Intro to Criminal Justice Midterm (Ch. 1 - 6)
Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act
A 1994 law that allows federal agencies to more easily monitor an individual's phone calls and Internet messages.
Rule of law
A fundamental principle in the U.S. criminal justice system that all government officers—including those in law enforcement, corrections, and the courts—pledge to uphold the Constitution and to follow the Constitution, not any particular human leader.
Rape
A type of violent crime considered mala in se that includes "penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with a body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim."
Nonintervention perspective
A view that the appropriate role of the criminal justice system is to be as minimal and nonintrusive as possible.
The Classical School refers to a theoretical paradigm that brought about new ways of thinking about laws and punishment that arose during (the) ______.
Age of Enlightenment
______ is one key aspect of police subculture.
Authoritarianism
Property crime
Crime against property. The most common forms of property crime include burglary, property theft (aka larceny), and motor vehicle theft.
Which government agency is responsible for maintaining the Uniform Crime Report (UCR)?
Federal Bureau of Investigations
Which of the following illustrates the main difference between general deterrence and specific deterrence?
General deterrence is meant to deter all members of a society, while specific deterrence is directed toward individual behavior.
Social breakdown frame
Indicates that crime is the result of a breakdown in family and community.
Broken windows theory
Introduced by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling to describe the social disorder that occurs in run-down and neglected neighborhoods, which leads to higher crime rates.
Discretion
It allows police and others throughout the criminal justice system the latitude to make an arrest (or other action) or not.
In 1991, the National Crime Survey (NCS) changed its name to ______.
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
The Bureau of Justice Statistics provides data for which national report?
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
Bobbies
Nickname of officers in Britain named for Sir Robert Peel. Bobbies replaced the existing (and generally corrupt) system of parish constables and night watchmen.
Mala in se
One of two types of illegal behavior. Mala in se refers to behavior that is sinful and inherently wrong by nature.
Patrol
Patrol officers are responsible for preventing crime, apprehending suspects, and assisting community members.
An ethical rule dictating that police should only use force when necessary is one of the important guidelines set forth in the ______.
Peelian principles
Trial by ordeal
Primitive form of trial in which the outcome rested in the hands of God to determine guilt or innocence by protecting an innocent person from some or all the consequences of the test.
What was most notable about the Supreme Court decision in the Mapp v. Ohio case?
Prior to the Mapp decision, the exclusionary rule only applied to federal cases.
Procedural law
Rules governing court proceedings.
Faulty criminal justice system frame
Suggests that crime occurs because of a dearth of law and order in the country and that criminals offend because they feel they can get away with it.
______ place(s) limits on police powers to ensure due process.
The Supreme Court and the Constitution
In which of the following circumstances would the meaning of "due process" change?
The Supreme Court issues a ruling on a case involving due process.
Terrorism
The completed or threatened use of coercion and/or violence against a population of people with the goal of changing political, religious, or ideological positions.
Justifiable homicide
The lawful killing of another person, such as when a law enforcement officer or a citizen kills in self-defense or to defend another.
National Crime Survey (NCS)
The predecessor of the National Crime Victimization Survey. The NCS was first implemented in 1972.
Narrow-casting
The presentation of a narrow view of information in the media to small homogeneous audiences.
Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program
This program, started by the International Association of Chiefs of Police and then moved under the umbrella of the FBI in 1929, is a compilation of crime data.
Police matron
Title frequently given to women who worked in the early days of policing.
______ were self-appointed distributers of justice with no legal authority.
Vigilantes
A police officer's ability to choose whether to arrest an offender or simply issue a warning is called ______.
discretion
In 1916 Texas, a Black teenager named Jesse Washington was lynched by a White mob for allegedly murdering a White woman. Rather than allow Washington to be sentenced for the crime, the mob decided to distribute justice by acting as ______.
vigilantes
No bill
A decision made by a grand jury that indicates that insufficient evidence is present to proceed with the case.
Suspicionless search
An acceptable search based on place and reasonable potential of wrongdoing.
Wobblers
Crimes that can be charged as either felonies or misdemeanors.
Third degree
Early (now outlawed) method used by police officers that included brutalizing an individual to gather information.
Case law
Law that is based on previous court decisions or precedents.
Vigilantes
Self-appointed distributors of justice according to their own rules.
Proactive policing
Self-initiated officer activities to prevent and detect crime.
Which event led to the end of the borh system?
The Norman Conquest
Courts
The courts are responsible for interpreting and applying the law.
In ______, the Court held that, if an officer obtained a search warrant in good faith, the evidence can be submitted if it is later found that the reasons for the search were weak or that probable cause did not exist.
United States v. Leon
Due process rights are based upon ______.
case law
What are Group B crimes in the National Incident-Based Reporting System (BIBRS)?
less serious and infrequent crimes
Which type of crime has the highest likelihood of capital punishment?
