalist could launch strikes back into Rwanda - use of Zaire as a place from which they could develop this campaign against a new Rwanda.

Said Barre

o Somalia: in the horn of Africa. 1977 Ethiopia had a Marxist coup and the US at the time sees they've lost a key ally in the region to the Communist side. As a result, they begin to support Said Barre in Somalia, to retain a foothold in the region now that the emperor had been overthrown in the coup in Ethiopia. Barre's government was deeply unpopular in Somalia and used force to crack down on any political opponents, yet was able to rule with the backing of the US. With the end of the cold war Barre couldn't rely on the support of the US, so he fleed Somalia abandoning the nation. After his exit, you see the emergence of 6 clan-based organizations, who historically are grounded in the culture of the nation, they begin to compete for power and control over the central government.

MK / Umkhonto we Sizwe

o Subgroup of the ANC: Spear of a Naion; Dec 16 1961 made it known that they would fight for their rights made known thru words and dynamic blasts, rise of public forms of violence o was founded as a Pan African organization, it was not simply an African organization but a trans-racial org of anti-apartheid militants from various communities in South Africa

UNITA

o UNITA (Union for the Total Independence of Angola) was a group led by Jonas Savmbi who had a very rural base, nor urbanized, a lot had education from Protestant Missionaries were vaguely left getting support from China, peasant-baed membership

ECOWAS & ECOMOG

o Ultimately a civil war begins and in 1990 the war threatens to spill throughout the West African region and demands the intervention of ECOWAS. The ECOMOG also becomes involved, invading Liberia defeating Samuel Doe's forces, handing him over to Prince Johnson, who tortured and killed him. An interim, coalition government was set up in Liberia and elections were called for as a frequent response to civil War conflicts. o Economic Community of West African States o Economic Community Monitoring Group

ZANU/ZAPU

o Zimbabwe African National Union Sithole -fought against the white minority government in Rhodesia, formed as a split from the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU). ZANU won the 1980 elections under the leadership of Robert Mugabe, and seven years later merged with Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU to form ZANU-PF o Zimbabwe African People's Union Nkomo: militant organisation and political party that fought for the national liberation of Zimbabwe from its founding in 1961 until independence in 1980. In 1987 it merged with the Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front (ZANU - PF)[1] and was relaunched in 2008.

The Freedom Charter

o adopted by the Congress of the People in 1955 June 26; important agreement and pledge amongst these various organizations, each representing various segments of South African society Maintained that the South African government should be constituted to the South African people, owing their allegiance only to Africa, government of the Africans, by the Africans, for the Africans, democratic rule of the African majority: quite specific in their conception of the people of South Africa

Steve Biko

o born 1946 in the Eastern Cape, in 1969 he formed SASO- south African students organization to bring black south African students into on common cause; it started as a breakaway from the national union of south African students with mixed students of different racially segregated universities ; emerged as critique of University Christian Movement which was inspired by liberation theology coming from Latin America that advocated linking theology and social justice o 1973- steve biko restricted to the eastern cape yet still worked on community development projects, et o 1977 biko and peter jones drove to cape town to meet with other activists, which was a violation of the ban, on their way back they were stopped by the police, biko was arrested and taken to the headquarters, killed by head traumas in police custody

Nnamdi Azikiwe

o born in Northern Nigeria in 1904 died 1996, father was a clerk for the British administrator, he was educated at Christian missionary schools before going to the US where he studied at Lincoln UNiverstiy for nine years; newspapers- African intelligenzia -one of the leading figures of modern Nigerian nationalism. He served as the second and last Governor-General of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963 and the first President of Nigeria from 1963 to 1966, holding the presidency throughout the Nigerian First Republic.

