Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

urinary system

Filter the blood in order to create urine. This liquid waste is held in the bladder and excreted out the urethra.

Sections of the sarcomere diagram

First and second first brown lines- Sarcomere Left brown line- Z-Line Right brown line- Z-line Left and right light brown squares- A-band Pink line between Light brown squares- H-band White line between pink line- M-line Two pink squares with a brown line in the middle- I-band

Dense Connective Tissue

Forms tendons and ligaments. Can also be found in the lower layers of the skin. -Tendons- Strong, ropelike structures which attach muscle to bone. -Ligaments- connect bone to bone

while epithelial tissue for absorption

Found in the digestive system

Get Involved:

Get personally involved instead of expecting others to do the job.

Glands

Glands are the organs of the endocrine system that secrete substances. There are two types of glands: •Exocrine glands produce nonhormonal substances such as sweat and saliva and use ducts (channels) to carry these substances to the surface. •Endocrine glands are ductless glands that produce hormones and release hormones that are collected into a lymphatic drainage system into the surrounding tissue. Endocrine glands are small hormone-producing tissues that are scattered around the body. Unlike other systems, different glands of the endocrine system can be found from the brain down to the reproductive organs.

Endocrine system

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

catheter

a flexible tube inserted through a narrow opening into the bladder or other opening to remove fluid

radioactive iodine

a form of iodine used in diagnostic tests

mutation

a gene that is damaged or changed in such a way the genetic message carried by that gene changes

tissue

a group of cells that are similar in structure and function

syndrome

a group of symptoms that consistently occur together. Fever, chills, sore throat, body aches, and congestion are the signs and symptoms associated with the flu virus, which makes these symptoms a syndrome.

calcitonin

a hormone secreted by the thyroid that can lower blood calcium levels

ventilator

a machine to help with artificial breathing

Zika virus

a mosquito-transmitted virus that, in most cases, only has mild symptoms, such as fever, rash, joint pain, and red eyes. It has been discovered that pregnant women infected by the Zika virus are producing children with a birth defect,

flexor

a muscle whose contraction bends a limb or other part of the body

extensor

a muscle whose contraction extends or straightens a limb or other part of the body

process

a natural outgrowth on or in an organism

cytoskeleton

a network of structures that provide shape to the cell and allow it to move. would be outside of the cell membrane.

iodine

a nonmetallic element that is important for thyroid hormone production

thalamus

a part of the forebrain that connects to the rest of the brain and routes information to the appropriate neurons

hippocampus

a part of the forebrain that enables the formation of memories. People who have suffered damage to the hippocampus retain previous memories but cannot form new ones.

medulla

a part of the lower brain that controls heart rate, breathing, and a variety of reflexes tells your conscious mind to "black out" and retake control of your breathing. has the strategic job of connecting the spinal cord to the brain via the pons.

proportion

a part or number considered in comparison to a whole

gait

a person's manner of walking

splint

a piece of rigid material used for supporting a broken bone and keeping it from moving

melanin

a pigment that gives skin its color

cell membrane

a plasma membrane that surrounds the cell and provides protection. Every cell has a cell membrane to keep the cell's shape and to act as a boundary. also responsible for letting the things the cell needs in and discarding waste.

impulse

a pulse of electrical energy; a brief current

strut

a rod or bar forming a part of a framework

hierarchy of needs

a scheme in which fundamental needs must be satisfied before other needs can be considered

hindbrain

a section of the brain including the medulla and cerebellum; regulates most of the body's vital functions

forebrain

a section of the brain that includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; directs memory, language, and conscious sensory and motor control

midbrain

a section of the brain that takes sensory information gathered by the nervous system and relays it to the forebrain through the use of the reticular activating system (RAS).

Golgi Apparatus

a series of flattened membrane sacs that takes in proteins from the rough ER and breaks them down into a product that can be transported After the protein has been processed, it is moved to the cell membrane to be released. Cells that have to complete a large amount of secretion have large numbers of Golgi apparatus, like salivary glands and pancreatic glands.

perpendicular

at an angle of 90° to a given line, plane, or surface

occipital lobe

at the back of the head. It processes signals from the eyes and creates mental images that allow you to "see."

Microscopic Anatomy

deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye. Ex: cells and body tissues.

The Hypodermis

deepest layer of the skin is connected to the connective tissue of the skeletal muscles and is made mostly of adipose, or fat tissue. The function of the hypodermis is to store fat and attach the skin to the muscles underneath this layer. Due to the high fat content, the hypodermis serves as a shock absorber and insulation layer. This layer is also where fat accumulates when people gain weight.

muscular injection

delivering of medication deep into the muscles

dormant

having normal functions suspended or slowed down for a period of time

acidic

having the properties of acid and a pH below 7

sensorineural

hearing loss caused by a lesion or disease of the inner ear

Compassion

helping others heal their hurts. Sometimes hurts are physical; other times hurts are emotional.

iliac

hip

Hormonal Stimulus

hormone released caused by another hormone (a tropic hormone) Stimulus- Hormones from Hypothalamus Response- Anterior pituitary gland secretes hormone that stimulates another endocrine gland to secrete hormones.

vasopressin

hormone that helps the kidneys retain water and increase blood pressure

estrogen

hormones that promote the development and maintenance of female traits

Lateral plane

imaginary line that divides the body perpendicularly to the medial plane

Inflammatory responses

include redness, increased temperature at the location of the injury, swelling, and pain. The purpose of the inflammatory response is to protect by increasing the blood flow in that area, eventually returning the area to normal function.

Personal protective equipment

includes gloves, gowns, face protection, and specialty masks. The type of infection and how it is transmitted determines the type of personal protective equipment needed

origin

location of fixed attachment of muscles to bone

lumbar

lower back

adult skeletal system

made of 206 bones that are divided into an axial skeleton and an appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton forms the longitudinal axis of the body; provides support for the head, neck, and trunk; and protects the brain, spinal cord, and organs in the thorax. The axial skeleton is divided into three parts: • Skull • Vertebral column • Thoracic cage

Vertebral Column

made of 26 irregular bones that connect to create a flexible, curved spine. The spine serves as the support for the trunk and distributes the weight of the trunk to the lower limbs. The spine also provides protection for the spinal cord and attachment points for the ribs and muscles of the back and neck.

Systems

monitors the internal conditions and make changes as needed within the system.

Trials

repetitions of an experiment or test

edema

swelling

Respiratory system

system responsible for taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide using the lungs

immunotherapy

teaches the immune system how to attack cancer cells.

Hypothesis

A statement made on the possible outcomes of an investigation

Modus Operandi (MO)

A strategy or methodology

Diseases of the Ears

A variety of conditions from inflammation to auditory nerve and brain damage can lead to partial or complete loss of hearing. External otitis, or swimmer's ear, is an infection caused by bacteria and fungi in the ear. The bacteria come from contaminated swimming pools and beaches. Symptoms include pain, fever, and temporary hearing loss. This can be avoided by cleaning and drying the external ear after swimming or by wearing earplugs while swimming. Otitis media is an acute bacterial or viral infection of the middle ear. Commonly called an ear infection, otitis media frequently affects infants and young children. Symptoms include pain, edema, and pus, and it can result from an upper respiratory infection. Otitis media is treated with antibiotics; if left untreated, it can perforate (tear) the eardrum. If the ear infection continues after antibiotic use, a myringotomy can be performed. In this procedure, doctors insert tubes through the eardrum to relieve pressure. Labyrinthitis: Labyrinthitis is an infection of the inner ear that is caused by high fevers. Symptoms include hearing loss and vertigo (dizziness). Treatments can help manage the symptoms, but labyrinthitis usually goes away on its own. However, Meniere's disease is another chronic condition that affects the labyrinth, and it can lead to permanent hearing loss and chronic vertigo. Otosclerosis: Otosclerosis is a chronic, progressive middle ear disorder. Otosclerosis occurs due to excessive bone growth in the middle ear that hardens and immobilizes the bones, causing deafness. Otosclerosis is a hereditary disorder that will affect both ears and can only be treated by stapedotomy surgery. In a stapedotomy, the stapes (stirrup) is removed and replaced with a plastic or wire substitute. Tinnitus: Tinnitus is a ringing sound in the ears that is a symptom of sensorineural hearing loss. Tinnitus can occur due to chronic exposure to loud noises, medication, wax buildup, or disturbances to the auditory nerve.

mucous membrane

A wet membrane that lines all body cavities that open to the outside of the body. Most are made of stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelial tissue that lies above a layer of loose connective tissue. These membranes have the functions of absorption and secretion, mostly secreting mucus. Can be found in hollow organs of the digestive system, respiratory system, urinary system, and reproductive system.

pandemic

a disease found over a whole country or world

Diseases

a disease is a condition where the body is not functioning properly. *can be caused by pathogens, like viruses or bacteria. Some diseases are genetic, meaning they are inherited from the mother or father. Other diseases are caused by lifestyle choices, such as lung cancer from smoking. pathologist: the characteristics, causes, and effects of a disease. In order for a doctor to effectively treat a disease, they have to know all aspects of the disease and understand how it interacts and changes the body. epidemiologist: researches and collect data on disease cases as they occur in order to inform the scientific community of what to expect and the next moves to make. They have a major role in informing and assisting with public health. ------ There are many epidemiologists and pathologists that work at the Center for Disease Control (CDC). The CDC is responsible for tracking, researching, and reporting disease cases as they occur worldwide

cartilage

a flexible connective tissue

streets and highways

allow for transportation

Regional terms

allow medical professionals to be specific when referring to an area of the body by using the anterior or posterior body landmarks

Elastic cartilage

allows for more stretch than hyaline cartilage and can withstand repeated bending. These fibers are only found in the external ear and the epiglottis.