Black on non-Black murder
Part I and Part II crimes
Designation of crime types under the UCR's Summary Reporting System. Part I crimes are common and serious, while Part II crimes are less common and less serious.
Borh
Earliest known system of policing in England. The borh, a unit that was responsible for policing and security, was generally a collective of 12 individuals who stood surety for one another's good behavior.
Which U.S. President signed the USA Patriot Act into law?
George W. Bush
Based on what you know of the time-in-rank system, which of the following would be true of Police Chief Amy Santiago?
She was promoted after working her way up the ranks of the police department's organizational ladder.
______ were precursors to sheriffs who policed communities in predominantly "countrylike" settings.
Shire reeves
What is a difference between shire reeves and watchmen?
Shire reeves operated in rural areas, whereas watchmen operated in larger towns and cities.
Stop and frisk is also known as a ______ stop.
Terry
SARA model
The scan, analysis, response, and assessment model, used in problem-oriented policing.
When did the Supplementary Homicide Report (SHR) start archiving data?
1976
For every White male who is imprisoned, how many Black males are imprisoned?
6
USA Freedom Act
A 2015 law that came into effect the day after the USA PATRIOT Act expired. This act restored many provisions of the PATRIOT Act but limited the collection of telecommunication metadata of citizens by the National Security Agency.
National Crime Statistics Exchange (NCS-X)
A collaborative effort between the BJS and FBI (and other organizations) that will produce nationally representative incident-based statistics on crimes using both data reported to law enforcement agencies and a sample.
Battered woman syndrome
A criminal defense developed to excuse or mitigate the actions of women who kill their abusers in cases of domestic violence despite a lack of imminent danger.
Felony
A criminal offense (e.g., murder, robbery, rape) that is more serious and generally results in more severe punishment than a misdemeanor.
Global Terrorism Database
A database housed at the University of Maryland that contains a broad range of data on threatened, failed, and completed terrorist attacks since 1970.
Insanity defense
A defense based on the belief that a select group of people who suffer from mental illness are unable to control their actions to such an extent that they cannot be held accountable for their crimes.
Irresistible impulse test
A defense that fails to find a person criminally responsible if mental disease prevents the person from controlling their behavior.
Utilitarianism
A doctrine stating that an action is morally right as long as the behavior is a benefit for the majority of a society. This is the concept of the "greatest good for the greatest number."
Gateway drug
A drug (e.g., marijuana) believed to lead to the use of more serious substances (e.g., heroin).
Cybercrime
A form of illegal activity using a computer or computer networks as the primary method of commission. Examples of cybercrime include network intrusions, dissemination of computer viruses, and phishing.
Retribution
A goal of law that states that punishment is deserved or morally right. In addition, it is a goal of sentencing that seeks to punish the offender for criminal behavior.
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
A large and complex national data collection system designed to gather incident-based crime information from law enforcement.
CompSTAT
A law enforcement strategy first adopted by the New York City Police Department that relies on crime mapping to identify hot spots and crime trends in order to effectively address problems.
Fugitive Slave Law of 1850
A law passed by the U.S. Congress that addressed fears of a "slave power conspiracy" as the number of slaves grew. This law was a justification for slave patrols, which became the purview of police officers.
Ex post facto law
A law that a legislature passed after a crime was committed. At the time the person committed the action, it was legal, and only later was the act deemed criminal.
Castle doctrine
A legal doctrine that states that homeowners are no longer required to retreat if threatened by intruders. In some states it extends beyond homes.
Misdemeanor
A less serious crime punishable by fine, forfeiture, or short-term confinement, though in some jurisdictions gross, aggravated, or serious misdemeanors may be charged.
Constitutional law
A major source of law that establishes the fundamental rules and relationships among the judiciary, legislative, and executive branches at the state and federal levels.
Intelligence-led policing
A means of creating efficiency and effectiveness in police agencies that emphasizes the importance of risk assessment and risk management.
Felicitous or hedonistic calculus
A measure indicating how much pleasure an individual gains from a specific act.
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
A nationally representative survey of victims of property and personal violence in the United States.
Community policing
A philosophy and style of policing that adopts proactive measures and collaborates with community members.
Which of the following examples would be considered a reverse sting operation?
A plainclothes officer poses as a prostitute.
Nolo contendere
A plea made by a defendant in which they neither admit nor dispute guilt. It is commonly referred to as a "no contest" plea.
Zero tolerance
A policing approach that focuses enforcement efforts on quality-of-life issues such as disorder and minor crime. Enforcement efforts are applied to low-level crimes and minor infractions in specific neighborhoods.
Problem-oriented policing
A policing style that emphasizes the use of data analysis and assessment to address crime problems.
Crime control perspective
A popular view of the role of the criminal justice system. This perspective states that the goal of the system is to prevent crime by shrewdly and harshly punishing offenders.
