Intro to learning final exam

Charles Madsen and his colleagues asked a teacher to ____. This change in teacher behavior produced a marked reduction in misconduct.

ignore misbehavior and praise students when they behaved well.

Giving a hungry rat food for pressing a bar before the rat has a chance to engage in other incidental behaviors like running or scratching best illustrates

immediate reinforcement.

The Implicit Association Task measures:

implicit bias

If rats are allowed to wander through a complicated maze, they will subsequently run the maze with few errors when a food reward is placed at the end. Their good performance demonstrates

latent learning.

An animal is given repeated, inescapable aversive stimuli. Then, the animal is given a task in which it can perform a behavior to stop the aversive stimulus. The animal does not perform the behavior. This is an example of __________.

learned helplessness.

Blue jays usually do not eat Monarch butterflies. This is an example of a(n) ____.

learned taste aversion

Conditioning is the process of

learning associations.

An adult with a phobia of white rats and other fuzzy things goes to see his therapist about his fear. The therapist is most likely to treat him by repeatedly pairing a piece of white fur with a ____.

short piece of the patient's favorite music.

In ____ discrimination training, the S+ and S- are presented at the same time.

simultaneous

Natural selection is often ____.

slow

To test animal color perception, we would:

train a discrimination task using two different colors as the discriminative stimuli.

In Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, infants develop a fear of books after books are repeatedly presented with a loud noise. In this fictional example, the loud noise is a(n)

unconditioned stimulus.

Shaping is a procedure in which reinforcers are

used to guide actions closer and closer to a desired behavior

A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response that occurs after an unpredictable period of time is a ________ schedule.

variable-interval

A slow but steady rate of operant responding is associated with the ________ schedule of reinforcement.

variable-interval

A small-town radio disc jockey frequently announces how much money is currently in a jackpot. Every day several randomly selected residents are called and asked to identify the amount, and thereby win it. Those who keep track of the jackpot amount are most likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.

variable-interval

On the first day of class, Professor Wallace tells her geography students that pop quizzes will be given at unpredictable times throughout the semester. Clearly, studying for Professor Wallace's surprise quizzes will be reinforced on a ________ schedule.

variable-interval

Asking potential partners for a date is most likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.

variable-ratio

Purchasing state lottery tickets is reinforced with monetary winnings on a ________ schedule.

variable-ratio

If a shock is always preceded by a tone, and then sometimes also is preceded by a light that accompanies the tone, a rat will react

with fear to the tone but not to the light.

DR0 stands for:

Differential Reinforcement of Zero Rate of Behavior

What schedule of reinforcement is the following cumulative graph an example of? (line that dips towards each point)

Fixed Interval

When exposure to a stimulus prior to pairing with a US interferes with conditioning, the phenomenon is called ____.

latent inhibition

The removal of electric shock is to the receipt of money as ________ is to ________.

primary reinforcer; conditioned reinforcer

Providing different consequences for different responses can enhance discrimination training. This finding is called the ____.

differential outcomes effect

Harry teaches an advanced painting class. His goal is to teach students to paint more creatively. Harry will probably measure learning as a change in response ____.

topography

John spent his summer picking cantaloupes for a farmer. The farmer paid John a certain amount for every basket of cantaloupes picked. John worked on a ____ schedule of reinforcement.

Fixed Ratio

The figure below shows learning as a change in ____. (star photo, drawing lines) (improvement in the lines)

topography

The greatest degree of generalization is depicted by figure ____.

2 (flattest curve/hump)

What is the longest delay that subjects can tolerate between a behavior and its consequences, for learning to still occur?

30 seconds

Who was Little Albert?

A baby that was conditioned to fear rats, demonstrating conditioned fear learning.

Habituation is:

A decrease in the intensity or probability of a reflex response resulting from repeated exposure to a stimulus that evokes that response.

What is a cumulative recorder?

A device that measures the number of occurrences of a behavior over time, giving information about rate of behavior.

What distinguishes a fixed action pattern from a reflex arc?

A fixed action pattern is a more complex series of movements, whereas a reflex arc is a simple neural connection between a sensory neuron and a single muscle or gland.

Which of the following is NOT an example of shaping?

A parent demonstrates to their child how to button up their shirt, and then gives the child a fun-sized Snicker's bar every time they button up their shirt on their own.

How would a behaviorist explain gambling addiction?

A person gambles because of their reinforcement history.

What is learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

What is an A-B-A reversal design?

A single-subject research design in which a baseline phase without treatment (A) is followed by a treatment phase (B), which is then followed by another baseline phase (A) to establish causality.

Which of the following examples demonstrates contiguity?