Cell Division

also called cell reproduction, is the process cells go through to make more cells. While a cell is in interphase, it is performing the daily functions of living organisms. At this time, the cell starts to make preparations for cell division. Once the cell is prepared, it will enter the mitotic phase and go through the process of mitosis.

striations

alternating dark and light bands on muscle tissue

reflex

an action that is a response to a stimulus without conscious thought

intrinsic motivation

an activity that is personally fulfilling or rewarding

extrinsic motivation

an activity that satisfies a biological drive or provides external incentive

immunosuppressant

an agent that can prevent an immune response

immunosuppressant

an agent that can suppress or prevent the immune response

lesion

an area of tissue that has suffered damage

action potential

an electrical current that travels over the surface of the sarcolemma causing the muscle to contract

brachial

arm

City hall

controls and regulates the city.

transverse plane

created by a cut made horizontally, dividing the body into superior and inferior, or top and bottom sections.

median plane

created by taking a sagittal, or lengthwise, cut of the body, dividing it into right and left sections.

control group

receives a placebo treatment

treatment group

receives the intervention or medicine that is being investigated.

negative feedback

reduces the change of the factor that is out of balance

hypothalamus

region of the brain

anatomical

relating to a bodily structure

embryonic

relating to an unborn human

visceral

relating to the internal organs

neurological

relating to the science of nerves and the nervous system

Persuasiveness

"guiding vital truths around another's mental roadblocks."

Cautiousness

"knowing how important right timing is in accomplishing right actions."

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act

(HIPAA), research is defined as a systematic investigation including testing and evaluation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge. This could include biomedical research or health services research.

Lesson 7 / Psychology

(I apologize I'm really out of it today) - Virgil Spar

Maintaining Boundaries

*Boundaries refers to how all things inside the body must remain separate from outside elements. *The body is constructed to have membranes and organs of protection that work as the boundaries needed to continue living. *Even at the cellular level, cells have a membrane that controls what can enter and exit the cell. *The integumentary system, or skin, is the primary organ of protection and maintains boundaries for the human body. *The function of the skin is to provide the ultimate level of protection from bacteria, heat, sunlight, and chemical substances, as well as to stop internal organs from drying out. *Skin is the first level of protection for the organism's survival.

Nutrients

*Chemicals used for energy and making cells. *Includes carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins. *Provides the most energy for cells, and proteins are important for building more cells. *Fats provide cushion and support for organs and store energy. *Minerals and vitamins are important for chemical reactions and the transport of oxygen. *Obtained from food and are broken down in the digestive system to be transported throughout the body in the blood stream.

Body Temperature

*In order to maintain life, body temperature should stay around 37 °C or 98 °F. *If body temperature drops below this temperature, the reactions in the body become slow and will eventually stop. *If body temperature is too high, chemical reactions go too fast, and proteins start to break down. *Having a high temperature is also a sign of infection *High body temperatures can be controlled with medical intervention when necessary.

Water

*Makes up 60%-80% of our body and is the most abundant substance. *The main function is to balance fluids in the body. *Important for certain chemical reactions and aids in digestion. *Obtained mainly from eating and drinking. *Evaporates out of the lungs and secreted out of the skin in sweat. *A human can only live 3-5 days without water.

Oxygen

*Needed for all cells and chemical reactions in the body. *Taken in from the air, and our respiratory and cardiovascular system distribute this molecule through the body.

Responsiveness

*The ability to recognize a stimulus and formulate a response. *The human body's ability to sense changes in the environment and to react to those changes is important to daily life functions. *The body can respond to an internal stimulus, which is something coming from inside the body.

Atmospheric Pressure

*The force on the body from the weight of air *When atmospheric pressure is low, or the air is thin, it can cause problems with the gas exchange that occurs while breathing. The body is then not able to support cellular reactions. *One reason an astronaut wears a spacesuit is to maintain the correct atmospheric pressure while in space.

Movement

*The muscular system, in partnership with the skeletal system, is responsible for movement of the human body. *These systems work together to allow for walking, running, and exercising. *responsible for movement of blood, food, and urine through their systems, as well as the contraction and movement of organs as they complete their functions. *Without cardiac muscle movement, the heart would not beat, and without the contractions of the diaphragm muscle, a human body would not be able to breathe.

Symptoms of Alzheimer's disease

-Memory loss -Changes in mood -Misplacing belongings -Social withdrawal -Poor judgement -Struggling to communicate -Changes in vision -Confused of time and place -Hard to complete familiar task

Comparison of neurotransmitters and hormones

-Neurotransmitters- -Hormones- chemical messengers chemical messengers bind to receptor cell bind to receptor cell control cell excitation control cell activities released by neurons released by neurons, glands, or organs released at chemical synapse released into bloodstream close target distant target quick effects long-lasting effects affect a single cell can affect many cells

GBS patients often require a ventilator

-The mechanical ventilator blows air, or air with increased oxygen, through tubes into the patient's airways. -Air flows to the patients through a humidifier, which warms and moistens the air. -Exhaled air flows away from the patient -The nasogastric tube goes through patient's nose into the stomach -The endotracheal tube goes through patient's nose into the windpipe -A nurse periodically checks the patient

skeletal muscles to move, there are five rules:

1 -All muscles cross at least one joint. 2 -The bulk of the muscle is proximal to the joint it crosses. 3 -All muscles have at least two attachments: the origin and the insertion. 4 -Muscles exert force by pulling, never pushing. 5 -When a muscle contracts, the muscle insertion moves toward the origin.

Fever

1. What is a fever- A fever is when your body temperature raises above 100.4 F or 38 C The hypothalamus is responsible for controlling body temperature and attempts to keep it near 98.6 F or 37 C 2. Why do we get fevers- Fevers occur as a response to an illness. •Infection •Inflammation •Side effects •Cancer •Vaccines 3. How do we treat a fever- Treatments vary depending on the reason you have the fever. Antibiotics can be used for bacterial infections. Over-the-counter drugs can be used to reduce the fever. •Acetaminophen •ibuprofen •Naproxen

Julius Wolff

A German anatomist and surgeon who lived from 1836-1902. His law was developed from observations from the many surgeries he performed.

Timing for Hormone Activity

A big difference between the endocrine system and the nervous system is the action of hormonal release and response. Some hormones can generate an almost immediate response while others, especially steroid hormones, require hours or days for their effects to be seen. Some hormones are released into the bloodstream and cannot be activated until they reach their target cells. The time of the action of hormones ranges from seconds to several hours depending on the hormone. Some hormonal action stops as soon as the amount in the blood decreases, but some hormones are able to function with even a low concentration of the hormone in the blood. Hormones are strong chemicals that have major effects on their target organs, even when there is a low concentration of the hormone. The concentration of a hormone in the blood will determine the rate of release and the speed at which it is removed from the body. Hormones are removed from the body by the kidneys or liver and are excreted in urine and feces.

body cavities

A body cavity contains a set of structures and provides protection to the organs of that cavity. The body has two sets. Each one of these has a subset of cavities based on the structures that are contained within that cavity.

nervous tissue

A body tissue that carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body.

muscle tissue

A body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move.

Brain Cancer

A brain tumor is a growth of abnormal cells in the brain or spinal cord. Brain tumors can be benign or cancerous. If the tumor started in the brain, it is called a primary brain tumor. If it came from another part of the body, it is a secondary or metastatic tumor. Brain tumor diagnosis and treatment varies depending on the location of the tumor. General signs and symptoms include headaches, nausea, vomiting, and vision problems; gradual loss of sensation or movement; difficulty with balance, speech, or hearing; confusion; personality or behavior changes; and seizures. Primary brain tumors develop when normal cells have mutations in their DNA, causing the abnormal cell growth that forms a tumor. Secondary brain tumors are the result of another cancer located somewhere else in the body; these are more common than primary tumors. Any cancer can spread to the brain, but breast cancer, colon cancer, kidney cancer, lung cancer, and melanoma are the most common types to spread. In diagnosis, a brain tumor requires a neurological exam, imaging, and tests for other cancers. A biopsy may be completed to remove a sample of the tumor to be tested. The treatment of the cancer depends on the type, size, and location of the tumor. Surgery is used if the location is accessible. The goal of the surgery is to remove as much of the tumor as possible, while not affecting the brain tissue around it. Radiation therapy uses high energy beams to kill tumor cells. Radiation can be focused on just the tumor, or whole brain radiation can be applied to the entire brain. Radiosurgery uses highly focused beams to target very specific areas of cancer. Most often, chemotherapy for brain tumors is administered as a pill instead of an intravenous (IV) treatment. Targeted drug therapy focuses on specific abnormalities of the cancer cells. By blocking these abnormalities, it causes the cancer cells to die. After treatment, rehabilitation is used to recover lost function.

Organ

A collection of tissues that carry out a specialized function of the body. Examples of organs include the liver, stomach, brain, and heart.

Heal Hurts:

A compassionate person cares for others as long as necessary in order to address the need. Follow up with those you help, and get others involved when the need is bigger than you can handle.

Inference

A conclusion reached based on evidence and reasoning

diabetes

A condition where the negative feedback loop that normally controls insulin is disrupted. Once this disruption occurs, a positive feedback loop takes over and increases the amount of glucose in the blood. Regaining control of glucose levels requires medical intervention.

Tissue

A group of similar cells that perform a specific function.