Modus operandi
A system for solving crimes that facilitated the identification of crime patterns. This system was first implemented by August Vollmer.
Frankpledge
A system of policing that replaced the borh. A frankpledge included all boys and men age 12 or older from 10 households into groups referred to as tythings.
Tything or tithing
A system of policing that replaced the borh. A tithing was a group of all boys and men age 12 or older from 10 households.
Conflict model
A theoretical view of the criminal justice system that highlights the adversarial nature of the system. Components of the criminal justice system work in competition to produce a fair outcome or justice.
Consensus model
A theoretical view of the criminal justice system that highlights the collaborative nature of the system. The components of the criminal justice system work in unison to achieve justice.
Reactive policing
A traditional style of policing relying on responding to calls for services.
Tasers
A type of conductive energy device or electronic control device. These devices offer a means of controlling suspects while saving lives and offering officers protection from injuries.
Common law
A type of legal system originally developed in England, whereby the courts define the law and determine how to apply it. This is the body of law derived from judicial opinions.
Restorative justice perspective
A view that the appropriate role of the criminal justice system is to restore justice as best as possible through repairing the harm caused by criminal behavior.
Rehabilitative perspective
A view that the purpose of the criminal justice system is to rehabilitate offenders.
Due process perspective
A view that the role of the criminal justice system is to ensure that all people accused of crimes are treated fairly and equally in the system.
Incident to a lawful arrest
Allows law enforcement to search any person without a warrant once that person is lawfully arrested.
Emergency doctrine
Allows warrantless searches if evidence may be destroyed or in cases of imminent danger.
M'Naghten standard
Also called the "right-wrong" test, requires a jury to consider two questions: Did the defendant understand what they were doing when the crime was committed? Did the defendant know that their actions were wrong?
Brawner rule
Also called the ALI rule, it reduced "knowing right from wrong" to the capacity to appreciate the difference between the two. In other words, a defendant must possess an "understanding of his conduct" and be able to "control his actions."
Fruit of the poisonous tree
Also called the exclusionary rule, this doctrine was applied to the states in Mapp v. Ohio. This case ruled that any evidence obtained during an illegal search would be disallowed at trial.
Stop and frisk
Also known as a Terry stop or field stop, this procedure allows the police to detain and search a person when the officer reasonably suspects that a crime has been or will be committed.
Crime triangle
Also referred to as the problem analysis triangle, a strategy that focuses on immediate concerns present in the environment in order to confront difficult issues.
Worldwide Incident Tracking System
An FBI database containing information on completed terrorist attacks since 1996.
Criminology
An academic discipline that investigates the nature, extent, and causes of criminal offending and criminal victimization.
Metropolitan Police Act of 1829
An act introduced by Sir Robert Peel, which established London's Metropolitan Police Force. This is considered the beginning of modern public policing.
Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968
An act that established agencies and rules dealing with crime.
Panopticon
An architectural design developed by Jeremy Bentham that allows a single person to watch others in a prison setting without those incarcerated knowing they are being watched.
CopLink
An information technology system that offers tactical lead generation, crime analysis, and information sharing among local, regional, state, and national law enforcement agencies.
Reasonable suspicion
An objective basis supported by specific facts for believing that someone committed a crime.
In most cities, the police chief is ______.
Appointed by mayor or city council
Which of the following officers have the greatest difficulty becoming members of the department's in-group?
Black policewomen
Which U.S. city created the first detective division?
Boston
Age of Enlightenment
Brought about new ways of thinking, including reforms arising from outrage against the barbaric system of law and punishment just before the French Revolution in the late 18th century.
Which two organizations collect crime data on a federal Level?
Bureau of Justice Statistics and Federal Bureau of Investigations
Landmark cases
Cases that establish precedent that markedly changes the interpretation of a prior law or establishes new case law.
The ______ was formed after the LAPD beating of Rodney King.
Christopher Commission
Class action lawsuits
Civil cases involving large numbers of victims in which courts authorize a single individual or small faction to represent the interests of the larger group.
What is the oldest known legal code of civil and criminal law?
Code of Hammurabi
Routine activity theory
Cohen and Felson's theory that posits that the convergence in space and time of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians increases the risk of criminal incidents.
______ provides a template for governmental powers, civil rights, and civil liberties.
Constitutional law
Dark figure of crime
Crimes that fail to come to the attention of the police, because they were unreported, it was unclear a crime occurred, or no one learned that a crime was committed.
Administrative law
Derives from a legislative body's delegation of authority over commissions or boards to regulate activities controlled by written statutes.
Durham test
Determines if a criminal act was a product of mental disease or defect. This requires that jurors determine if a defendant had a mental disease or defect and if the condition was the reason for the criminal behavior.
Fusion centers
Developed under the National Criminal Intelligence Sharing Plan to help in information exchanges on intelligence gathered from confidential informants, surveillance, and crime data analyses.