Asimilados (Portuguese colonies)

o could be granted to Africans who'd learned Portuguese language and culture and religion, married in a "civil" marriage fashion, pay fees to apply to be reviewed to be considered, could prove they were living in a Portuguese manner and find a sponsor who could verify this, very restricted category because of the various forms of qualifications required to achieve the political status, and structurally part of the legal system

Sujets / Subject

o dictatorial, one-way relationship, no leverage to act upon the state, being acted upon by the state o held by most people; covered by the native code (code d'indigène) and consisted of a separate legal code applied to subjects only and could be punished by any European person on the street, not necessarily someone with power, could be made to do forced labor if there was a major project that needed to be finished you could be conscripted; forced conscription for police or military campaigns; loss of land as form of punishment or a minor offense like showing disrespect to France or a major like murder; if they had a legal case or a grievance they wanted to pursue they were allowed access only to 2 kinds of courts (customary and religious usually sharia) form of restriction because we're talking about legal systems where there were multiple working at the same time in colonies (religious courts, colonial courts, etc.) but if you were a sujet you were only allowed access to certain ones meaning you couldn't carry out a case in one of those courts (only could bring religious or indigenous grievances.)

Tirileurs

o first African forces fully integrated into European forces and used in battle, by WWII other forces such as Britain had caught on and formed large forces like the Royal West African Force and the taking of these forces to see overseas action especially in Asia i.e. India and Burma o mostly from Senegal, but not all, some were from Fr. West Africa -numbered over 130K soldiers. -implications of their fighting: allowed Africans to take arms up against Europeans, those that had oppressed them for so long. This explodes the hierarchy and demystifies the idea of Europe but France had no other choice

Leopold Senghor

o first president of independent Senegal in 1960, born in 1906 in a small fishing village 70 miles from Dakar and died in 2001, starting from age 12 in Senegal he'd gone to Catholic missionary schools then went on to seminary and secondary school and in 1928 he won a govnerment scholarship which took him to Paris for lycee until 1931. During these years he became very influenced by the Harlem Renaissance and encountered other colonial subjects from across the French empire and also encountering African Americans, people like Aimee Cesaire from Martinique; he became citoyen, becoming embedded in French life, school teacher, etc. -first African elected as member of the Academie Francaise - wrote a lot about the concept, a uniting concept, of negritude - was a chairperson for the OAU

Evolues / 'Citizens'

o individuals in colonies who were entitled to the same political rights as European citizens in the metropole o very tiny proportion of the population and they tended to be more privileged than the majority of Africans, often wealthier, also were required to have fluency in colonial language and be able to prove that you had adopted French culture to a large extent, were entitled to voting rights of French citizens in France, had elevated political status, showing their Frenchness through language and culture, that legal entitlement did not mean that they didn't face barriers to exercising that entitlement all the time; in theory they had the same rights as French citizens in France, had to be Catholic and would apply for a change of political status and had to demonstrate you were French in these certain ways

-Laurent Kabila

o leader in one of these rebel groups and with the support of Kagame and his fighters, Kabila is able to displace by marching through Zaire the longstanding dictator in Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko (last saw him when he assassinated his former friend). Been in power for over 40 years and Kabila is able to overthrow him. Proceeds to rename the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kabila was not the only rebel against the Mobutu regime, there were other Congolese groups opposed to his regime who sought to take over and the rise of Kabila does not equal the coming of a new peaceful democratic regime for the Congo in fact it provoked a second war in the Congo that other African countries including Rwanda were shadowly involved in. Escalated into a continent-wide conflict, which last until 2003 when there was a peace deal.

SANLC

o new recruits could find themselves locked into closed military compounds run by men who knew how to run the closed mining system in South Africa -South African Native Labour Corps

Carrier Corps

o recruited as labor corps -military organisation created in Kenya in World War I to provide military labour to support the British campaign against the German Military forces in East Africa, commanded by Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck.

Hector Pieterson

o young martyr shot by the police at the Soweto uprising

Originaires

particularly in French West Africa; people who were born into four cities in French West Africa, based on where you were born (Dakar, Saint Louis, Gorée, et Rufisque- the oldest colonial towns established in West Africa) anyone born into one of these was automatically given status of originaire; somewhere in between évolués and sujets, they were far more privileged than sujets and exempted from the native code and the random forms of conscription and penalization that sujets faced all the time and if they wanted to they could apply for the status of évolués but they weren't required to renounce their religion if it was Islam if they wanted to enjoy these political rights