Dialect

A language that varies from the common reginal language

Organism

A living thing

Naming Skeletal Muscles

A muscle can be named based on one or more of these traits: • Direction of muscle fibers: Some muscles are named based on an imaginary line in relation to the body, like the midline (the long axis of a bone). When a muscle's fibers run parallel to the imaginary line, they are called rectus, or straight. For example the rectus femoris is the straight muscle of the gastrocnemius muscles. A muscle that runs slanted to the imaginary line is oblique. For example, the external obliques are slanted abdominal muscles. • Size of the muscle Maximus would describe the largest muscle of the group, while minimus would describe the smallest muscle of the group. The gluteus maximus is the largest muscle of the gluteus muscles that make up the buttocks. • Location of the muscle: Muscles can be named for the bone they are associated with. For example, the temporalis muscles are named for the temporal bone they cover. • Number of origins: This criterion is related to the number of fixed attachments a muscle has to a bone. The quadriceps has four points of origin, the triceps has three points of origin, and the biceps has two points of origin. • Location of the muscle's origin and insertion: Some muscles are named for the location of their attachment points. For example, the sternocleidomastoid originates from the sternum and clavicle, while inserting at the mastoid process of the temporal bone. • Shape of the muscle: Muscles that have a distinctive shape can be named for that shape. For example, the deltoid muscle has a triangle shape, and deltoid means "triangular." • Action of the muscle: Muscles that have terms like "flexor" or "extensor" in their names are being named for the action that muscle completes. For example, the extensor muscles of the wrist allow the wrist to extend.

Steroid Conditions

Addison's disease- is caused by not producing enough adrenocorticosteroids, especially cortisol and aldosterone. Symptoms include muscle weakness, fatigue, low blood pressure, hypoglycemia, and excessive skin pigmentation. Most causes of Addison's disease are autoimmune, but it can be caused by an infection, cancer, or abnormalities in the hypothalamus and pituitary. Addison's disease is diagnosed with blood tests and imaging and is treated with hormone replacement therapy; if not treated, it can lead to death. Steroids can also be used to treat other conditions. Prednisone, a glucocorticoid, is used in the treatment of inflammation, organ transplant rejection, and immune disorders. While the use of steroids can be beneficial, they also have many side effects, such as bone density loss, weight gain, hair growth, fat deposits, and delayed wound healing. If a patient decides to stop the use of the steroids, they have to be gradually reduced. Otherwise, she may create a severe hormone deficiency. This gradual reduction in steroid use allows for the body to prepare to secrete the correct amount of the natural hormones.

Changes Over Time

After birth, a baby's movements are all gross, uncoordinated movements largely based on reflexes. As the neuromuscular system matures, babies gain the ability to control their muscles better. The development of muscle control proceeds from head to toe, with gross muscular movements occurring before fine muscular movements develop. This direction of muscular control allows for babies to raise their heads before they can sit up or walk. Muscular development also occurs from a proximal to a distal direction. This development direction is how babies can wave and pull up on objects before they can use the pincher grasp to pick up a small object. Throughout childhood, the control of skeletal muscles by the nervous system becomes more precise, allowing humans to reach their peak level of natural muscle development during mid-adolescence. Biologically, men and women have a strength difference based on their amounts of muscle mass. On average, a woman's skeletal muscles make up about 36% of her body mass, where a man's makes up 42% of his body mass. Men have a greater muscle development due to the effects of testosterone, a male hormone which causes more muscle enlargement. Muscle development can be improved with athletic training. Aging Process of the Muscular System- As we age, the amount of connective tissue in the muscle increases due to lipofuscin, an age-related pigment, and fat being deposited in the muscle tissue. As these changes occur, the amount of muscle tissue decreases, causing the muscle fibers to shrink and become stringier. This change is evident as an elderly person's hands become thin and bony. Skeletal muscle makes up so much of the body weight that the natural decline in muscle mass causes the body weight of an elderly person to decline. As the muscle mass decreases, there is also a decrease in muscle strength by about 50% by the time a person reaches 80 years of age. Normal aging changes in the nervous system and muscle tissue mean that muscles are less toned and less able to contract. The speed and amount of these muscle changes are determined by genetics. Look to your parents and grandparents to get an idea of when these changes could begin to occur for you. Most muscle changes begin in the 20s for men and in the 40s for women. Regular exercise can help combat some of these changes. Elderly people who decide to lift weights can rebuild muscle mass and increase their strength. Sarcopenia- People typically begin to lose muscle mass and function in their 30s, which is a condition called age-related sarcopenia, or sarcopenia with aging. Sarcopenia occurs in people who are physically inactive and are losing as much as 3-5% of their muscle mass after the age of 30. There is no accepted test or specific level of muscle mass loss in order to receive a diagnosis of sarcopenia, but any loss of muscle will result in loss of strength and mobility. Symptoms of sarcopenia include weakness and loss of stamina that is interfering with physical activity. Due to the reduction in physical activity, there is a reduction in muscle mass. Sarcopenia is mostly seen in people who are inactive, but it can also occur in people who are physically active. Researchers believe the following factors play a role in the development of sarcopenia: •age-related reduction in nerve cells responsible for sending signals from the brain to the muscles •decrease in the concentrations of hormones •decrease in the body's ability to synthesize proteins •inadequate intake of calories or protein needed to sustain muscle mass The primary treatment for sarcopenia is resistance or strength training. This type of training uses resistance bands or weights. Resistance training may help the neuromuscular system, hormone concentrations, and protein synthesis. Elderly patients show improvement as soon as two weeks into training. Drug therapy is not the preferred treatment for sarcopenia, but there are medications under investigation.

Endochondral Ossification

All bones below the skull form by the process. During the second month of embryo development, the hyaline cartilage creates a model for bone construction. In order for the bone to be created, the cartilage has to first be broken down, starting at the primary ossification center in the shaft of the bone. The blood vessels of the bone cover the hyaline cartilage and change it into periosteum. The cells of the periosteum specialize into osteoblasts in order for ossification to occur. Fetal endochondral ossification occurs with the following steps: 1 -Osteoblasts secrete osteoid on the hyaline cartilage, creating a collar of bone. 2 -Cartilage matrix is calcified and dies, which creates a cavity within the hyaline cartilage model. All other areas of cartilage remain healthy and continue to create the model. 3 -Newly formed cavities are invaded by arteries, veins, nerve fibers, red marrow, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts. New osteoclasts erode the calcified matrix, and osteoblasts secrete osteoid around hyaline cartilage forming the earliest version of spongy bone. 4 -Osteoclasts break down new spongy bone and create the medullary cavity in the diaphysis. From week 9 until birth, the hyaline cartilage model continues to grow, calcifying cartilage and creating bone. 5 -At birth, secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses of bony tissue; cartilage in the center of the bone is calcified, opening up new cavities and leaving bony tissue. When secondary ossification is complete, the bone has been created and cartilage is left only at the epiphyseal surfaces and epiphyseal plates.

the muscular system

All systems of the human body contribute to the homeostasis of the body as a whole. The main function of the muscular system is to contract and relax to create movement, but other characteristics also allow for the muscular system to aid the body in maintaining balance. The muscular system is made of three types of muscle: skeletal smooth cardiac Each type of muscle has a specific function that contributes to survival.

Developmental Aspects of Muscles

All three types of muscle tissue develop from embryonic cells called myoblasts: Myoblasts- produce cardiac and smooth muscle cells by developing gap junctions at a very early stage of embryonic development. Cardiac muscle- can start pumping blood as early as three weeks after fertilization. In order to form skeletal muscle tissue, several myoblasts fuse to form multiunit myotubes. Myotubes contain cell adhesion proteins that guide the process of developing functional sarcomere units. Muscles develop by means of the following steps: 1 -ACh receptors develop over the entire surface of the developing myoblasts. 2 -Spinal nerves invade the muscle mass, and the nerve endings target myoblasts to release a growth factor. 3 -The growth factor activates a muscle kinase that stimulates clustering and maintenance of ACh receptors at the new neuromuscular junctions of each muscle fiber. 4 -Nerve endings release a different chemical that eliminates receptor sites that are not being stabilized by the growth factor. 5 -Electrical activity in the neurons assists with muscle fiber maturation. As the nervous system gains control of muscle fibers, the number of fast and slow contractile fibers is determined. By week 7 of embryonic development, skeletal muscles are able to contract. Specialized skeletal and cardiac cells stop dividing early on, but they can continue to retain the ability to lengthen and thicken in a growing child and can cause hypertrophy in adults. Hypertrophy is the enlargement of tissue. The following lists how different muscle cells repair and renew themselves: •satellite cell: myoblast-like cell associated with skeletal muscle; repairs injured fibers and allows limited regeneration of dead skeletal muscle; process declines with age •cardiac muscle cell: divides at a moderate rate; most cause muscle repairs by developing scar tissue •smooth muscle cell: has regenerative capacity and continues to divide regularly throughout lifespan

Muscular system

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.

Diabetes symptoms

Always hungry , Always thirsty , Unexplained weight loss , Weight gain , Frequent urinations , Numb or tingling feeling in hands or feet , Candida , dizziness , Skin problems , Wounds slowly heal , Sexual problems , extreme fatigue , Tantrum , High blood sugar , High blood pressure , Blurry vision

Organism

An individual living thing

Cortisol and the Stress Response

Another mechanism of homeostatic balance is the stress response mechanism in the endocrine system. Cortisol is secreted from the adrenal cortex in a pattern where the cortisol is the highest just before waking up and decreases as the day goes on. Cortisol levels also peak during times of stress. The body has a set response for any stressor. Physiological stressors include hypothermia, decreased blood volume, or hyperglycemia, and psychological stressors include events like a big test or almost getting into a car accident. When a person is exposed to stressors, the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal cortex are activated. The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine which raise blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate, increase blood glucose, and decrease digestion and other nonessential responses. The pituitary and the hypothalamus signal the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which increases blood glucose and changes the immune response. This response is beneficial because it allows the body to prepare to use energy. If the stress response continues, the body enters a phase where it is balancing between the stress response and homeostatic mechanisms in order to maintain homeostasis. Chronic use of these hormones to maintain balance can cause other problems in the body. Excessive cortisol leads to increased appetite, changes in the immune system, increased heart rate, hypertension, hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia, increased abdominal fat, anxiety, and depression. With these side effects, it is important to maintain levels of stress so the body does not go into continuous use of the stress response mechanism. Increased optimism, better support systems, and lower perceived stress have all been identified with lower cortisol levels.

effector

Applies the response in order to return balance to the stimulated factor.