Judicial activism
Deviation from the literal meaning of the Constitution to take into account the present situation, including complex societal advances.
Sheriffs
Early policing agents who were charged to pursue and apprehend criminals at great personal financial expense.
The origin of the U.S. legal tradition is ______.
English common law
What are the origins of American policing?
English common law and policing traditions
Due process
Established rules and principles designed to protect private rights found in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments that prevent the government from unfairly or arbitrarily depriving anyone of life, liberty, or property.
Officers illegally searched a home for drug manufacturing and discovered the drugs as well as victims of a human trafficking ring. What is true of the admissibility of the evidence regarding the human trafficking ring obtained during the search?
Evidence of human trafficking would be inadmissible because it is fruit of the poisonous tree.
Due process at the federal level is addressed by the ______ Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
Fifth
Statutes
Formal rules, or law, adopted by a governing body such as a state legislature.
Protection against unreasonable researches and seizures is guaranteed by the ______ Amendment.
Fourth
Individuals who helped slaves escape from their masters could be punished with prison and a hefty fine. What federal law defined the punishment for this offense?
Fugitive Slave Law of 1850
Corrections
Functions to protect society from criminals through housing, monitoring, and other community-based programs.
Continuum of force
Guideline for the degree of force and weapon an officer may use during an arrest, which is becoming outdated.
Officer Washington is the first officer to respond to a domestic violence call at a suburban home. Which of the following describes one of his main responsibilities as the initial on-scene officer?
He must make initial observations to assess the scene and ensure officer safety.
Grass-eaters
Identified by the Knapp Commission as officers who acted as passive participants when others were engaging in bribery and corruption.
Meat-eaters
Identified by the Knapp Commission as officers who actively engaged in corrupt activities.
Probable cause
In criminal law, the existence of more than a suspicion that a person has committed an illegal act.
Inevitable discovery
In criminal law, there is an exception to the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine. Illegally obtained evidence may be used if eventually it would have been found legally.
Adultery
In general, sex by a married person with someone other than their spouse; specific laws differ by state, as does the level of criminality associated with it.
______ is a sentencing goal that aims to protect the public by removing the offender from society.
Incapacitation
Blocked opportunities frame
Indicates that crime results from a lack of legal options. Offenders live in poverty, are uneducated, unemployed, and discriminated against, and because of that commit crime.
Racist system frame
Indicates that the problem is not crime, but rather that law enforcement, courts, and corrections are racist agents of oppression.
Which of the following is a criticism of the exclusionary rule?
It hampers the ability of prosecutors to secure a conviction.
The ______ developed from the case of Frank Serpico who reported widespread corruption in the NYPD.
Knapp Commission
Nolle prosequi
Latin for "be unwilling to pursue," this is commonly used by a prosecutor to willingly terminate legal proceedings before trial or before a verdict. The statement is often construed as an admission that the charges cannot be proven.
Mens rea
Latin for "guilty mind," used in court to prove criminal intent.
Stare decisis
Latin for "let the decision stand," meaning that judges must respect precedents set in previous court cases.
Lex talionis
Latin for "the law of retribution" and commonly referred to as "an eye for an eye." This philosophy calls for retaliation in which the punishment received should fit the crime committed.
Actus reus
Latin term meaning "guilty act," used to indicate the physical act of the crime. Usually paired with mens rea to show criminal liability.
Law enforcement
Law enforcement agencies are charged with investigating crimes and arresting individuals alleged to have committed crimes.
Civil law
Law that deals with disputes between individuals or organizations and typically seeks some type of compensation for the harmed party.
Why did early police forces in the United States rarely carry revolvers?
Many police chiefs considered it "unmanly."
In ______, the exclusionary rule was applied to the states.
Mapp v. Ohio
______ are officers who actively seek out corrupt activities.
Meat-eaters
What is an important difference between the frankpledge system and the borh system?
Membership was mandatory.
Thief takers
Men hired by victims to capture criminal offenders. Once an offender was captured, the thief taker was paid a bounty. Often these individuals were very corrupt.
The ______ is considered to be the beginning of modern public policing.
Metropolitan Police Act of 1829
Compensatory damages
Money awarded in a civil lawsuit for loss or injury suffered as a result of unlawful conduct
Punitive damages
Money awarded in addition to compensatory damages to punish the defendant for recklessness, malice, or deceit.
Ordinances
Municipal or city rules.
The biggest difference between National Incident-Based Reporting System (NICBRS) and Supplementary Reporting system (SRS) is ______.
NICBRS can distinguish between attempted and completed crimes
Cole memo
Named after former deputy attorney general James Cole, it outlined guidelines for states related to marijuana, including use by minors, driving under the influence, and out-of-state trafficking.