A smell of vanilla is immediately followed by an aversive vinegar taste.

What is the advantage of an A-B-A reversal design, compared to an A-B design?

A-B-A helps establish causality.

Which of these is NOT true about vervet monkeys' formation of abstract concepts?

Adult vervet monkeys have a single type of alarm call, which they produce in response to seeing any animal in the category of "predator".

Which of the following examples properly demonstrates measuring the latency of a behavior?

An applied behavior analyst is using reinforcement with a patient with autism to decrease how much time it takes before the patient responds to a question.

What did Kandel study in order to understand the neuromechanics of learning and memory?

Aplysia californica

The psychologist most closely associated with the study of operant conditioning was

B. F. Skinner.

Which of these will result in no learning occurring?

Backwards conditioning

You have previously paired together a fairly loud tone with an electric shock, turning the tone into a CS. You then present the loud tone simultaneously with a moderate red light, and follow this with the electric shock, for 50 trials. You then present the red light by itself, and see no conditioned response. Which type of "advanced" classical conditioning is this?

Blocking

Both infants and animals can learn to respond correctly to a verbal command. This shows that:

Both infants and animals are simply responding to a discriminative stimulus, and do not understand language.

How can latent inhibition be used to reduce the likelihood of developing a phobia?

By exposing the person to the fear-inducing stimulus (CS) before the fear develops, such as early in life.

A child who is punished for swearing at home but reinforced for swearing on the school playground is most likely to demonstrate a patterned habit of swearing that is indicative of

discrimination

Male Japanese quail became sexually aroused by a red light that was repeatedly associated with the presentation of a female quail. The sexual arousal triggered by the red light was a

CR

Alexis is addicted to drugs. The room in which she usually takes them is likely to become a(n) ________ for drug cravings.

CS

In classical conditioning, discrimination refers to the learned ability to distinguish between a ________ and other irrelevant stimuli.

CS

In most fetishes, the object that elicits arousal (e.g., leather) is a:

CS

To assess whether Mrs. Webster had suffered a brain injury, researchers conditioned her to blink in response to a sound that signaled the delivery of a puff of air directed toward her face. In this application of classical conditioning, the sound was a

CS

Classical conditioning occurs most rapidly when the learner perceives the ________ to cause the ________.

CS; US

In classical conditioning, the NS becomes a ________ after it reliably signals the impending occurrence of the ________.

CS; US

Which of the following is NOT an example of how classical conditioning can affect real-life issues?

Certain stimuli, such as spiders (US), naturally induce fear (UR) in people. If the spiders are simultaneously paired with a well-established conditioned stimulus, such as a blue light that has previously been associated with food, then according to blocking theory, the blue light should block the fear response to the spiders.

Who was Clever Hans, and what did he teach us about animal research?

Clever Hans was a horse that supposedly could do math, but researchers discovered that his behavior was governed by a simple perceptual discrimination. This taught us that we need to ask questions about animal learning in the right way, and use solid research methodology.

Your heart may race when you are confronted by a lion but not when you are approached by a kitten. This best illustrates the adaptive value of

discrimination.

Which of the following is NOT one of Pryor's 10 Laws of Shaping?

Create your shaping plan as you go, after you have seen what behaviors the individual already performs.

A researcher presents a tone followed by food. The food is presented either 1 second, 4 seconds, 8 seconds, or 10 seconds after the tone ends. On the following graph, which line corresponds to the 10-second delay? (A is the highest, B is below it, then C, D has the lowest arc) (lines rise and then flatten out)

D

Saul gives his cat a treat whenever it goes for 5 minutes without scratching the furniture. Gradually, he increases the amount of time to 10 minutes, then 20, then an hour, then a whole day. The procedure Saul uses is best described as:

DR0

Of the following procedures, the one that reinforces behavior that cannot be performed at the same time as the unwanted behavior is ____.

DRI

Every time you see your friend, they say "Hi!", and partway through saying it, they give you a hug, which is naturally pleasant. What type of conditioning is this?

Delayed conditioning

Glancing at the television in the next room in hopes of seeing the beginning of the 6 o'clock evening news is likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.

fixed-interval

Airline frequent flyer programs that reward customers with a free flight after every 50,000 miles of travel illustrate the use of a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

fixed-ratio

Which of the following is true about complex animal behaviors?

Even complex behavior can be explained by innate mechanisms or simple learning.

What is the relationship between evolution and behavior?

Evolution can select for innate behaviors and cognitive abilities that increase survival fitness.