Skeletal Muscle

Are all of the muscles that attach to and cover the skeleton. Made of large cells that contain striations. Responsible for all body movement; therefore, these muscles are considered voluntary. ex: when a person waves at someone she knows, she does so voluntarily, or on purpose. For these muscles to move, the muscles fibers must contract rapidly. This causes skeletal muscles to get tired easily. They must have time to rest. As the skeletal muscles of the legs contract when running up the stairs, they will soon tire and require rest. Can also move as a response, or a reflex. This happens when a doctor taps a person's knee, and the lower leg moves in response. Can exert extreme power because of the supportive connective tissue that encloses the muscle fibers. When several muscle fibers are bound together, it makes a tough connective tissue layer called epimysium. Epimysium covers the entire muscle. The epimysium blends into the tendons that attach the skeletal muscles to the bones.

Types of muscles diagram

Arm with pink and blue dot straws on each other- Skeletal muscles Intestines with patchy walls with blue dots- Smooth muscle Heart above bended straws with blue dots Cardiac muscle

Muscle Mechanics

Arrangement All skeletal muscles are made of fiber bundles called fascicles. The arrangement of these fascicles allows for different shapes, capabilities, ranges of motion, and amounts of power for each muscle: The circular pattern- occurs when the fascicles are arranged in rings. These muscles surround external openings that close when they contract. These muscles are also called sphincters and can be found around the eyes and mouth. A convergent pattern- is when muscles with a broad origin have fascicles that converge toward a single insertion. This pattern is fan-shaped like the pectoralis major muscle of the chest. The parallel pattern- occurs when the length of the fascicles runs parallel to the long axis of the muscle. This type of arrangement can be found in muscles of the thigh, the midsection, and the biceps brachii of the arm. the pennate pattern- the fascicles are short and attach in a featherlike shape to a central tendon that runs the length of the muscles. Pennate pattern can be unipennate, bipennate, or multipennate, depending on the number of origin points. This arrangement can be found in the leg, thigh, and shoulder. Lever Systems Skeletal muscles move due to leverage. When a force is applied to an object, a lever moves on a fixed point, called the fulcrum. The effort is the applied force used to move a load. The joints of the body are the fulcrums, and the bones are the levers. When a muscle contracts, an effort is applied to the muscle's insertion point on the bone. The load is the bone and all connected tissues that are being moved by the lever. Levers move based on the following principles: •effort farther away than the load is from the fulcrum = lever operates at a mechanical advantage •effort closer to the load than to the fulcrum = lever operates at a mechanical disadvantage A mechanical advantage is a power lever, where a small effort is exerted over a large distance to move a large load over a small distance. ex: Using a jack to lift a car is an example of a mechanical advantage. A mechanical disadvantage is a speed lever that allows a load to be moved rapidly over a large distance with a wide range of motion. ex: Using a shovel is an example of a mechanical disadvantage. There are three classes of levers based on the position of their effort, fulcrum, and load. 1 -first-class levers: effort is applied at one end of the lever, and the load is at the other, with the fulcrum in between. ex: Seesaws, scissors, and lifting the head off the chest. 2 -second-class levers: effort is applied at one end of the lever with the fulcrum on the other end, and load is in between. ex: A wheelbarrow and standing up on the toes 3 -third-class levers: effort is applied between the load and fulcrum. Tweezers and most skeletal muscles act as third-class levers.

Energy for Muscle Contraction

As muscle contractions occur, ATP molecules release the energy needed. Muscles only store a small amount of ATP; therefore, the muscle needs to continuously make ATP in order to have the energy needed to work. In order to create ATP, the cell uses three different pathways: 1 -creatine phosphate production: Creatine phosphate, a high energy molecule found only in muscle fibers, interacts with adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to create more ATP. 2 -anaerobic respiration and lactic acid formation: Anaerobic respiration breaks down glucose without the use of oxygen and captures energy in ATP molecules; lactic acid is formed during this process. Anaerobic respiration only produces a small amount of ATP, but it happens quickly. 3 -aerobic respiration: Glucose is broken down by carbon dioxide and the glycolysis process. As the energy is released, it is captured in ATP molecules; 95% of ATP needed for muscle activity comes from aerobic respiration

Aging of the Integumentary System

As people age, many changes occur in the appearance and functions of the integumentary system. As a child, skin becomes thicker and moist as fat is deposited in the hypodermis. During adolescence, the glands of the skin and hair are more active, which causes acne. As the skin is continually abused by abrasion, chemicals, wind, and sun, the pores become clogged and display aspects of skin inflammation. The optimal appearance of skin and hair often occurs during the 20s and 30s. As a person becomes elderly, the skin changes appearance and becomes less effective in its function. As the amount of skin tissue decreases, an elderly person has less tolerance for cold temperatures. The thinning of the skin also makes it easy to injure and leave bruises on the skin. Decreased elasticity and loss of fat tissue creates bags under the eyes, and jowls begin to sag under the face. Hair loses its shine, and the number of hair follicles starts to decline. The loss of follicles results in thinning of the hair and baldness. Graying of the hair occurs as the amount of melanin in the hair decreases.

affected integumentary system

As the first line of defense, the skin takes a brutal beating as it protects internal organs. While skin seems like a superficial organ, when it is severely damaged it can affect almost all the body systems. affected by: •infections (bacterial, viral, and fungal) •allergies •burns •skin cancer

Bone Growth

As we grow up, epiphyseal plate cartilage changes into bone in order for long bones to grow. Longitudinal growth occurs in a similar process to endochondral ossification. The cartilage from the epiphyseal plate forms long columns of cells that quickly divide and push out the epiphysis and diaphysis to lengthen the bone. Older cells enlarge and erode away to create interconnected spaces. The cartilages surrounding these spaces are calcified to produce the calcification zone. The calcification zone is full of slender pieces of calcified cartilage that become part of the ossification zone. -As osteocytes in this zone erode away the calcified cartilage, osteoblasts create new bone. This process continues until late teen years. By that age, the cells of the epiphyseal plate divide less, and the plate becomes thinner, eventually being replaced by bone tissue. Once the epiphysis and diaphysis fuse, the epiphyseal plate closes, and longitudinal bone growth is complete. This closure occurs in women around 18 years old and 21 years old for men. -While longitudinal growth stops during adolescence, bones can continue to grow in thickness. Appositional growth allows bones to increase their width or diameter. Osteoblasts secrete bone matrix on the external bone surface as osteoclasts remove bone from the diaphysis. The growth occurs faster than the removal; therefore, the bone becomes thicker and stronger but not heavier.

People with asthma have tightened smooth muscle when exposed to certain factors diagram

Asthma: Branch with lumps- Tighten smooth muscle Yellow drip from the end of the lump branch- Mucus Normal: Straight Branch- Relax smooth muscle Blue berries on branch- Alveoli

pelvic girdle (hip)

Attach the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. These bones are also responsible for transferring the weight of the upper body to the lower limbs and supporting the internal organs of the pelvis. Attached to the axial skeleton by the strongest ligaments in the entire body. The structure of the girdle contains a deep cavity that secures the head of the femur in place. The pelvic girdle is formed by the sacrum and a pair of hip bones, known as the coxal bones. Each coxal bone is made of three irregular-shaped bones: •ilium •ischium •pubis -The ilium is the largest bone that forms the SUPERIOR area of the coxal bone. When the hands are placed on the hips, they are resting on the ilium bones. The ilium contains spines, which are attachment points for the muscles of the trunk, hip, and thigh. -The ischium forms the POSTIERIOR section of the hip bone. The L-shaped bone serves as a point of attachment for ligaments and a passageway for nerves and blood vessels that supply the pelvic region. The ligaments of the ischium help hold the pelvis together. -The pubis or pubic bone, forms the ANTERIOR section of the hip. When in the anatomical position, this bone lies horizontal with the urinary bladder resting on top of it. The two bones of the pubis are joined together by fibrocartilage called the pubic arch. The angle of the pubic arch creates the difference in the male and female pelvis.

Lower limb Diagram

Attached to the pelvis- Femur Circle divider- Patella (knee cap) Smaller skinny bone attached to the patella- Fibula Bigger skinny bone attached to the patella- Tibia

Infections

Bacterial infections of the skin occur when bacteria, usually staphylococci (staph) or streptococci (strep), get past the skin's protective measures. Bacterial infections can manifest as lesions located anywhere on the body. Lesion can come in different sizes and shapes, including the following examples: •boil: a staph infection of the hair follicles and sweat glands that displays as a swollen pus-filled bump •cellulitis: a staph infection of the skin that produces red, swollen, and painful areas •impetigo: a staph infection around the mouth and nose that displays as pink, water-filled lesions that crust over and rupture (highly contagious and usually found in children) •Lyme disease: a bacterial infection obtained from a tick bite which manifests as flu-like symptoms that, if left untreated, can lead to problems in the nervous and cardiovascular systems

Intervertebral Disc

Between each vertebra is a cushion-like pad made of collagen fibers and fibrocartilage. Elastic and able to compress like a rubber ball between each vertebra, acting as shock absorbers while walking, running, and jumping. Without these discs, the bones would rub against each other with each step and eventually break down.