Which U.S. city consolidated its three rival police components in 1844 into a centrally directed police department based on the English Bobbies model?
New York
In 1693, the first uniformed police officer was appointed in ______.
New York City
Peelers
Nickname of officers in Ireland named for Sir Robert Peel. Peelers replaced the existing (and generally corrupt) system of parish constables and night watchmen.
Can white-collar crimes be considered victimless crimes?
No, because white-collar crimes harm individuals and the economy.
Profiling
Occurs when officers question or investigate a person based on race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin.
Which of the following examples would likely be granted an exception to the exclusionary rule?
Officer Lopez conducts a search relying on a search warrant that she didn't know was illegally obtained by another officer.
Exigent circumstances
One of six exceptions that allow a warrantless search. These are emergency circumstances that are present to prevent (a) escape, (b) harm to the officer or others, and (c) destruction of evidence.
Mala prohibita
One of two types of illegal behavior. Mala prohibita describes behavior that is prohibited by law. What constitutes mala prohibita is dynamic and has changed over time.
The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) Uniform Crime Report (UCR) programs breaks crimes up into Part 1 and Part 2 crimes. What are Part 1 crimes?
Part 1 crimes are common and dangerous crimes like murder, rape, and, robbery
The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) Uniform Crime Report (UCR) programs breaks crimes up into Part 1 and Part 2 crimes. What are Part 2 crimes?
Part 2 crimes are uncommon and less serious crimes like gambling, drunkenness, and purchasing prostitution.
______ is described as the "backbone" of policing.
Patrol
Mandatory arrest policies
Policies that limit police discretion in certain situations; they are frequently applied to incidents involving intimate partner violence.
Parish constable
Policing agent who operated in smaller towns. Initially elected by the parishioners, the parish constable was generally unarmed, unpaid, and part-time.
Slave patrol
Policing group that originated in 1704 in South Carolina and consisted of a group of three to six White men who regulated the behavior of slaves and hunted down and punished escaped slaves.
Private policing
Policing provided by private entities. Protection is extended to corporate executives and other high-profile individuals.
Shire reeves
Precursors to sheriffs.
Covered jurisdictions
Prior to 2013, states, cities, or counties that were required to submit proposed voting changes to the U.S. Department of Justice because of their histories of discrimination against people of color.
Which statement accurately describes the distinction between probation and parole?
Probation is a suspended sentence allowing an individual to serve their sentence in a community, and parole releases convicts to serve the rest of their sentence in the community.
Which of the following is inspired by Beccaria's premise that punishments should be proportional to the crime?
Punishment should be based on the act, not the actor.
What criminal justice principle is influenced by Beccaria's idea that people use logical cost-benefit analyses when deciding to commit or not commit crimes?
Punishment should be based on the pleasure/pain principle.
______ is an objective basis supported by specific facts that leads an officer to believe that someone committed a crime.
Reasonable suspicion
______ is a sentencing goal that aims to reduce crime by treating the offender via educational programs, drug and alcohol programs, and other treatments.
Rehabilitation
High-activity location observation (HALO) cameras
Remote-controlled cameras that can view 360 degrees, zoom, and tilt. This technology enables law enforcement to observe and monitor areas of interest for criminal investigations and crime prevention.
Restitution
Repayment as part of a punishment for injury or loss.
Inalienable rights
Rights that are universal and not contingent on laws or beliefs specific to a particular government or culture.
Substantive law
Rules that are used to determine the rights of individuals and collective bodies.
Regulatory searches
Searches by government officials, such as restaurant health inspections, inspection of vehicles crossing borders, airport screenings, and fire inspections, that may be conducted without a warrant.
Indeterminate sentence
Sentence given to a defendant in the form of a range of years to be served (e.g., 3 to 7 years).
Incapacitation
Sentencing goal that isolates the offender from the public and takes away their ability to commit a crime against those in the public.
Rehabilitation
Sentencing goal that seeks to reduce chances of future offenders through education, alcohol or drug programs, psychological programs, and other treatments.
______ established the London's Metropolitan Police Force at Scotland Yard.
Sir Robert Peel
______ are considered the first organized police organization in America.
Slave patrols
Where was the first slave patrol formed?
South Carolina
______ deterrence is directed toward individual offenders to discourage reoffending.
Specific
Hot spots
Specific geographical locations identified as high-crime areas.
Automobile exception
States that, should police have probable cause to believe that a vehicle (including boats) contains contraband, fruits of a crime, evidence, and/ or instrumentalities of crime, the vehicle can be searched.
Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR)
Supplemental reports to the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting Program that gather details about homicides in the United States, including information about offenders, victims, and incidents.
Which system of reporting uses the hierarchy rule?
Supplementary Reporting System (SRS)
Who was the first person to recognize white-collar crime as a serious issue?
Sutherland
Military drones
Technology increasingly used as possible crime-fighting tools in some parts of the country.