If a CS is repeatedly presented without the US after conditioning has occurred, resulting in a gradual decrease in the CR, the procedure is called:

Extinction

Little Shelly throws a temper tantrum in the store in order to get a candy bar. Her father, who realizes that he has been accidentally maintaining the behavior, decides to ignore Shelly and not give her any candy bars. On the first day on which he stops giving her the candy bar, Little Shelly throws an even BIGGER tantrum, knocks over a display, and kicks a lady. What is this called?

Extinction burst

While you were dating, every time your significant other texted you, you responded back. However, you just broke up with them, and now you no longer respond to their texts. They suddenly start texting you MORE, 20-30 times in a row. In learning theories, what is this called?

Extinction burst.

Generally speaking, what does a shorter ISI result in?

Faster learning

In general, a more salient US or CS will result in:

Faster learning

A zoo keeper wants to investigate roaring in their male lion, now that they have introduced a new female. He measures how many times the lion roars after the female enters the enclosure. This is measuring:

Frequency

Evidence that organisms are biologically predisposed to learn the associations that most readily aid their survival has been provided by

Garcia and Koelling's study of taste aversion.

You meet someone who looks very similar to someone you don't like very much. They even have the same name. You find you don't really like this new person, even though they haven't done anything wrong. What is this an example of?

Generalization

Keller and Shoenfeld defined a concept as:

Generalization within classes and discrimination between classes.

Which of the following is NOT true about generalized reinforcers?

Generalized reinforcers satiate more quickly than secondary reinforcers.

A young child learns to associate the doctor's office with pain (from needles). They then learn to associate the word "doctor" with the doctor's office. The child starts to cry every time you say the word "doctor", even though the word "doctor" has never been shortly followed by pain. Which type of "advanced" classical conditioning is this?

Higher-order conditioning

Which of the following is NOT a problematic side effect of punishment?

If a behavior is not consciously associated with its consequence, it will not be effective.

What is a difference between innate and learned behaviors?

Innate behaviors are inherited through genetics, whereas learned behaviors are acquired through experience.

Which of the following is NOT a quality of innate behaviors?

Innate behaviors are learned at birth.

A zoo keeper wants to investigate roaring in their male lion, now that they have introduced a new female. He measures how loudly the lion roars after the female enters the enclosure. This is measuring:

Intensity

Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons why learned taste aversion is unlike most other cases of learning?

It specifically involves taste.

A researcher is training a rat to press a lever for food. Unfortunately, the food magazine is malfunctioning; it does give food when the rat presses the lever, but it also occasionally gives extra food randomly without the rat having to press the lever. How will this impact learning to lever-press?

It will slow down learning to press the lever.

The first experimental studies of associative learning were conducted by

Ivan Pavlov.

Jack is a homeless man who lives on the streets of New York City. One cold January night he takes up a position outside a fancy restaurant and starts shouting, "God has ordered an equestrian invasion of Long Island." The restaurant owner calls the police and they take Jack to a hospital, where he spends a quiet night. The next morning a doctor examines Jack and tells him he is well enough to be discharged. Jack immediately begins shouting about the equestrian invasion of Long Island. You tentatively conclude that ____.

Jack's hallucinations are products of reinforcement.

Both Jimmy and Sarah are starting to train their children to run for the track team. Jimmy allows his child 6 minutes of Facebook time after they have run for 1 minute straight. Sarah gives her one hour of Facebook time after they have run for 10 minutes straight. In both cases, the reinforcers can be accumulated, and do not need to be redeemed immediately. Whose child will be "trained" faster to do sprints?

Jimmy's child, because they are receiving more frequent reinforcements.

The physical change of neurons during the process of learning and memorization is called:

Long-term potentiation

A zoo keeper wants to investigate roaring in their male lion, now that they have introduced a new female. He measures how long the lion waits before he roars after the female enters the enclosure. This is measuring:

Latency

Which of the following did NOT play a role in Alan Christopher's experiment in compulsive gambling?

Making the "working" key always have an equal payout to the "gambling" key.

Your child uses profanity, so you take away one hour of TV time. Your child never swears around you again. What type of operant learning is this?

Negative Punishment

____ demonstrated that electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brain could be reinforcing.

Olds and Milner

What is the device shown in the picture?

Operant chamber

Which of the following is NOT an example of the effects of operant conditioning on real-life behavior?

Patients with phobias are often given exposure therapy, wherein they are exposed to gradually-increasing versions of the fear-inducing stimulus. Over time, their fear behaviors are reduced through extinction.

Which of the following methods of reducing a behavior would Pryor NOT support?