Blood Tissue

Blood is considered a connective tissue because it contains different types of blood cells. The function of this tissue is to carry nutrients, waste, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other substances throughout the body.

Cardiovascular system

Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

Cardiovascular system.

Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

Structural neuron classification

Blue balloon on top- Unipolar Blue balloon in the middle- Bipolar Tentacle top balloon- Multipolar

Foot diagram

Bone attached to the foot- Tibia Big hump before the long small bones- Tarsals Attached to the Tarsals- Metatarsals End of the skinny bones- Phalanges

Bone Structure

Bones contain many different types of tissues and, therefore, are at the organ level of organization. All bones contain a dense outside layer of compact bone tissue and an inner layer of spongy bone tissue. Short, irregular, and flat bones contain thin internal layers of spongy bone covered by compact bone. The thin plates of spongy bone are also covered by connective tissue. Since these bones are not cylindrical, they have no long, central section or ends. These bones contain bone marrow, but they do not have a marrow cavity. All long bones are similar in structure with a shaft, bone ends, and membranes. The shaft, or diaphysis, forms the long middle section of the bone. This middle section is made of thick, compact bone tissue surrounding a central bone marrow cavity. The epiphysis are the ends of the bone. The outer layer of the epiphysis is made of compact bone, while the inner layer is made of spongy bone. Between the diaphysis and the epiphysis is the epiphyseal line, or the epiphyseal plate in children. During childhood, the epiphyseal plate is a disc of cartilage that later grows to lengthen the bone. The membranes of long bones are the periosteum and endosteum: Periosteum- a double-layer membrane that covers the EXTERNAL bone surface, except for the joints. The periosteum contains nerve fibers and blood vessels that pass throughout the shaft and provide an anchoring point for tendons and ligaments. Endosteum- INTERNAL bone surfaces are covered by endosteum. The endosteum is a connective tissue membrane that contains cells that can differentiate (or grow into) other bone cells.

Membranes

Combining more than one type of tissue. simple organs that contain epithelial tissue combined with an underlying layer of connective tissue. There are three types of membranes responsible for covering and lining the body: •cutaneous •mucous •serous

Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System

Both divisions of the autonomic nervous system send fibers to the body's organs. The divisions have antagonistic effects on the organs because they release different neurotransmitters. The parasympathetic fibers, (cholinergic fibers) release acetylcholine (ACh), while the sympathetic postganglionic fibers (adrenergic fibers) release norepinephrine. The preganglionic axons of both divisions release ACh. Function of Sympathetic Division- The sympathetic division is referred to as the "fight-or-flight" system. The activity of this division is seen when the body is excited or feels threatened. This division would be at work when walking through a haunted house. Signs that the sympathetic division is at work include: a pounding heart, rapid deep breathing, cold sweaty skin, prickly scalp, and dilated pupils. During these conditions, the sympathetic division will increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels; dilate the bronchioles of the lungs; and overall help the body deal with the stressor causing these changes. ex: if someone were being chased by a dog, the blood vessels of the skeletal system would be dilated, taking blood away from the digestive organs and allowing him to run faster. The sympathetic division also controls the body when it is physically stressed. After running a marathon, the sympathetic division would activate the adrenal glands to remove epinephrine and norepinephrine from the body. The sympathetic division does not have to work for a long time, just as long as is needed to allow the body to cope with a stressor and return to homeostasis. Function of the Parasympathetic Division- The parasympathetic division is active when the body is at rest and not experiencing any threat. This division is concerned with promoting normal digestion, elimination of waste, and conserving body energy. Taking a nap after eating thanksgiving dinner is an example of the parasympathetic division at work. When this division is active, blood pressure, heart, and respiratory rates are being kept at low normal levels. The digestive tract is actively digesting food, and the skin is warm to stop blood from going into skeletal muscles. The pupils are constricted to protect the retina from damaging light, and the lenses of the eyes are preparing for up-close vision. The parasympathetic division is the housekeeping division, activating functions to keep the body in order.

Nervous System vs. Endocrine System

Both the nervous and endocrine systems have an important role in maintaining homeostasis in the body; however, they have different methods of keeping the balance. •The nervous system responds to stimuli by sending electrical action potentials using neurons to transmit the impulse to the target cell. Neurotransmitters- the chemical messengers of the nervous system that help generate quick responses to stimuli. •The endocrine system uses hormones that are transmitted from the glands to their target cells using the bloodstream or extracellular fluid. Once they reach the cell, the hormones act to increase or decrease the response of the target cell. •The use of hormones is a longer process than the neural response. Hormones have to be created in the gland, transported to the cell, and then the cell has to allow the hormone to enter its membrane. Once that occurs, the target cell still has to process the hormone before a response is generated. •The effects of hormones last longer than the effects of nerve impulses. A nerve impulse generates an immediate action that does not need to last for a long period of time, whereas some hormone responses, like growth, act over years.

Brain anatomy

Brain itself- Forebrain Tan inside squiggly- Cerebral cortex Line stairs- Corpus callosum Upper red ketchup- Thalamus Bottom red ketchup- Hypothalamus Under Ketchup- Midbrain Tan above the brown- Pituitary gland Brown stuff- Temporal lobe Yellow- Pons / Hindbrain Green peninsula- Spinal cord / Hindbrain Green flower- Cerebellum / Hindbrain

Digestive system

Breaks down food into smaller molecules. Absorbs these nutrients into the body.

Role of Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart, which makes the function of this muscle important to the homeostasis and survival of an organism. With each contraction of the heart, it pumps blood and oxygen to all the other cells of the body. If the heart stopped working properly, body cells would not have oxygen; carbon dioxide and waste would accumulate in the body; and the body would not be able to survive. When exercising, the nervous system, muscular system, and circulatory system are all working together to maintain homeostasis. The nervous system releases chemicals called epinephrine and norepinephrine, which make the heart contract. The cardiac muscle then contracts faster to pump more blood and oxygen to body cells as the exercise continues. When exercising stops, the nervous system releases ACh to the heart and skeletal muscles. This chemical slows down the contractions of the heart and allows the muscles to return to equilibrium.

Epithelium

Cells covering the body

Complications

Cerebrovascular disease , Coronary heart disease , Diabetic nephropathy , Peripheral nephropathy , Peripheral arterial disease , Diabetic foot

Drive-Reduction

Clark Hull (1884-1952)- developed the drive-reduction theory in the 1940s. The drive-reduction theory is related to the theory of psychoanalysis. It begins with the assumption that a need or deprivation produces a drive to fulfill it. These drives encourage action to meet physiological needs, such as obtaining food to satisfy hunger or yanking a hand away from a hot surface in order to avoid pain. The tendency to maintain a neutral state without deprivations is called homeostasis. Hull believed that once an individual finds a successful response, he will use it again to meet the same need in the future. This repetition will lead to the formation of a habit. Hull argued that all motives—both physiological and social—are the result of habits being conditioned and developed over time. For example, individuals develop a habit of seeking social approval because strong relationships with family and friends help them to meet various needs. Some psychologists criticize Hull's theory because it fails to explain behavior that is not motivated by deprivation. Some activities do not reestablish homeostasis but are inherently pleasurable. Why else would someone go bungee jumping or visit a haunted house?

Classification by Function

Classifying neurotransmitters by function looks at the following effects or actions: •excitatory or inhibitory: Does it cause an effect or not allow an effect to occur? •Amino acids are excitatory. •ACh and norepinephrine are inhibitory. •direct or indirect action: Direct action binds to open channels and causes a rapid response, while indirect action allows for broader longer lasting effects. •ACh and amino acids are direct. •Biogenic amines and neuropeptides are indirect.

Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

Communication between different body systems to maintain homeostasis. Uses the body's systems to collect and carry information in the body. Uses three components to control anything that is out of balance. ex- the nervous system uses electrical signals to collect information and respond to a stimulus, while the endocrine system uses hormones. 1 -receptor 2 -the control center 3 -effector

Stop to Help

Compassion is not just seeing a need; it involves stopping and helping.

Upper Limbs

Contains 30 separate bones of the arms, forearms, and hands. Arm (humerus bone)- the only bone that makes up the arm, and it is the largest bone of the upper limbs. Connects to the scapula at the shoulder and the forearm bones at the elbow. (proximal end)- of the humerus contains the head of the bone that is connected to the scapula in the position that allows the arm to hang freely. (The tubercles)- at this end of the bone are the location of rotator cuff muscle attachment and the attachments of tendons of the biceps muscles found in the arm. Forearm- Contains two parallel bones: the radius and ulna. In the anatomical position, the radius is lateral and the ulna is medial. When the forearm rotates, the radius crosses over the ulna to form an X. The proximal ends of these bones connect with the humerus, while the distal ends form the joint at the wrist. Both the radius and ulna are connected to each other at both the proximal and distal ends by a flexible ligament called the interosseous membrane. (ulna)- longer than the radius and is responsible for forming the joint at the elbow. The processes at the proximal end of the ulna create the hinge joint, which allows the forearm to bend and straighten. (radius)- smaller, thinner bone of the forearm. The radius connects to the bones of the wrist, creating the wrist joint that allows movement of the hand. The radius contains processes and tubercles that function as anchoring points for muscles and ligaments of the forearm. Hand- The hand is made up of the bones of the wrist, palm, and fingers. The carpus, or wrist, is made of eight short bones called carpals. These bones are connected by ligaments that allow for flexible gliding movements. The concave arrangement of these bones forms the carpal tunnel of nerves and tendons. When these tendons become inflamed, it causes tingling, numbness, and pain. People who use keyboards all the time are more susceptible to these symptoms and can develop a condition called carpal tunnel syndrome. The treatment of this condition requires the use of a splint or surgery. (metacarpals)- make up the bones of the palm of the hand. The base of these bones connects to the carpals and the heads connect with the fingers. When making a fist, the knuckles are the heads of the metacarpal bones. The joint found at the first metacarpal bone and the thumb allows for the unique range of motion that humans have with opposable thumbs. (fingers)- are the digits of the upper limbs. Each hand's digits are made of 14 bones called phalanges. Beginning with the thumb, the fingers are numbered 1 to 5.