Hundred
Ten tythings grouped together into a collective for police and security purposes. A hundred was supervised by a leader known as a hundredman.
In ______, the Supreme Court ruled that police can stop and frisk an individual based upon reasonable suspicion.
Terry v. Ohio
Literacy tests
Tests used to deny African Americans the right to vote.
USA PATRIOT Act
The 2001 Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act was signed into law by President George W. Bush to strengthen security measures designed to protect the United States from attack.
How does the USA Freedom Act differ from the USA Patriot Act?
The Freedom Act limited the ability of the NSA to track phone data on citizens.
Decriminalization
The act of ending or reducing criminal penalties associated with some behaviors.
Crime
The breaking of a law for which the criminal justice system or some other governing authority prescribes punishment.
Bill of Rights
The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which guide procedural law pertaining to issues such as arrests, warrants, search and seizure, and trials.
Preemption doctrine
The idea put forth in the Constitution that federal law is the "supreme law of the land." In other words, usually federal law overrides conflicting state laws.
Rotten apple theory
The idea that corruption in most police departments can be traced to just a few officers.
Precedent
The legal principle of stare decisis, Latin for "let the decision stand," it establishes prior case decisions as binding precedent.
Infotainment
The marketing of a highly edited and distorted combination of entertainment and information purported to be truthful and comprehensive.
What is known as the hierarchy rule?
The most serious crime discovered by police at the scene is the crime that is reported to the FBI for purpose of statistics
Specific deterrence
The notion that punishment deters the individual being punished from committing crime in the future.
General deterrence
The notion that the general populace will be deterred from committing crimes based on the perceived negative consequences of being caught.
A police officer stops a motorist for speeding. While interacting with the officer, the motorist is rude and evasive when answering questions. Which of the following would be true in this situation?
The officer would not have probable cause to search the vehicle without consent based on the motorists' attitude alone.
Code of Hammurabi
The oldest known legal code, it established approximately 300 provisions for family, trade, real property, personal property, and labor.
Summary Reporting System (SRS)
The original aggregated crime data collected under the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting Program.
Framing
The packaging of criminal events in the media into tidy presentations that make sharing the information easy.
Exclusionary rule
The rule excludes from trial evidence that was obtained unlawfully, which violates a person's constitutional rights.
______ is the fundamental principle in the criminal justice system that sets boundaries for the government to establish clear, stable, and fair rules and to protect fundamental rights.
The rule of law
What does the exclusionary rule prohibit?
The rule prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial
Plain view doctrine
The rule that permits police officers to seize evidence without a warrant if it is easily seen.
Crime multiplier
The saturated media presentation of crime that leads to a public that believes there is more crime than there is. In addition, this disproportionate and repetitive coverage leads to enhanced fear of crime among the public.
Criminal justice
The system of institutions, policies, and practices with the goal of maintaining social control and deterring crime through sanctions and rehabilitation.
Why is the U.S. criminal justice system so large?
There are a lot of minors and adults in the criminal justice system.
Street crimes
These crimes are relatively common and serious, involving a victim and offender who come together in space and time.
Victimless crimes
These criminal offenses are thought not to involve victims because they cause no direct harm to individuals other than the offenders.
Violent media frame
This frame finds that crime is depicted as a direct result of the violent media present in television, movies, video games, and music.
Victim advocates
Trained professionals who support crime victims as their cases move through the criminal justice system.
Group A and Group B crimes
Two major clusters of crimes gathered by the FBI in NIBRS. Group A consists of 24 crimes covering 52 offenses, including homicide and robbery. Group B consists of 10 offenses such as loitering and drunkenness.
Which of the following cases relaxed the rigid requirements of the exclusionary rule?
United States v. Leon
Hierarchy rule
Used to facilitate counting crime, this rule ranks crimes from least to most serious. In a criminal incident, only the most serious crime committed during the incident is counted.
Watchmen
Used to protect property in England's larger cities and towns, and in colonial America. These individuals patrolled at night to protect the community from robberies, fires, and other disturbances.
Series victimizations
Victimizations not discrete in nature, but ongoing with no defined starting and stopping point. Series victimizations present a conundrum in terms of the best way to count them. Common examples of series victimizations are intimate partner violence, bullying, and sex trafficking of minors.
Less-than-lethal weapons
Weapons that provide viable options for dealing with resisting suspects; they include pepper spray, rubber bullets, beanbag guns, and sedative darts.
Consent
When police officers ask for permission to search and you voluntarily say yes, they can proceed without a warrant.
Peelian principles
Widely cited list that described Sir Robert Peel's philosophy of an ethical police force. Research shows that these excellent principles were never provided by Peel.