Positive Punishment

Mary's grandmother, Pearl, is from the Old Country. Although she knows some English, she continues to speak her native tongue. Pearl can't go anywhere without a member of the family because she can't communicate with people about prices, directions, bus routes, etc. Mary decides to try to modify Pearl's behavior. She and the rest of the family refuse to respond to any comment or request by Pearl that they know she is capable of expressing in English. For example, if during dinner she says, "Pass the potatoes" in English, she gets potatoes; if she says it in her native language she gets ignored. What type of operant learning is this?

Positive Reinforcement

Every time you drink from a cold glass of water, your teeth hurt from sensitivity (and you should probably see a dentist). You find that you stop drinking cold water. What type of operant learning is this?

Positive punishment

Which of the following structures is not part of the reward pathway?

Primary visual cortex

Coffee shops that reward customers with a free cup of coffee after every 10 coffee purchases are using a ________ reinforcement schedule.

fixed-ratio

Captain Mal had problems with a member of his crew, Jayne, stealing liquor from the supplies that he was smuggling aboard his ship, Serenity. Mal decided to put tough locks on the shipping containers.

Response Prevention

The discriminative stimulus under which the behavior will result in reinforcement is:

S+

You have trained your dog to sit on cue by only reinforcing the behavior when you say "sit". The word "sit" acts as a(n):

S+

Which of the following is NOT true about shaping?

Shaping relies on gradually increasing the size of the reinforcer.

Every time you see your friend, they say "Hi!", and at the exact same time, they give you a hug, which is naturally pleasant. What type of conditioning is this?

Simultaneous conditioning

Luana edits manuscripts for a publisher and is paid $25 for every three pages she edits. Luana is reinforced on a ________ schedule.

fixed-ratio

What did Morgan observe in his dog's behavior?

The behavior of lifting the latch was acquired gradually through trial-and-error learning, and did not show evidence of insight learning or complex problem-solving.

Spence trained chimpanzees to discriminate between plate covers that were 160 cm and 100 cm; the 160 cm cover always had food. Once the chimpanzees were performing the discrimination reliably, he tested two new plate covers that were 320 cm and 200 cm. What were the results of the test?

The chimpanzees chose the 320 cm cover, demonstrating an abstract concept of "larger than".

At Sea World, they exclusively use positive reinforcement. To train behaviors, when they give a particular hand cue, they will reinforce a correct behavior with a big fish, and reinforce an incorrect behavior with a smaller and less desired fish. In this case, what is the S+?

The hand cue, because it receives larger reinforcement.

You own two TV remotes. One is a new remote, which always works and turns on the TV each time you use it. The other is a faulty remote, which sometimes turns on the TV, and sometimes takes a few times of pressing the button before it works. You have used both remotes extensively. Unbeknownst to you, both remotes break down at exactly the same time. Which one are you more likely to STOP using first, and why?

The new remote, because continuous schedules of reinforcement extinguish more quickly than variable schedules.

Which of the following is NOT a reason why we use animals to study behavior?

There are very few regulations protecting animal subjects.

What do researchers do to show that an abstract concept has been formed?

They look for evidence of transfer to novel stimuli.

When pleasant scenes were paired with Toothpaste Brand A, and unpleasant scenes with Toothpaste Brand B, how did subjects react?

They showed a preference for Brand A.

Watanabe, Sakamoto, & Wakita (1995) trained pigeons to discriminate between paintings by Picasso and Monet. How did the researchers determine if the birds had formed a concept of Picasso paintings and Monet paintings?

They tested the pigeons with new Picasso and new Monet paintings.

How did Cook & Fagot test memory in pigeons and baboons?

They tested the subjects on an associative discrimination choice task, in which each picture was paired with one of two choices. Correct responses for a picture received reinforcement, and incorrect responses did not. Researchers saw an increase in accuracy above chance levels.

An employer uses an incentive program with her employees. For every week they make over $50,000 in sales, each employee earns one "Business Point (BP)". BP's can be traded in at any time. One BP can earn an extended lunch break. 10 BP's can earn a bonus vacation day. 50 BP's can earn a monetary bonus of $500. What is this an example of?

Token economy

Every time you see your friend, they say "Hi!", and afterwards, they give you a hug, which is naturally pleasant. What type of conditioning is this?

Trace conditioning

Sugar is a good example of a(n):

US

Applied Behavior Analysis involves:

Using operant learning principles to modify a patient's behavior.

In ____ therapy, a stimulus that elicits an inappropriate response is paired with an aversive stimulus such as shock or an emetic drug.

aversion

Which of the following is true about post-reinforcement pauses?

Variable schedules are less likely to have post-reinforcement pauses than fixed schedules.

Which is true about virtual reality in therapy?

Virtual reality can be helpful in reducing phobias, such as with public speaking, heights, or spiders.