Types of skeletal cartilage diagram

Dark pink and Raining grey rectangle circles- Hyaline cartilage Butchers meat and Four circle grey river- Fibrocartilage Creepy highlight pink and Grey veiny circles- Elastic cartilage

location of the tissue

Determines its functions.

Diseases of the Pancreas

Diabetes mellitus- or hyperglycemia, is recognized by abnormally high blood glucose levels due to the pancreas secreting less insulin than needed or the body not responding to the insulin being secreted. There are two types of diabetes mellitus: insulin-dependent diabetes (also called type 1 or juvenile diabetes) or noninsulin-dependent diabetes (also called type 2 diabetes). In type 1 diabetes, the immune system destroys the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas; this occurs in people under the age of 30. These patients do not produce enough insulin, so they are always dependent on insulin injections. Type 2 diabetes occurs due to the body having an insensitivity to insulin. This type is usually not diagnosed until a person is over 50, and the patients have other issues like obesity. If the disease is caught in the early stages, it can be treated with a controlled diet, weight loss, and antidiabetic drugs that maintain glucose levels. As the disease progresses, some patients become insulin-dependent. Others may actually have a delayed onset of type 1 diabetes. Diagnosis of diabetes occurs with a blood test and urinalysis. Blood glucose tests are used to detect and confirm the diagnosis and also determine the effectiveness of the treatment. In most cases when sugar is detected in the urine, that is enough to diagnose diabetes. In both types of diabetes, high blood glucose levels have to be controlled. If the blood glucose remains high, the kidneys have to work very hard to get rid of the excessive sugar, which causes kidney damage. This also affects the cell's ability to receive glucose. If insulin is not effective, then the cells cannot get glucose to make energy and have to look to other sources for energy. When diabetes is left untreated, the patient may lose weight as the body searches for the energy it is missing. This leads to acidic body conditions, as the metabolic functions of the body are compromised. With a compromised metabolism, these patients have difficulty with wound healing and suffer permanent damage to the peripheral nervous system. Eventually, if diabetes is not treated properly, it can result in a coma or death. Hypoglycemia occurs when blood glucose levels are too low. This condition is an acute problem for most diabetics and is the primary side effect of insulin therapy. Symptoms include hunger, sweating, dizziness, anxiety, difficulty speaking, and weakness. If hypoglycemia is not treated, it can progress into mental confusion, seizures, coma, and death. Not having enough blood glucose can cause fluid balance problems, where the cells in the brain are not getting enough sugar to produce energy. The body has a defense mechanism to fight against hypoglycemia. When the blood glucose drops too low, the pancreas decreases insulin secretion and increases glucagon. The hypothalamus will signal the adrenal gland, and the adrenal medulla will secrete epinephrine; this will create the feeling of hunger so that patients will eat and increase glucose levels. Repeated issues with hypoglycemia can damage the autonomic nervous system, making it difficult for the body to be aware of and defend against these hypoglycemic episodes. The only way to treat this condition is to quickly get sugar into the bloodstream, usually with soda, juice, or hard candy. If there is a severe hypoglycemic episode, where the levels drop too low, medical intervention is needed.

Pelvic girdle diagram

Dip pelvis- Ilium Pelvis dip outside- Ilium crest Top of the mask- Pubis Bridge of mask- Pubic symphysis Mask bottom- Pubic arch

Fun Fact

Discs flatten throughout the day, making us a few millimeters shorter at night than when we first woke up.

External eye muscles diagram

Downward and outward movement- Superior oblique Upward movement- Superior rectus Outward movement- Lateral rectus Inward movement- Medial rectus Downward movement- Inferior rectus Upward and outward movement- Inferior oblique

Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy

Duchenne's muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an incurable genetic myopathy condition and the most common childhood form of muscular dystrophy. The gene for DMD is carried on the X chromosome and is seen more often in boys. This disease occurs due to a mistake in the gene protein called dystrophin. The function of dystrophin is to hold muscle fibers together during contraction. When this protein is not working properly, it can affect all types of muscles by causing muscle fibers to degenerate. Symptoms of DMD include muscle weakness that gets progressively worse. As the disease progresses, muscles will become weaker, scarred, and filled with fatty tissue until the muscle fibers begin disappearing. DMD can affect all muscle tissues, and death from this condition occurs with either respiratory or cardiac failure. Most children are diagnosed around age four and progress to requiring the use of a wheelchair by age ten. The average life expectancy for children affected with this condition is 17. DMD is diagnosed by a physical examination. Physicians will examine abnormality in a toddler's gait, progressive myopathy, and pseudohypertrophy in the calves. Testing completed includes biochemical tests for muscle enzymes, genetic testing, muscle biopsy, and an electrocardiogram to confirm a diagnosis. An electrocardiogram is a test where a muscle group is stimulated with an electrical impulse that causes the muscle to contract. The strength of the muscle contraction is recorded and analyzed for diagnosis. Treatment of DMD is to manage the symptoms without the use of physical therapy. Experimental treatments are attempting to delay the progression of the disease through the use of steroids, immunosuppressants, gene therapy, stem cells, and nutritional supplements. Other research is being completed to focus on increasing muscle repair.

MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS

Endocrine Organ Hormone Released hypothalamus variety of hormones pineal gland melatonin pituitary gland variety of hormones thyroid thyroxine triiodothyronine calcitonin parathyroid glands parathyroid hormone pancreas insulin glucagon adrenal glands epinephrine norepinephrine adrenocorticosteroids ovaries estrogen progesterone testes testosterone Effect -Hypothalamus- controls pituitary hormone levels -Pineal gland- regulates sleep -Pituitary gland- controls other endocrine organs -Thyroid- controls cellular metabolism decreases blood calcium -Parathyroid glands- increases blood calcium -Pancreas- lowers blood sugar raises blood sugar -Adrenal glands- fight-or-flight response many different effects -Ovaries- controls sexual reproduction and secondary sexual characteristics -Testes- controls secondary sexual characteristics *Aside from the mentioned organs, other organs contain clusters of endocrine cells. ex: there are hormone-producing cells in the small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart.*

Diseases and Conditions of the Endocrine System

Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system. People who have concerns with their endocrine system would see an endocrinologist. Problems with the endocrine system come from an imbalance in hormone levels. Hormone levels that are too high or too low can indicate that there is a problem with the endocrine system. The condition that occurs depends on which glands and hormones are affected. A well-known disorder of the endocrine system is diabetes. Diabetes occurs because the body is not properly processing glucose due to either not having enough of the hormone insulin or having too much insulin. Hormone imbalances in the reproductive hormones are the main cause of reproductive problems in women. If a couple is trying to have a baby, infertility doctors often start with identifying if there are any problems with reproductive hormone levels. Other common endocrine disorders involve the thyroid. Hypothyroidism means there is not enough of the thyroid hormone, which causes many of the body's functions to slow or shut down. Hyperthyroidism means there is too much thyroid hormone, which can cause functions to speed up. The endocrine system plays a major role in homeostasis. As the glands create and secrete hormones, these special messengers are maintaining balance in the entire body.

Fractures

Even if you have never broken a bone yourself, you probably know someone that has. A fracture is any break in a bone, but there are varying types of fractures that can affect a bone: •hairline fracture: does not completely break the bone; looks like a piece of hair on an x-ray •simple fracture: closed fracture that does not break through the skin •spiral fracture: bone is severely twisted •greenstick fracture: incomplete break; occurs more often in children •comminuted fracture: a bone that is crushed into fragments or splinters •compound fracture: open fracture that exposes deep tissue; more likely to become infected can take several weeks to heal and have to be set in the position where the broken ends are touching. If there was not significant misalignment of the bones, then closed reduction can occur. In closed reduction, force is exerted on the bones to bring them into alignment. If the fracture is more severe, surgery, or open reduction, has to occur. During open reduction, pins, screws, or plates are used to fix the bone in place. Traction may be used to treat fractures of long bones. Traction uses heavy weights to put a pulling force on the bones and hold them in place to allow them to heal. After both types of reduction, a cast is placed to keep the alignment in place and immobilize the bone.

Types of Body Movements

Everything we have discussed about the muscular system is all for the action of movement. To accomplish movement, muscles are attached to bones at two or more points. The origin is the point of attachment that is immovable, and the insertion is the point of attachment to the movable bone. In order for muscles to move, the muscles contract, and the insertion point moves toward the origin point. The mobility of the joint and the location of the muscle will determine the type of movement. The most common types of movement will be described in the following section. As you read, try to move your body in the same direction. •flexion: This movement brings two bones closer together. It typically occurs in hinge joints of the knee or elbow, but it can also occur when ball-and-socket joints bend forward. •extension: This opposite motion of flexion increases the angle between two bones or parts of the body. Straightening of the knee or elbow are examples of extension. When extension goes past 180°, it is called hyperextension. •rotation: This is the movement of a bone around an axis; this movement is common in ball-and-socket joints like the shoulder. •abduction: This is the movement of a limb away from the midline of the body, this occurs when moving arms out or moving fingers and toes apart from each other. •adduction: This is the movement of a limb toward the midline, this is the opposite of abduction. •circumduction: This motion combines flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction. During circumduction, the proximal end of the limb does not move, and the distal end moves in a circle. This motion is commonly seen in ball-and-socket joints like the shoulder.

phsiology

Examine the individual cells of the body and how these functions contribute to the function of the body as a whole.