Compliance with Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations falls under ______ law.
administrative
What is the least common property crime?
auto theft
The earliest known system of policing in England was the ______, which was comprised of a social unit of 12 people.
borh
What is the most common definition of crime?
breaking the law
The Summary Reporting System (SRS) collects which type of data points for the Uniform Crime Report (UCR)?
characteristics of specific crimes like types of cars in motor vehicle theft
The police ______ is ultimately responsible for everything that occurs in a department.
chief
What was addressed in the Katz v. United States Supreme Court ruling?
citizens' reasonable expectation of privacy in their homes and certain public places
Historian and French diplomat Alexis de Tocqueville argued that the use of cash bail for the accused in the American criminal justice system was unjust. The poor, not being able to make bail, would be incarcerated, while the wealthy person ". . . easily evades the punishment awaiting him: after providing bail, he disappears." This illustrates the fact that ______ was developed for the privileged and wealthy, not for the "common man."
common law
A plaintiff is awarded money in a personal injury case to cover hospital bills and lost wages. This is an example of ______.
compensatory damages
What are the three entities that comprise the criminal justice system?
courts, police, and corrections
What does the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) have in common with the Supplementary Reporting System (SRS)?
data source
In 1965, the government reviewed the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) and the Supplementary Report System (SRS) for major limitations of the UCR SRS. Which is not a limitation of the UCR SRS?
data were only representative of people of a certain race
The original intent of the exclusionary rule was to ______.
deter police misconduct
In 1927, the International Association of Chiefs of Police created the Committee on Uniform Crime Records to ______.
develop a program to gather crime statistics across the United States
The primary mission of most police agencies is to ______.
enforce laws
The ______ rule states that evidence that was obtained illegally cannot be used in trial.
exclusionary
When a police officer pulls over a car for speeding, and issues a warning instead of a ticket, the officer is ______.
exercising discretion
In the Murphy v. NCAA (2018) decision, the U.S. Supreme Court found that the federal government's law prohibiting state-sanctioned sports gambling was unconstitutional because it violated the 10th Amendment, which says that any powers not expressly mentioned in the constitution belong to the states. What principle does this case illustrate?
federalism
The purpose of the National Crime Statistics Exchange (NCS-X) is ______.
for the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Federal Bureau of Investigation to provide more information and data points to measure more crime nationally
Under the ______ doctrine, additional evidence found as a result of initial illegal police activity is inadmissible in court.
fruit of the poisonous tree
Mandatory sentences like the three-strikes law in California are an example of ______.
general deterrence
In the frankpledge system, 10 tythings were grouped together into a "hundred"; the ______ was the leader of the hundred and is considered to be the first real police officer because he dealt with more serious breaches of law.
hundredman
Which of the following is an example of cybercrime?
identity theft via the Internet
Leandro Andrade was a drug addict in California who had spent time in prison for several crimes. In 1995, he stole $153 worth of videotapes from a Kmart. This crime was his third felony, and under California's harsh "three-strikes" law, he was automatically incarcerated for 25 years to life. What was the goal of the "three-strikes" law?
incapacitation
In a drunken rage, a man killed his wife and buried her in the backyard. He turned himself into the police and admitted that he killed her, and prior to being Mirandized, he revealed the location of her body. The defense argued that the evidence about the body was inadmissible because that information was obtained illegally. However, the prosecutor successfully argued that it should be admitted, because police would have discovered the freshly dug grave in the backyard without the confession. The judge allowed the evidence by citing the ______ rule.
inevitable discovery
The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) does NOT collect information on ______.
information on crime victims or offenders
Officer Alito is dressed provocatively in a neighborhood known for prostitution. A man stops and offers to pay her for sex, and she arrests him. This is a type of undercover operation known as a(n) ______.
john sting
Which concept describes when a judge is willing to override precedent or other branches of government based upon conscience or changing views?
judicial activism
What are Group A crimes in the National Incident-Based Reporting System (BIBRS)?
more serious and frequently occurring offenses
The new questioning procedures in the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) allowed more crimes to be reported because ______.
more thorough questioning lead to reporting less serious offenses that occurred in the incident
In 1600s Boston, a group of citizens watch over the city at night. Their duties involve calling the hour, giving weather reports, and reporting any crimes or suspicious activity to the police constable. Which of the following would best describe their job title?
night watchmen
Which term refers to when the prosecutor drops the charges during a case?
nolle prosequi
A criminal defendant was charged with theft. He did not plead guilty but accepted the punishment for the crime without admitting guilt. What did the defendant plea?
nolo contendere
Police agency positions in victim advocacy and statistical analysis are examples of ______ personnel.
non-sworn
The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) was created to track ______.
nonfatal crimes against persons
California was ordered by the federal government in 2009 to reduce the prison population. California voters passed Prop 47, which released certain offenders from prison. Which type of convictions were released under Prop 47?
nonviolent property and drug crimes
Most police agencies are structured under a(n) ______ framework.