How do we demonstrate that classical conditioning has occurred?

We use test trials; at some point in training, we present the CS by itself to see if it elicits a response.

Pedophilia is sometimes treated with a form of counterconditioning called ____.

aversion therapy

Which of the following describes the differential outcomes effect?

When a light is on, pressing the left-hand lever earns food; when a tone sounds, pressing the right-hand lever earns sugar water.

Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response is called a(n)

aversive stimulus.

An innate, complex, orderly series of movements found in all or nearly all members of a species is called:

a fixed action pattern

A person who says, "Everyone knows that...." is referring to ____.

anecdotal evidence

Which of the following is the best example of a conditioned reinforcer?

applause for an excellent piano recital

If a sea slug on repeated occasions receives an electric shock just after being squirted with water, its protective withdrawal response to a squirt of water grows stronger. This best illustrates

associative learning.

Learning that certain events occur together is called

associative learning.

Through direct experience with animals, we come to anticipate that dogs will bark and that birds will chirp. This best illustrates

associative learning.

In within-subject experiments, each subject's performance is compared with its performance during a ____.

baseline period

A trained sequence of behaviors that occur in order, and are reinforced at the end of the sequence, is called a:

behavior chain.

The law of effect says that ____.

behavior is a function of its consequences

After pigs learned to pick up and deposit wooden coins in a piggy bank, the pigs subsequently dropped the coins repeatedly and pushed them with their snouts. This best illustrates the importance of ________ in operant conditioning.

biological predispositions

Cook & Fagot's studies on animal memory found that:

birds and mammals share the same memory systems, but birds have a smaller storage capacity.

Failure of a stimulus to become a CS when it is part of a compound stimulus that includes an effective CS is called:

blocking

Which of the following is an example of a reflexive behavior?

blushing when embarrassed

Associative learning is best illustrated by

classical and operant conditioning.

By directly experiencing a thunderstorm, we learn that a flash of lightning signals an impending crash of thunder. This best illustrates

classical conditioning.

Children can learn to fear the persons and places associated with their punishment. This best illustrates

classical conditioning.

Just after they taste a sweet liquid, mice are injected with a drug that produces an immune response. Later, the taste of the sweet liquid by itself triggers an immune response. This best illustrates

classical conditioning.

Research participants formed more gut-level liking for Pokémon characters associated with positive rather than negative images. This best illustrates the impact of

classical conditioning.

The type of learning in which one comes to associate two stimuli and thereby anticipate events is called

classical conditioning.

Which of the following is most clearly an operant behavior?

complaining

A(n) _____ stimulus is one that consists of two or more stimuli presented simultaneously.

compound

The work of Bhatt and Wasserman that trained pigeons to respond in one of four ways in response to pictures of people, flowers, cars, or chairs was testing for _____.

conceptual categorization

Receiving money as a reward and having a monetary fine suspended are both ________ reinforcers.

conditioned

Alex was paid $100 for eight hours of work. The money was a(n)

conditioned reinforcer.

Antonio's football coach frequently yells at him for swearing. As a result, Antonio now experiences anxiety when he's near his coach. The coach is a(n) ________ for Antonio's anxiety.

conditioned stimulus

Months after she was beaten up by a robber, Courtney's heart pounds with fear merely at the sight of the place in which she was attacked. The location of her attack is most likely a(n) ________ for Courtney's anxiety.

conditioned stimulus

A dog salivates to the sound of a tone because the tone has regularly been associated with the delivery of food. In this case, the tone is called a(n)

conditioned stimulus.

In Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, infants develop a fear of roses after roses are presented with electric shock. In this fictional example, the presentation of the roses is the

conditioned stimulus.

In classical conditioning, generalization refers to the tendency for the conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the

conditioned stimulus.

Most New Year's resolutions fail because the consequences for the behaviors lack proper:

contiguity

When grocery shopping with his mother, 4-year-old Hakim sometimes throws temper tantrums if his mother refuses his requests for a particular snack food. Parent-training experts would suggest that his mother should

continue shopping while ignoring Hakim's tantrums.

Four-year-old Della asks her mother for a special treat every time they go to the grocery store. At first her mother granted every request, but now she does so less consistently. Research suggests that Della will

continue to ask for a treat nearly every time she goes to the store.