Lesson 2

Experimental design

Clinical trials

Experimental investigations where patients volunteer to participate in studies to test the efficacy and safety of new medical treatments. Can also compare a new treatment to previously used treatments to identify alternatives in medical intervention.

Neruophysiology

Explains the functions of the nervous system, while cardiovascular physiology examines the workings of the heart and blood vessels.

Different types of neuroglia diagram

Green eyeball grabbing a stick- Oligodendrocytes Blue outward veiny eyeball- Microglia Grey outward veiny eyeball holding onto a red cylinder- Astrocytes Yellow french fries with green eye in the middle- Ependymal cells Yellow rectangle blobs on a dark ugly gold stick- Schwann cells

Muscle contraction diagram

Green squiggles- Z Middle vertical lines- H Between middle vertical lines- M

Thoracic cage

Green- Ribs Blue- Sternum

Lobe diagram

Green- Temporal Orange- Parietal Pink- Occupational Blue- Frontal

Growth and Reproduction

Growth- The process of increasing the number of cells in order to increase in size. In order to grow, the number of cells being made needs to outpace the number of cells being destroyed. Cellular reproduction- The growth of two cells from the division of one cell. These cells can then contribute to body growth and repair.

Smooth Muscle

Has no striations, contains a single nucleus, and is spindle-shaped (pointed at the ends). Can be found in hollow organs, such as the stomach, bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. Is involuntary and contracts and relaxes to move substances through the organs. Contractions are slower than the contractions of other muscle types.

Immune and lymphatic systems

Helps protect the body from disease; collects fluid lost from blood vessels and returns it to the circulatory system

Ethnicity

Heritage or cultural group

Animal Cell diagram / Eukaryotic cell

Holds yellow like an egg- Nucleus WI-FI symbol- Golgi apparatus Green celery- Centriole Orange and brown oval squiggles- Mitochondria Orange circle- Lysosome Yellow fireflies- Ribosomes Brownish WI-FI symbol- Rough endoplasmic reticulum Dark blue outside- Cytoplasm Light blue outer outside- Membrane White circle- Peroxisome

Humoral Stimulus

Hormone release caused by a change in levels of specific ions or nutrients Stimulus- Low concentration of Ca^2+ in capillary blood Response- Parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood Ca^2+

Neural stimulus

Hormone release caused by neural input Stimulus- Action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla Response- Adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine

Chemistry of Hormones

Hormones are described as chemical substances secreted into the extracellular fluid that regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body. Hormones are classified as either amino acid-based molecules or steroids. •Amino acid-based hormones make up most of the hormones in the body; these vary in size from simple amino acids to peptides to proteins. •Steroid-based hormones are made from cholesterol; only the sex hormones and hormones from the adrenal cortex are steroid hormones.

Hormones

Hormones are needed for the body to grow and go through puberty, be able to reproduce, and keep a person protected from diseases. Hormones are the chemical messengers of the endocrine system controlling many important functions of the body. As hormones are released from the endocrine organs, they are responsible for the following functions: •reproduction •growth and development •maintenance of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance in the blood •regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance •mobilization of body defenses

Mechanism of Hormone Action

Hormones have specific cells or organs they interact with called the target cells or target organs. Target cells have specific protein receptors on their plasma membrane that allow the hormone to identify the target and attach to the cell. Once the hormone attaches to the cell, it will either increase or decrease the rate of metabolic processes. Different hormones have different target cells and create different responses. In general, one of the following processes will occur after the hormone binds to the target cell: 1 -change in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state 2 -creation of proteins 3 -activation or deactivation of enzymes (special proteins that speed up reactions in the cell) 4 -beginning of cell mitosis. although there are several different hormones in the body, each type of hormone, amino acid or steroid, generates its own type of response. Steroid Hormone Mechanism: Steroid hormones use the following steps to maintain homeostasis: 1 -Steroids pass through the plasma membrane of the cell and into the nucleus. 2 -They then bind to the intended receptor proteins. 3 -The receptor proteins then bind to certain areas on the cell's DNA. 4 -This activates genes to make messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA). 5 -Messenger RNA is translated by the ribosomes in the cell, and new proteins are made. Amino Acid Hormone Mechanism: Proteins and peptide hormones cannot enter the target cell directly. Instead, they perform the following steps: 1 -The amino acid hormone binds to the plasma membrane receptor outside the cell. 2 -This causes specific enzymes to be activated. 3 -The enzyme catalyzes a reaction that creates a different messenger chemical. 4 -The target cell then does what the hormone "tells" it to accomplish.

Interaction of Hormones

Hormones interact based on three characteristics: permissiveness, synergism, and antagonism. •Permissiveness occurs when one hormone cannot exert its full effects without another hormone being present. This occurs in the reproductive system hormones as they control development of the system. The reproductive system needs thyroid hormone for timely development of reproductive structures. •Synergism occurs when more than one hormone produces the same effect at a target cell and increases the effects when combined. ex: glucagon from the pancreas and epinephrine from adrenal glands both cause the liver to release glucose in the blood. When they act together, it increases the amount of glucose released into the blood. •Antagonism occurs when one hormone acts opposite to the action of another hormone. Insulin is responsible for lowering blood glucose levels, but glucagon is responsible for raising blood glucose levels. These hormones may compete for the same receptors, use different metabolic pathways, or cause down regulation of the receptors of the other hormones.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Humanist psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) theorized that all needs—whether instinctual, social, or otherwise—are related to a basic set of needs that people naturally work to satisfy. However, Maslow believed that some needs are more essential than others. Unless these basic needs are satisfied, individuals cannot be free to work toward the higher needs. He represented these needs in a pyramid to show his hierarchy of needs theory.

hunger or appetite

Hunger and thirst are stimulated by genuine needs for water and energy. Appetite, however, prefers some tastes over others and can be triggered by sights, sounds, and even thoughts. Babies are born with a hunger for food, but they quickly develop appetites for sweets and fats that appeal to their tastes. Unfortunately, the more individuals cater to their appetites, the stronger their appetites become. The same principle applies to the needs and wants of living. In almost any area, including sleep, clothing, toys, cars, and entertainment, people easily develop appetites for much more than they need. Extravagance is spending to satisfy appetite. Thriftiness is living according to genuine need.

theories or hypothesis

Hypo- a possible explanation for an observation. Has a limited set of data. Specific to a particular observation. Can become part of a theory after extensive testing, continuous support, and evidence confirming the hypothesis. Can be true or false. Theo- a well-substantiated explanation for one or more proven hypotheses. Wide set of data obtained from many years of testing for a theory. The establishment of a general principle that can apply to various circumstances. Are accepted as true. However, a theory, or part of a theory, can become false as more testing is done or technology improves.

Diseases of the Pituitary Gland

Hypopituitarism is a decrease in pituitary function. This can result from tumors, surgery, radiation, or a head trauma. Luteinizing hormone and growth hormones are the main hormones affected by hypopituitarism. Due to the variety of hormones that could be affected, a variety of symptoms can be present, making it difficult to diagnose this condition. Treatment of hypopituitarism always requires hormone replacement therapy. If there is a tumor, the tumor will be removed. Hyperpituitarism is the production of too much pituitary hormone. This is usually caused by benign, noncancerous tumors in the pituitary glands. Symptoms include reproductive problems, cardiac dysfunction, and sleep apnea. Acromegaly, the overgrowth of certain body parts, is another symptom of hyperpituitarism. This condition is also difficult to diagnose due to the varying symptoms. Hormone level detection and imaging is used in the diagnosis. Decreasing the size and removing the tumor is the most effective treatment. Cushing's syndrome- is also caused by hyperpituitarism. This syndrome is caused by the over-secretion of cortisol by the adrenal glands. Cushing's can occur as a side effect of medical steroid use, can come from pituitary or adrenal tumors, or can occur as a result of a genetic disorder. People with Cushing's syndrome may have upper body obesity, be easily bruised, or have weakened bones, fatigue, and depression. Women may have irregular periods and excess facial hair. In men, there is decreased fertility and sex drive. Diagnosis of Cushing's can be complicated and requires the use of MRI, monitoring blood cortisol levels, clinical patient profiles, 24-hour urine cortisol testing, genetic testing, pituitary sampling, and various other metabolic tests. Treatment depends on the origin of the disorder. Cushing's usually results from a pituitary tumor that is producing high levels of ACTH, which causes too much cortisol to be released. There are no drug therapy treatments for classic Cushing's syndrome. The tumor has to be removed, and hormone replacement therapy has to be used. Other cases of Cushing's syndrome may require surgery but can usually be managed with drug therapy to decrease the cortisol secretion. Stature disorders (growth)- are disorders that result in below average height (dwarfism) or above normal height (gigantism). Some of these conditions occur due to problems with the skeletal system or nutritional deficiencies, but growth hormone can also have an effect. If growth hormone secretion is deficient during childhood, the child will not grow to standard adult height. If this is diagnosed before the growth plates have closed, growth hormone injections can be given, and the child can reach normal adult height. If too much growth hormone is secreted during childhood, children will get extremely tall and develop gigantism, which causes many health problems. In these conditions, the body gets too big to be able to support itself. If the over-secretion of growth hormone occurs in adults, it causes the condition acromegaly. With this condition, there is excessive growth of body tissue, causing the bones to become deformed and the organs to malfunction. This condition is painful and often crippling. Treatment for both gigantism and acromegaly includes surgery, radiation, and drug therapies.

