Intro to Archaeology: Exam 1

New Archeology or Processual Archeology

- Archeology as a Science - 1960s Lewis Binford - Explanation, generalizations, and scientific research - What most archaeologist do nowadays Explanatory vs descriptive archeology Deductive vs inductive reasoning Testing vs authority valiatoon Project design vs data accumulation Quantitative vs only qualitative approach

Describe Shovel-test pits (STP).

... usually units of 1x1 m Try to get as deep as possible, to figure out where we want to expand on the test pits; allows us to get a better idea of what is underneath

What are methods of Absolute dating?

1. Calendars and historical chronologies 2. Dendrochronology (tree ring) 3. Radiocarbon Dating 4. Potassium - Argon (K-Ar) Dating 5. Uranium Series Dating 6. Thermoluminescence (TL)

What is an example of Thermoluminescence?

A timeline map of 500 years regarding the construction and the development of the archaeological Roman city Cuicul, Algeria, was established by thermoluminescence dating the city bricks

Identify which Sampling Strategies are shown?

A: Random B: Stratified Random C: Systematic D: Stratified Unaligned Systematic

What are the types of Dating Methods?

Absolute and Relative Dating Methods

_________ is accurate, while _______ is not as clear... you can tell i am younger than prof, but do not know exactly how old we are unless you ID us

Absolute, relative

_________- help us understand the formation process (also light and shadow) is key for interpretation of buried material using aerial photos.

Aerial photos depending what is underground may change the vegetation on top -- Color and density

What are the different types of Archaeological surveys?

Aerial survey: sometimes you can see if from above Subsurface survey: sometimes you have to dig around

What is an example of Uranium Series Dating in the field.

Altamira Cave, Cantabria, Spain. The bison (left) depicted here dates to18,000 years ago according to C14 on organic material found in the paint Uranium dates on calcite crusts covering the single-color artwork show (centerright in red) shows that it is at least 35,600 years old (Terminus ante quem) - minimum / maximum date

Think like and Arch (Just read over) According to the chapters from The Fifth Beginning discussed in class, 1-What is one example of things getting worst in the world today? 2- What is one example of things getting better in the world today? 3-According to the author, why is the past worth studying?

An example of rising problems within humanity are the social institutions that host racism and poverty. The gap between varying groups of people has widened with the social constructs of discrimination. On the other hand, life expectancy and child mortality rates have improved immensely with the development of modern medicine / health care and access to adequate variables that maintain human life. The past is worth studying because understanding the changes that have occurred in the past allows us to better comprehend how the future will be different. She claims that this is important knowledge because knowledge of (pre)history will assist us in accepting how radically different technology, politics, world order, and characteristics of humanity may be in the future. The knowledge of our past helps us to understand how we got to where we are now and the endless possibilities for the future of humanity.

What are examples of ecofacts?

Animal bones, shells, plant remains (pollen, grains).; generally provide ecological and subsistence information

A place in which evidence of past human activities are found is called ______.

Archaeological site

_________ are objects found and studied by archeologists which have been made or modified by humans.

Artifacts

What is an example of Potassium - Argon (K-Ar) Dating in the field?

Australopithecus afarensis (human ancestor) The Australopithecus afarensis individual known as "Lucy" lived 3.2million years ago. It was dated by the potassium-argon method. The dates are from the surrounding layers of volcanic ash that exist above and below the fossil. They dated the layers above and below to date Can be used when the bone start to mineralize (become fossil)

What are the different time periods of research of Archaeology?

Classical arch: use of written sources, architecture and art from ancient Greece and Rome Historical arch: more recent historic times, text-aided (couple of hundred years i.e. after Europeans arrived in Americas... there are writings) Prehistoric arch: cultures before written records (most do some time of prehistoric) Underwater arch: study waterlogged sites or artifacts (during colonization times... sunken ship also places that are now covered in water that used to not be)

What are collectors vs Archaeologists?