Joan has a fear of dogs. Her therapist shows her images of dogs; after each image, Joan is given a small piece of chocolate. This type of therapy is called:

counterconditioning

Research shows that when women receiving chemotherapy return to the hospital, they show ____.

decreased immune functioning

Any variable that is allowed to vary freely is a(an) ____ variable.

dependent

Martin Seligman has argued that learned helplessness can provide a model for ____.

depression

Your fish eats flake food, which comes from a yellow container. You notice that, while cleaning around the fish tank, the fish swims to the surface when you move the yellow container. In this example, what is the UR?

eating

In the treatment of long-standing self-injurious behaviors, punishment is often:

effective

Several students are taking a typing class. The teacher is attempting to decrease how many typing mistakes they make. This is a change in:

errors

Studies of learned helplessness use the ____ procedure.

escape training

In classical conditioning a stimulus is any event or situation that

evokes a response.

According to B. F. Skinner, human behavior is controlled primarily by

external influences.

A patient who had long feared going into elevators was told by his therapist to force himself to enter 20 elevators a day. The therapist most likely wanted to encourage the ________ of the patient's fear.

extinction

After Pavlov had conditioned a dog to salivate to a tone, he repeatedly sounded the tone without presenting the food. As a result, ________ occurred.

extinction

In the figure below, the curve on the left illustrates ____. (data points fall)

extinction

The school bell typically signifies the end of class, and elicits excitement. However, this week, the school bell is going off at random times, and does not signify the end of class. Gradually, the students become less and less excited when they hear the school bell. What is this an example of?

extinction

Comedian-writer Mark Malkoff reported that his fear of flying faded after he faced his fear and lived on an airplane for 30 days. His reduction of fear best illustrated the process of

extinction.

When a CS is not paired with a US, the subsequent fading of a CR is called

extinction.

In explaining juvenile delinquency, B. F. Skinner would most likely have emphasized

faulty child-raising practices.

Conditioned suppression is used as a measure of ____.

fear

A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response that occurs after a specified time has elapsed is a ________ schedule.

fixed-interval

During a typical morning, Colin checks the clock frequently before being reinforced with confirmation that the time for his regularly scheduled lunch break has arrived. In this case, Colin's behavior is reinforced on a ________ schedule.

fixed-interval

Paul and Michael sell magazine subscriptions by telephone. Paul is paid $1.00 for every five calls he makes, while Michael is paid $1.00 for every subscription he sells, regardless of the number of calls he makes. Paul's telephoning is reinforced on a ________ schedule, whereas Michael's is reinforced on a ________ schedule.

fixed-ratio; variable-ratio

Your fish eats flake food, which comes from a yellow container. You notice that, while cleaning around the fish tank, the fish swims to the surface when you move the yellow container. In this example, what is the US?

food

A year after surviving a classroom shooting incident, Kim-Li still responds with terror at the sight of toy guns and to the sound of balloons popping. This reaction best illustrates

generalization.

After getting a slight burn from the spark of a flickering campfire, Julie became afraid of getting close to lighted gas stoves. This best illustrates the adaptive value of

generalization.

After learning to fear a white rat, Little Albert responded with fear to the sight of a rabbit. This best illustrates the process of

generalization.

Dogs conditioned to salivate to stimulation of the thigh also begin to salivate when stimulated on other body parts. This best illustrates

generalization.

Money is a good example of a ____ reinforcer.

generalized

In a token economy, _____ reinforcers are _____.

generalized; accumulated

The figure below most likely illustrates ____. (decrease in response)

habituation

The experiment in which a dog learned to salivate at the sight of a black square after it had been paired with a CS for salivating is an example of ____ conditioning.

higher-order

Associating a conditioned stimulus with a new neutral stimulus can create a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. This best illustrates

higher-order conditioning.

If a tone regularly signals food and produces salivation, then a light that becomes associated with the tone may also begin to trigger salivation. This best illustrates

higher-order conditioning.

The phenomenon of ____ suggests that we should be more likely to develop aversions to novel foods than to familiar ones.

latent inhibition

Herrnstein proposed that once a superstitious behavior occurs, it may be maintained by ____.

incidental reinforcement

A reinforcement is any event that

increases the frequency of a preceding response.

The opposite of learned helplessness is learned:

industriousness

Which of the following behaviors is typically reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule?

inserting coins into a slot machine

Animals tend to revert from newly learned habits to their biologically predisposed behaviors. This is an example of

instinctive drift.