paramilitary
In colonial America, ______ operated in the colonies to maintain the weapons and equipment of each "hundred" and ______ worked in counties.
parish constables; sheriffs
Christopher was approved to leave prison by a panel of experts who deemed he was no longer a threat to the society. What is the condition of Christopher's release called?
parole
The National Crime Survey (NCS) collects data on ______.
personal and property crime
A police officer agrees to "look the other way" at illegal gambling occurring in a local bar in exchange for a percentage of the profit. This is an example of ______.
police corruption
School resource officers are stationed on school campuses. They regularly patrol halls and ensure that they are in high-visibility places. Their presence is believed to deter criminals and prevent crime, so they are engaging in ______ policing.
proactive
A police officer pulls over a motorist for a broken tail light. He smells marijuana in the car and decides to search the vehicle for drugs. What was the basis of his decision to conduct a search?
probable cause
In order to conduct a legal search, officers must show that ______ exists that evidence of a crime will be found.
probable cause
The U.S. Supreme Court has defined due process protections as including _____ due process, substantive due process, protections against unclear laws, and protections against both federal and state abuses of power.
procedural
A teenager was stopped by police for having a broken headlight. The police proceeded to search his vehicle and found marijuana, so they arrested him. However, the judge dismissed the charges because she decided that the police did not have sufficient cause to search the car. The judge's ruling was guided by ______.
procedural law
Shortly after being founded, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) distinguished between ______.
rape and sexual assault.
Early colonial sheriffs responded to citizen complaints, rather than actively engaging in efforts to deter crime. What term describes their approach to policing?
reactive
When an officer responds to a 911 call for service, this is ______ policing.
reactive
In 2017, the United Kingdom published a report about programs aimed at reducing the rate of reoffending. One program offered academic and vocational training in prisons to improve employment opportunities for inmates after their release. What concept best describes the goal of training programs that are mandated by law?
rehabilitation
A state legislature passes a law that any person convicted of theft must repay their victim for the full amount that was stolen. What concept best describes the goal of this law?
restitution
At trial, the lawyers show evidence to prove or refute the claims. What does the judge do at trial?
rule on legal issues
Officer Kwon is stationed at a local high school. Every morning, he arrives before classes begin, and he remains on campus until after-school activities have ended. Officer Kwon is a(n) ______.
school resource officer
In 2006, Kenneth Lay, Enron CEO, was convicted on 10 charges of what?
securities fraud
Which of the following crimes would be investigated by an officer on special assignment?
sexual assault
Groups of White men who sought to regulate the behavior of slaves were called ______.
slave patrols
The majority of police agencies in the United States are ______.
small, local agencies
In the Code of Hammurabi, it states that "If a son has struck his father, his hands shall be cut off." If a son was punished with amputation for striking his father, and as a result decided not to strike his father again, this would be an example of ______.
specific deterrence
Which example is a violent cybercrime?
stalking
The legal principle of ______ means that judges must respect precedents set in prior cases.
stare decisis
Murder, rape, and robbery are commonly categorized as which type of crime?
street
How are data collected when measuring crime?
surveying law enforcement and citizens
Studies suggest that domestic violence cases involving police officers were half as likely to be prosecuted when compared to cases involving members of the general public. Based on what you know of policing culture, what explains this difference?
the code of silence
Early English ______ share many similarities with modern-day bounty hunters.
thief takers
Which type of policy helps politicians appear to be tough on crime?
three-strikes law
Why is it important to discover the root causes of crime?
to combat crime, make the criminal justice system more efficient, and reduce victimization
Trial by fire, trial by hot iron, and trial by water are examples of ______.
trial by ordeal
Legal and illegal immigrants are ______ in the incarcerated population while natives of the United States are ______.
underrepresented; overrepresented
A local sheriff directs her or his deputies to write more tickets in response to several speeding-related deaths. She or he knows that some people may have a hard time paying their fines but believes that ticketing will reduce speeding and make the whole town safer. By focusing on the benefit to the majority of town residents, rather than the few who will be inconvenienced, she or he is applying the ______ doctrine.
utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham's theory of punishment was based upon ______ or maximizing benefits for a majority of the population.
utilitarianism
Officer Jones is wearing street clothes and driving an unmarked car. He solicits a prostitute, then arrests her after she agrees to exchange sex for money. Officer Jones works for the ______ squad.
vice
Who are the trained professionals who work with victims of crime in the criminal justice system?
victim advocates
The innovation of the Supplementary Homicide Repot (SHR) was the ability to collect the ______.
victim and offender's age, sex, and race
In 1768, a group of citizens calling themselves the "Regulators" rioted in Hillsborough, NC. They attacked members of the colonial court, whom they believed to be corrupt, and burned the presiding judge's house to the ground. They would best be described as ______.
vigilantes
When does the criminal justice system process begin?
when law enforcement learns of a crime that was committed