Collectors are after artifacts for money or for personal collections Archaeologists are after knowledge With collectors, we lose the connection of where the artifact was found, the material, artifacts around it, number of similar artifacts to figure out how to

What are the four fields of anthropology?

Cultural Anthropology: studying contemporary people, interviewing people Biological Anthropology: study the evolution of humans and compare variety of primates; pre-modern humans Linguistic Anthropology: language and contemporary war Archeology: Study physical things that remain from the past

Describe Thermoluminescence (TL)

Dates crystal minerals which have been fired (e.g. pottery, bricks) - Dating the actual artifact It measures the radioactivity received when fired up - Looks at the light energy stored within the crystals of minerals Range: up to 100,000 years ago Not used as often, they drill a little but to see if it is a fake or not... particularly items that have been in mueses with little context (not too much use for this) Usually use other methods, bu this one is there if needed

___________ and _________ will help to expand knowledge, but the ____________ allows us to know what is relation to what.

Dating tools and technology law of association

Describe Absolute Dating.

Determination of age with reference to a specific timescale

Desribe Drone Surveys

Drone survey: aerial photogrammetry, 3D modeling software - exposed archeological mat A breakthrough in archaeology because it speeds up the pedestrian survey process. Through drones, you can get specific locations of each wall to make models of towns and

The classificatory-historical period

Early 20th Century - Central concern of chronology - Invetories of artifact traits: spent a lot of time in the lap looking at the shape of different materials (pottery and arrowheads) - mostly descriptive

________ are non-artifactual, organic remains found at archeological sites

Ecofacts

What are some tool used in Pedestrian surverys?

Electromagnetic methods (geophysical methods) Ground penetrating radar (GPR) uses radar pulses to image the subsurface...Can see what is under the ground without excavating Metal detectors (not very accurate for archaeology but makes sense if you are aware of metal artifacts in the area)

______ are modified by humans, but are non-movable artifacts (items that you cannot take to a lab to study)

Features

What are examples of features?

Hearth, pits, house walls and floor

What are the Excavation Techniques?

Horizontal and Vertical

Think like and Arch (Just read over) The map below shows an area of interest for archaeologists. The area has been uninhabited for at least the past one hundred years and the natural formation processes in the area do not appear to have been very active. A quick perusal of the area showed small pottery shards, arrowheads, and lithic fragments scattered on the ground. Accounts from when the conquistadors arrive to the area mention the presence of Native American building surrounded by dense vegetation. A team of archaeologists want to survey the area. Given the information they have and the data on the map, 1) what type of sampling strategy would make the most sense to use in this case and why? 2) what different types of survey methods should they use and why- suggest at least two different survey methods that make sense give the information you have? Justify your answers, write in complete sentences. Aim to write at least about 100 words

In this case, stratified random would be the best sampling strategy. Stratified random divides the area into natural zones and squares are chosen by a random procedure to size each zone. Due to the tree coverage, contour lines of the hill, and the railroad that cuts through this zone, it would be best to dig with the lay of the land in mind. Additionally, they could do a more in-depth ground survey because of the success they have had when perusing the area, but I would recommend using an aerial survey to get a bigger picture of the site. Specifically, they could use LIDAR to remove the layer of trees and discover what may be laying underneath. Additionally, the use of Satellite and Infarred Imaging could lead to the further discoveries of pottery, arrowheads and lithic fragments and potentially could lead to the discovery of other materials or remains.

________ material survives better than _______ matter:.

Inorganic organic

Describe Uranium Series Dating

It dates the formation of travertine (calcium carbonate) often deposited on the cave walls and floors White icicles in the caves It measures the radioactive decay of isotopes of uranium Dating range: 500,000 -50,000 years old

Describe LIDAR.