Marjorie drives a school bus. Sometimes the kids get rather noisy. She decides to play music the kids like through speakers on the bus, but whenever the kids get too noisy she turns the music off. When they quiet down, she turns the music back on. In this way, she hopes to get the kids to make less noise. Marjorie is probably going to measure learning as a change in response ____.

intensity

Resistance to extinction is most strongly encouraged by ________ reinforcement.

intermittent

In classical conditioning, ISI refers to the _____.

interstimulus interval

Because Yuri was curious about human behavior, he enrolled in an introductory psychology course. George registered because he heard it was an easy course that would boost his grade-point average. In this instance, Yuri's behavior was a reflection of ________, whereas George's behavior was a reflection of ________.

intrinsic motivation; extrinsic motivation

A positive reinforcer is anything that when ________ a response, strengthens the response.

introduced after

John gets into fights on a regular basis, always with formidable opponents. He has often been injured in these fights and knows that he runs the risk of sustaining serious brain damage or other permanent injuries, yet he continues to fight. John is a very successful professional boxer. This example illustrates that bizarre behavior ____.

is less puzzling when the reinforcers maintaining it are known

Which of the following is an unconditioned response?

jerking your hand off a very hot stove

Watson and Rayner's study of Little Albert demonstrated how specific fears

may be produced through classical conditioning.

Wright found that when the training set was small, both pigeons and monkeys tended to _____, whereas when the training set was large, subjects tended to _____.

memorize the stimuli; rely on abstract concepts

Learning is an evolved ____.

modifiability

To modify your own behavior using operant conditioning principles, you should

monitor and record the actual frequency of the operant behavior you wish to promote.

Jacinda has a glass of wine after work because it relieves her anxiety. Her wine drinking is likely to continue due to ________ reinforcement.

negative

A child learns to stop fighting with his brother after the fight leads to suspension of the child's video gaming privileges. In this case, the suspension of video gaming privileges is a

negative punishment.

When children misbehave, some parents use a time-out, removing the children from their reinforcing surroundings. This practice best illustrates

negative punishment.

Positive punishment is most often confused with ____.

negative reinforcement

A mother frequently picks up her crying infant boy because the baby typically stops crying as soon as he is held. In this case, the mother is ________ when her son stops crying.

negatively reinforced

Before learning painfully that the sound of a buzzing bee signaled she was about to be stung, Sara felt no fear in response to the buzzing sound. At that time the sound of the buzzing bee was most clearly a(n)

neutral stimulus.

One problem with computer simulations as a substitute for animal research is that ____.

no one knows what behavior to program until the research has been done

Voluntary behaviors that produce rewarding or punishing outcomes are called

operant behaviors.

Dr. Raheja places a rat in a small cage where it learns to press a bar to obtain a food pellet. Obviously, Dr. Raheja is using a(n) ________ to study learning.

operant chamber

An enclosure containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer is called a(n)

operant chamber.

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer is called

operant conditioning.

Children often learn to associate their pushing a vending machine button with the delivery of a candy bar. This best illustrates the process underlying

operant conditioning.

Mr. Schlenker has improved worker productivity at his furniture manufacturing plant by occasionally sending notes of appreciation to his hard-working employees. Mr. Schlenker has improved productivity by means of

operant conditioning.

Seals in an aquarium will repeat behaviors, such as slapping and barking, that prompt people to toss them a herring. This best illustrates

operant conditioning.

Two years ago, the de Castellane Manufacturing Company included its employees in a profit-sharing plan in which workers receive semi-annual bonuses based on the company's profits. Since this plan was initiated, worker productivity at de Castellane has nearly doubled. This productivity increase is best explained in terms of

operant conditioning.

Shepard Siegel's work suggests that some deaths attributed to ____ are actually the result of conditioning.

overdose

An experimenter presents a flash of light and a bell simultaneously followed by food. Conditioning proceeds satisfactorily, but when the experimenter presents the light and bell separately, he finds that the bell is an effective CS, but the light is a weak CS. The experimenter has demonstrated ____.

overshadowing

Administering an aversive stimulus following an operant response is

positive punishment.

Probably the best way of increasing the creativity of stories in an English class is to:

praise particularly original stories.

A conditioned reinforcer gains its reinforcing power through its link with a

primary reinforcer.

Contrived reinforcers are:

provided deliberately as part of training.

Any event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur is called a(n) ____.

punisher

An event that decreases the frequency of the behavior that it follows is a(n):

punishment.

The introduction of an unpleasant stimulus is to ________ as the withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus is to ________.

punishment; reinforcement

When a CS-US pairing is learned more quickly during a second acquisition phase after extinction has occurred, this is referred to as:

rapid reacquisition

Several students are taking a typing class. The teacher is attempting to increase their words per minute. This is a change in:

rate

The color ____ is a sign stimulus for aggression in the male stickleback.

red

Pfister and colleagues were able to _____ horses' likelihood to eat locoweed through the application of learned taste aversion.

reduce

Which of the following is LEAST likely to be considered an important component of effective student instruction involving the use of interactive software?

reflexive behavior

An automatic response to some stimulus is called

reflexive behavior.

Eva's heart rate accelerated when she was confronted by a large snake while hiking. Her accelerated heart rate is an example of

reflexive behavior.

Teachers who effectively shape their students' study habits are most likely to

reinforce even minor improvements in students' study skills.

Shaping is:

reinforcement of successive approximations of a behavior.

Most psychologists would advise parents who want to change a child's bad behavior to make use of

reinforcement over punishment.

The reappearance of a different, previously-effective behavior during extinction is called ____.

resurgence.

You would be most likely to use operant conditioning to teach a dog to

retrieve sticks and balls.

If a ringing bell causes a dog to salivate because the bell has been regularly associated with food in the mouth, the UR is the

salivation to the food in the mouth.

A procedure in which a subject must respond based on whether two or more elements are similar to each other or dissimilar to each other is called a:

same-different task

The level of deprivation is less important when the reinforcer used is a(n) ____ reinforcer.

secondary

A clicker is a good example of a:

secondary reinforcer

When two neutral stimuli are paired together, then one of those stimuli is paired with a US, the other stimulus also shows a CR. This is called:

sensory preconditioning

You are in the zombie apocalypse, but have not yet encountered any zombies. You have seen from the top of your apartment building that car alarms attract a horde of zombies. One day, a zombie breaks into your apartment and attacks you, which is intensely terrifying. You notice that you start to also have a gut-clenching fear response to the car alarm, even though you have never been attacked right after a car alarm. What type of "advanced" classical conditioning is this?

sensory preconditioning

Because Mr. Baron demonstrates appreciation only for very good classroom answers, his students have stopped participating in class. Mr. Baron most clearly needs to be informed of the value of

shaping

Five-year-old Trevor is emotionally disturbed and refuses to communicate with anyone. To get him to speak, his teacher initially gives him candy for any utterance, then only for a clearly spoken word, and finally only for a complete sentence. The teacher is using the method of

shaping

Soccer instruction that reinforces short kicks before attempting to reinforce long kicks best illustrates the process of

shaping

In teaching her son to play basketball, Mrs. Richards initially reinforces him with praise for simply dribbling while standing still, then only for walking while dribbling, and finally only for running while dribbling. She is using a procedure known as

shaping.

On Monday, Johnny's mother gave him cookies and milk after he had played quietly for 10 minutes. On Tuesday, she required 20 minutes of quiet play before treat time. On Wednesday, she gave him cookies only after he played quietly for a full half hour. Johnny was taught to play quietly for extended periods through

shaping.

Skinner developed a procedure to guide a rat's actions toward a desired behavior. The procedure is known as

shaping.

Tennis instruction that reinforces soft, short lobs over the net before attempting to reinforce hard, long, cross-court hits best illustrates the process of

shaping.

The process of reinforcing successively closer approximations to a desired behavior is called

shaping.

The word positive in positive punishment refers to the fact that ____.

something is added

To get you to increase the frequency of your daily exercise, operant behavior specialists are most likely to recommend that you

specify your exercise goals and how you plan to achieve them.

The one thing that all reinforcers have in common is that they ____.

strengthen behavior

George trains a pigeon to peck a disk by reinforcing each disk peck. Once the response is learned, George begins to cut back on the reinforcers. At first he reinforces every other response, then every third response, every fifth response, every tenth response, and so on. George is using a procedure called ____.

stretching the ratio.

An animal trainer is teaching a miniature poodle to balance on a ball. Initially, he gives the poodle a treat for approaching the ball, then only for placing its front paws on the ball, and finally only for climbing on the ball. The trainer is using the method of

successive approximations.

Studies suggest that criminal behavior is most likely to be deterred by

swiftly delivered punishment.

Two students, Edward and Bella, serve as subjects in a conditioning experiment. The CS is a buzzer; the US is an electric shock; the UR is a change in electrical conductivity called the Galvanic Skin Response. Both subjects undergo 50 trials, but the experimenter feels sorry for Bella, so he occasionally doesn't actually deliver her shock when she hears the buzzer. The results will be that _____.

the CR is stronger in Edward.

One problem with extinction as a way of reducing the frequency of potentially harmful behavior is that ____.

the behavior on extinction sometimes increases at first

B. F. Skinner's work elaborated what E. L. Thorndike had called

the law of effect.

In Pavlov's experiments on the salivary conditioning of dogs, the US was

the presentation of food in the dog's mouth.

In Pavlov's experiments on the salivary conditioning of dogs, the CS was

the sound of a tone.

Punishment is a potentially hazardous way for teachers to control young children's behaviors because

the use of punishment could condition children to fear the teachers and avoid school.

Punishers are defined by ____.

their effects on behavior