LIDAR uses a laser scanner that pulses beams to the ground. Software can switch off layer, so it can look into woodland You can filter through vegetation

Radiocarbon Dating

Libby 1949: the Rise of Archeology as a Science (first absolute dating) - Can date organic material (something that used to be alive) form 50,000 to 500 years old - This is a breakthrough in archeology - The reason for the time period is because carbon does not exist after 50,000 years

Describe Radiocarbon Dating

Many methods based on radioactive decay... it measures the regular decay of 14C on organic remains It has a half life... so eventually there is no more carbon if something is older than 50,000 years old Dating ranging from 50,000 to 500 years old. Organic material (anything that was once alive) plants, animals, and humans release the isotope of carbon that happens at a particular rate that allows to date back (not metals) Avoid contamination at the time of sampling by wearing gloves or using a tool to handle the sample.

Describe Potassium - Argon (K-Ar) Dating

Measures the steady and slow decay of 40K/40Ar volcanic rocks Dating range: Volcanic rocks older than 80,000 years old Not dating something created by humans (artifacts or ecofacts) Dating the layer that has sealed human activity - indirect method Uses geology (must have volcanic rocks)

Oblique Aerial Images v Vertical AerialImages

Oblique: better for pictorial effect and perspective Vertical: better for making maps and plans

Generally, the ________________ refers to a part of the world that was known to its citizens before it came into contact with the Americans. On the other hand, the________ refers to the Americas and it is inclusive of North America, South America, and Central America.

Old World New World

Describe Horizontal Excavation.

Open area method, Grid method larger, more exposed areas, aimed at recovering synchronic information (relating to something, especially a language, at a particular point in time)

Think like and Arch (Just read over) Alex and Sidney are studying the stratigraphic profile from the Purple Cat site excavations carried out in the '80s. After reviewing the journals and forms from the excavation, they learned that glass bottle fragments were excavated from layer G and decorated pottery fragments and broken arrowheads were excavated from layer D. 1-Order the layer sequence from oldest to most recent. 2-Give an example of the law of superposition, the law of association, and the cross cutting law using the given information and the graph.

Order of the layer sequence: C, F, A, D, B, G, E The Law of Superposition is any undistributed sequence of stratography, where the oldest layer is at the bottom and the youngest layer is at the top. THINK OF AN EXAMPLE The Law of Association is artifacts found near one another in the same layer or feature. THINK OF AN EXAMPLE The Cross Cutting Law states that any feature that cuts across a body of sediment rock is younger than the body of sediment rock that it cuts across. THINK OF AN EXAMPLE

Think like and Arch (Just read over) ADD MAP The preserved body of a young woman has just been located on a glacier in the Andes Mountains of Chile. Judging from the artifacts associated with her body, this Ice maiden appears to be from Inca times and very well preserved. The body was found inside a pit on a seated position wrapped in a blanket and a number of artifacts were found associated with her. 1- The following is the complete list of artifacts that were found associated with the Ice maid's body. Separate the artifacts made from organic material from those made from inorganic material (2pts): Decorated ceramic bowl Feather necklace Silver pin head Bone comb Woven cotton blanket Ground ocher (iron clay) pigment 2- Looking at the list above, which artifacts found with the Ice maid are unlikely to have survived had they not been preserved in a cold environment? Why not? (1pt) 3- The archaeologists who recovered the Ice maid's body found evidence of several events that occurred at the site. In order to accurately reconstruct the history of the Inca Ice maid site, separate these events into cultural formation processes and natural formation processes (2pts): Glacier movement over the centuries scattered some of the artifacts associated with the body A curious hiker pulled the silver pin head out of the ice before archaeologists arrived A survey team unknowingly damaged the top side of the body while placing a geographic marker A particularly warm period in the mid-17th century resulted in the body's head being partially exposed for a time. It is poorly preserved.

Organic Materials: feather necklace, bone comb, woven cotton blanket, Inorganic Materials: decorated ceramic bowl, silver pin head, ground ocher Since she was found in an extremely cold environment, there is a high probability that she, and her artifacts, will be well preserved. Inorganic materials are more likely to be well preserved, since they did not use to be living. Frigid environments lead to the stopping of organic decay, so if the environment was cold enough, the organic material may have been well persevered, as well. It is unlikely that the feathers, bones, and cotton lasted, and more likely that the bowl, silver, and iron clay survived. Cultural formation: hiker pulled the silver pin head out of the ice, survey team damaging the top side of the body Natural formation: glacier movement over the centuries, warm period in the mid-17th century

What is an example of Primary Context?

Pompeii - rare because usually sites are ones of them being abandoned (this is also an example of natural formation)

After finishing site analysis and interpretive of findings, what is the next step?

Publish the findings

What is an example of artifact typologies?

Putting mud brick, coins, lithics (working stones), bones, ceramics (inorganics) into typographies. Pottery typologies allows archaeologists to identify the period to which cultural site or object belongs, without specifying the date of occupation (diagnostic artifacts)

What are the Sampling strategies?

Random Stratified Random Systematic Stratified Unanligend Systematic

________ and _______ during Excavation:screens , forms and journals, scaled drawing, photographs, initials classification for bagging

Recovery and Recording

What is the process of Research and Design?

Research questions Collect and record data to answer questions - If you find something that does not fit your specialty, then you pass it on to whoever's realm the artifact may relate Analysis and interpretation of data Publication of the results - Needs to be peer-reviewed to be credible

Based on the style of the decorations and patterns, you can tell which time period it is most likely from... following the trends. Similar to how we can tell that clothes are from the 80's vs now

Seriation

What is a Subsurface survey?

Shovel-test pits (STP) Auger Holes

______ are the events that affect how archaeological sites came to be buried and what happened to them afterwards.

Site Formation Process

Describe Surface/Ground Survery

Sometimes artifacts and ecofacts are seen on the ground. By doing a Pedestrain Survery archaeologist walk around an area and record what they see on the ground pertaining to archaeology, this works in places that do not have modern civilizations (this would not work in Rome) they divide the area and decide how often they will stop (5 meters, etc.) depending on how much time they have The assumption is if they find a lot on the ground, there will be a lot below, so then they can begin to record the density and map an excavation You have to have a justification for excavation, this survey gives us a sense if there is anything there or not

How do you know where to excavate? Locating archaeological sites?

Sometimes found by accident: construction, cave exploration etc, Known to be there by the local population: many cities are known to be where ancient civilizations used to be, so they are aware of the possibilities of sites Written sources: sometimes reveal where a site may be located: sometimes from the bible

What are examples of artifacts?

Stone tools, bone tools, pottery, baskets

Describe Auger Holes.

The tool picks up small things such as bones, rocks, etc. Varies in size... same idea as test pits

What is an example for LIDAR?

There are a lot more interconnection of Mayan civilizations than we used to think, LIDAR allowed us to see Pathways to larger mayan civilizations. These pathways were covered by trees. This allows us to know where to excavate and gives us more specific data.

What is the first classification system?

Thomsen Stone age Bronze age Iron age Important as a method of classification, provided a chronological order

Explain the History of Archaeology.

Through geology and biology, we get anthropology. We take the concept of stratification of rocks and evolution and evidence from the material records: change in plants, animals, and people

Volume and location of archaeological material recorded during pedestrian survey, decide based on map (straight paths)

Transects

Describe Dendrochronology (tree ring).

Trees: a ring of new wood each year (precision is 1 year) Climate information in thickness of the rings. Only applicable outside the tropics and with sensitive tree species - Different rings in tropics.. Different environment. Matching sequences of rings to produce a master sequence - Archaeologists need to link tree-ring data to human activity. A tree ring dating refers to the date of felling of the tree - The tree allows us to see when people, who cut them down, may have been building their buildings... need to make sure the tree is relative to when it was cut and used - Good for ecology and weather conditions... archeologist are looking to connect this to human behavior...ie cutting tree to build something. - It is a very precise method; get to the exact year of when the tree when it was cut down, when it was cut down can be gathered

________ is geological ancient conditions were similar to those of our time

Uniformitarianism

Scientific Radiocarbon Dating (may not need to know)

Usually reported in years B.P. or before present AD 1950, is year 0 BP by convention in radiocarbon dating and is deemed to be the 'present'. 1 BP is 1949 Precision: statistical error attached to radiocarbon dates (plus/minus) 3700 +/- 100 BP 3700 —-> 3600-3800 BP (in archaeological terms the 200 year range is not a lot)

Rank Survival of organic material determined by Climate (very destructive to least destructive).

Very destructive: tropical climate (hot and humid) Destructive: (temperate climate: warm and variable temp) Least destructive: arid, dry, or frozen / very cold or waterlogged

Pantera Cave is located in eastern Kenya. Archaeologists found the remains of post molds, charcoal, burnt animal bones, and broken stone tools in the most recent layer (Layer B). They also found fossil remains of a human skeleton next to an elaborated stone tool in a deep layer (Layer D) covered with travertine. 1-What absolute dating methods can the archaeologists use to try to date the human occupations in each layer? 2- What material will the archaeologist send to the lab in each case? Write in full sentences. Aim to write at least 100 words.

With the varying artifacts and ecofacts found in each layer, unique dating methods can be used to determine the age of these remains within a more specific timescale. In layer B, the charcoal and burnt animal bones can be tested with Radiocarbon Dating. Radiocarbon dating measures the regular decay of carbon of organic remains; remains that used to be living release an isotope of carbon, that happens at a particular rate with a specific halflife, which allows archaeologists to determine a more precise time frame. These artifacts and ecofacts should be sent to the lab to be tested. The stone tools have the option of being sent to the lab, or they could be dated by a relative method of seriation, that looks at changes in certain styles of artifacts to determine which time period they may be from. Within this layer, they should test the soil around the post mold and compare the soil layers onsite to help determine the age of the post. In layer D, the fossil of a human skeleton should be sent to the lab and tested with radiocarbon dating. The broken stone tool covered in travertine should be sent to the lab and tested with Uranium Series Dating; this method allows for the determination of calcium carbonate that has been deposited on these stone tools.

Describe Calendars and historical chronologies.

Written sources (sagas, books) - Dates that are written down or assumption of when those books were popularly read Calendars and inscriptions (Maya area) - Around the world, time was measured in different ways. Understanding that is beneficial. Coins (Roman and Medieval Europe) - Sometimes coins are dated, which helps us pinpoint a time period.

What are the specializations of Archaeology? Zooarchaeology Lithic analysis Paleoethnobotany Bioarchaeology Molecular Archeology Archaeometallurgy

Zooarchaeology: animal bones Lithic analysis: stone tools Paleoethnobotany: plant remains Bioarchaeology: human remains Molecular Archeology: DNA Archaeometallurgy: metals

What is archaeology?

a social science that studies past human behavior and uses the scientific method to explain change (it is not palentology -- the study of dinosaurs)

What are examples of Cultural Formation Process?

any deliberate or accidental human activities - Construction / building - Intentional burial of people - Plowing, farming Trampling, etc. Tool making

What does the Cross-Cutting Law state?

any feature that cuts across a body of sediment or rock is younger than the body of sediment or rock that it cuts across. You can have something that is more deep that is newer than something that is found higher which is actually older.

What are examples of Natural Formation Process?

any natural events - Animal or plant activity - Accumulation of sand and soil, volcano acts, earthquakes, mudslides, stream flow changes, etc.

What is organic material? What are some examples of organic materials?

anything that was once alive and it is now in the soil. examples: baskets made from plants, human remains, etc.

What does the law of association state?

artifacts found near one another in the same layer or feature are said to be in association (b&w pic) - both in natural or cultural formations helps us get a sense of chronology IN THE SAME LAYER

Describe the duties of an Archaeologist Lab.

cleaning / washing, classification and going to specialists, material analysis, curation of artifacts Some things we do not want to wash, so we do not lose information we need to learn from the artifact. We do not want a pretty artifact. A lot of times you do not wash. New technology allows us to determine what type of contents were inside of pottery, etc. Contaminating bones by washing them. Clean to put in museum

Describe Relative Dating.

determination of sequence and order of events but without and exact age or reference to a fixed timescale. We may not be able to tell able to tell how old something is, but you are able to put things in order... no date is assigned, just put into order. Colosseum vs stadium

What does the law of Superposition state?

in any undistributed sequence of stratigraphy, the oldest layer is at the bottom of the sequence, and the youngest layer is at the top of the sequence.

What is Seriation?

looks at changes in certain styles of artifacts present at a site. A chronology is developed based on the assumption that one cultural style (or typology) will slowly replace an earlier style over time. Comparing assemblages of artifacts by their frequencies across space / sites Changes in the popularity of connecticut tombstone design (The time frame when a certain style or cultural tradition was used, and when that shift... the death head on the tombstone was from a specific time period) the principle that "like goes with like" We can assume that style changes progressively over change... it is not perfect because some styles come back.

What is Primary Context?

material found in its original position, where it was left by people of the past

What is Secondary Context?

material that was disturbed from its original position due to later human or natural activity before archaeologist recovered

The _______ around the artifact gives us information on geography

matrix

The context of the artifact is important. The material around it (_________), its position in the ground (___________), and its relation to other artifacts (__________).

matrix provenience association

Archaeologists make their ____ known through __________.

objectives, research questions

Describe Random Sampling Strategy.

random reception of squares of the entire area Problem: you miss another area by being biased toward another area... most people do not use this

Describe Stratified Unaligned Systematic Sampling Strategy.

random sample within each unit

The Three Age system is ______ dating.

relative stone is the oldest, then they began to use bronze, and then iron was introduced. You could put things in order without knowing exactly how old something was Mostly useful in Europe, not applicable to Africa or the Americas

Describe Systematic Sampling Strategy.

selection of equally spaced squares in each unit Advantage compared to random: you cover all the area Problem: a lot of constructions are systematically built as well, so there may be a house in a square that you miss if it was built in a particular pattern

Features can reveal information such as ________ and __________.

settlement and subsistence

What is Typology of Artifacts?

simplifies the variability in the assemblage and helps reveal patterns. - Artifact grouping by certain attributes (usually by style) - A given period or age has a distinct style - Change in style is gradual over time specific attributes of material, shape, and decoration. the products of a given period and place have a recognizable style: through their distinctive shape and decoration they are in some sense characteristic of the society that produced them the change in style (shape and decoration) of artifacts is often quite gradual, or evolutionary

Describe Vertical Excavation.

smaller-sized, deeper pits, aimed at recovering diachronic information ( of language or culture as they occur or change over a period of time) typically starts with small test-pits

What is an example of Secondary context?

someone touching the iceman the mouse tunnels disturbing a site -- tunnels and mouse bones found

What are the methods of relative dating?

stratigraphy typology of artifacts seriation

What is stratigraphy?

study of layers to build a chronology (activities represented in the layers) helps us understand what layers hold laws of Superposition, of Association, and of Cross Cutting Layers

What are some examples of inorganic materials?

such as pots / clay, metals and jewelry Bricks, statutes, tools

Describe Stratified Random Sampling Strategy.

the area is divided into natural zones and squares are chosen by a random procedure to size of each zone Divide the area in natural zones (valley and mountains)

The ______ is the fundamental tool for archaeologist because it is more delicate than using a shovel

trowel

Use ________ and _________ to figure out the _______.

use matrix and provenience to figure out the association

Describe Satellite and Infrared Imaging

used satellite technology and infrared to detect changes in the chemistry within the soil to figure out where the lost city Found stones that were for jewelry Pottery

Why are waterlogged and cold environments

waterlogged: No oxygen, good preservation Good preservation of remains in very cold environments - very cold environments stop organic decaying