Diseases of the Thyroid Gland

Hypothyroidism- Hypothyroidism occurs when not enough thyroid hormone is produced. This condition can be the result of decreased production of hypothalamic, pituitary, or thyroid hormones. Symptoms of this condition include fatigue, feeling cold, dry skin, easily broken or thinning hair, constipation, leg cramps, muscle pain, weight gain, forgetfulness, and depression. The most common case of hypothyroidism is a condition called Hashimoto's thyroiditis. This condition is caused by an autoimmune attack on the thyroid gland. For unknown reasons, the immune system attacks the thyroid, damaging it. This results in decreased production of thyroid hormones. Other symptoms include swelling, pain, and difficulty swallowing. Hashimoto's is diagnosed by blood tests that identify high TSH levels and low T4 levels. This condition occurs mostly in women between ages 30 to 50 and is treated with daily doses of synthetic hormones. Hyperthyroidism- Hyperthyroidism is the overproduction of thyroid hormone. Symptoms of hyperthyroidism include feeling hot, muscle tremors, bulging eyes, muscle weakness, cardiac arrhythmia, diarrhea, infertility, anxiety, and irritability. People with this condition often eat large amounts of food and lose rather than gain weight. Graves' disease- is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism. This condition is an autoimmune disorder. The immune system attacks TSH receptors, keeping TSH from reaching the thyroid. To accommodate for this attack, the thyroid overproduces thyroid hormones. Acute Graves' disease can result in a fatal form of hyperthyroidism called a thyroid storm. Diagnosis of Graves' disease occurs with blood tests that show low TSH and high T4 levels, as well as increased levels of radioactive iodine uptake by the thyroid. Treatment of Graves' disease includes antithyroid medications to decrease thyroid activity, beta blockers to decrease activity of norepinephrine and epinephrine, treatment with radioactive iodine to kill thyroid cells, and removal of the thyroid gland. If the thyroid gland is removed, daily doses of thyroid hormones have to be taken. Graves' disease is most common in women of childbearing age. A goiter is the enlargement of the thyroid gland from either hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism. Goiters occur due to a lack of dietary intake of iodine. If a goiter develops, it interferes with swallowing and breathing, and it can create a tightness in the throat. Medication or radioactive iodine treatment can shrink a goiter, or it can be surgically removed. Parathyroid glands are embedded into the thyroid hormone. Damage to these glands can occur during surgery or radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism, causing a decrease in parathyroid hormone. Hypoparathyroidism leads to decreased calcium levels in the blood, which leads to interference with nerve function causing a condition called tetany. Tetany causes muscle spasms, cramps, or seizures. Tetany is treated by increasing the amount of calcium and vitamin D in the diet or through supplements.

Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Debt

If we exercise our muscles too much and too long, then we can develop muscle fatigue. Muscle fatigue- occurs when a muscle is stimulated but is unable to contract. This is the result of continuous exercise with no rest and not getting enough oxygen to muscle cells, which is called Oxygen debt- When participating in strenuous exercise, the body is not able to take in enough oxygen for the amount of work the muscles are doing. When the muscles are not receiving enough oxygen, lactic acid starts to develop as a part of the anaerobic glycolysis process. As this continues, there is also a reduction in the amount of APT. ATP- which means the muscle contracts less and eventually will stop contracting completely. After exercising, the body starts to breathe faster and take deeper breaths to gather more oxygen until the extra lactic acid is removed and more ATP is made. Complete muscle fatigue- does not usually happen because the body tires before the muscles stop contracting. True muscle fatigue can occur in marathon runners, however, where they completely collapse as they cross the finish line, because their muscles can no longer work.

Hemispheres

If you examine a brain from the back, top, or front, there is an obvious division between the right and left sides of the cerebral cortex. This division is not merely ornamental, but factors into how the brain functions. While much has been made about "right brain" and "left brain" abilities, the two hemispheres complement one another. controls the opposite half of the body. By sending signals to one another across the corpus callosum, the two hemispheres are able to coordinate their work. ex- If you tap a table with fingers on your left hand, the command originates in the right hemisphere. Likewise, the left hemisphere must send a signal if you wish to kick a ball with your right foot.

Smooth muscle structure diagram

In connected long tan balls- Vesicles with neurotransmitters Tan balls- Varicosity Tan balls connector- Autonomic Orange peeled carrot blue dots- Smooth muscle cells

Basic Principles of Electricity

In general, the human body is neutral, which means it has the same number of positive and negative charges. If a region has more positive ions, then it is positively charged. If it has more negative ions, then it is negatively charged. Opposite charges attract and create energy; therefore, the body has to work hard to separate these charges. These areas of separation create stored potential energy. The measure of potential energy is the amount of voltage (V). Voltage is always measured between two points. The potential energy is the difference in voltage between the two points. The greater the difference in charge, the higher the voltage will be. The flow of electrical charge is the current (I). Any blockage to the flow is called resistance (R). Substances that have a high resistance are insulators, and substances with a low resistance are conductors. Ohm's law shows the relationship between these principles. The equation for Ohm's law is written out like this: current (I) = voltage (V)/resistance (R) Ohm's law also states: •Current is directly proportional to voltage: the greater the voltage, the greater the current. •There is no current flow between points that have the same potential. •Current is inversely related to resistance: the greater the resistance, the smaller the current. In the human body, electrical currents are the flow of ions across cellular plasma membranes. Remember, an ion is an element or compound with a positive or negative charge. When there is a difference in positive and negative ions on the sides of the plasma membrane, a potential is generated. The structure of the plasma membrane provides the resistance to current flow.

Special Characteristics of Muscle Tissue

In order for muscle tissue to perform its duties properly, it has to have four special characteristics: •responsiveness or excitability •contractility •extensibility •elasticity Responsiveness- the ability to receive and respond to a stimulus. Muscles are stimulated by chemicals and must then generate the response. The response is an electrical impulse that travels through the cell membrane of the muscle cell, allowing it to contract. Contractility- the muscle's ability to shorten, or contract, when stimulated. Muscle tissue is the only tissue type that has this function. Extensibility- the ability to extend, or stretch. After a muscle cell contracts, extensibility allows it to stretch back out when the muscle is relaxed. Elasticity- the ability of the muscle cell to recoil and go back to its normal resting length after contraction.

Target Cell Specificity

In order for the target cell to respond, specific receptor proteins must be present on the plasma membrane or in the interior for the hormone to bind. As the hormone binds, the cell reacts by turning on a preprogrammed function. While binding to the target cell is an important first step, the following factors also play an important role: •blood levels of the hormone •number of receptors for the hormone on the target cells •strength of the bond between the hormone and the receptor The blood level of a hormone is how much hormone is in the blood. Depending on the blood levels, if there are a high number of receptors there will be a hormonal effect, but if there is a low number of receptors, the target cell is not able to respond. This causes dysfunction in the endocrine system. If there are consistently low levels of a hormone, the target cells form more receptors for that hormone. This process is called upregulation. If there is a high concentration of the hormone, it can decrease the number of receptors, causing downregulation. Downregulation desensitizes the target cells, and they are not able to respond to hormonal stimulation.

Contraction of Smooth Muscle

In smooth muscle fibers, the whole muscle sheet responds to a stimulus in order to exhibit slow, synchronized contraction. Calcium is important for the contraction of muscles. Calcium activates enzymes, which help speed up reactions. The enzymes transfer phosphate to myosin. This activates myosin to form cross bridges with actin of the thin filaments. This causes the muscles to start to shorten. In order to stop a smooth muscle contraction, the following actions will occur: •Calcium is actively transported into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and extracellular fluid. •An enzyme will remove phosphates from the myosin.

functions of connective tissue

Include protection, support, and binding together other tissues.

Synapse

Information travels from neuron to neuron through the synapse. The synapse is the junction between the axon endings of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron. The neuron that is sending the impulse to the synapse is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron taking the signal away is the postsynaptic neuron. There are two types of synapses: electrical synapses and chemical synapses. Electrical Synapse- Electrical synapses have gap junctions between certain body cells that contain protein channels connecting local neurons. The protein channels allow ions and small molecules to flow directly from one neuron to the next. In electrical synapses, messages transmit quickly. In adults, electrical synapses are found in regions of the brain responsible for the sudden movements of the eyes, as well as emotions and memory. Electrical synapses are more common in embryonic nervous tissue, where they are active during early fetal development. As the nervous system develops, chemical synapses replace electrical synapses. Chemical Synapse- Chemical synapses allow the flow of ions between neurons due to neurotransmitters. A chemical synapse is made of two parts: •synaptic vesicles: membrane-bound sacs that contain neurotransmitter molecules •neurotransmitter receptor: region located on a dendrite or cell body In chemical synapses, the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes are always separated by a synaptic cleft. The transmission of a nerve impulse is an electrical event until it reaches the chemical synapses. At the chemical synapses, the electrical signals release neurotransmitters that travel across the synapses to the postsynaptic cells. Once they reach the postsynaptic cells, the impulses are converted back into electrical signals. The neural transmission across a chemical synapse slows the impulse. This delay is the reason why pathways with two or three neurons occur rapidly, but multi-synaptic pathways occur at a slower pace.

Diseases of the Eye

Injuries to the eye often involve exposure to chemicals, physical trauma, or the insertion of a foreign object. If a chemical gets in the eye, redness, swelling, and pain usually occur. The treatment is to flush the eye using water or saline. If physical trauma occurs, it can cause retinal detachment, which means the retina separates from the back of the eye. This can cause blurred vision or complete loss of sight. If a foreign object is inserted, like sand or broken glass, there can be corneal abrasions or eye puncture. These injuries require immediate medical attention. The foreign object should not be removed, as this could cause further damage. Styes: A stye is an infection of a sebaceous gland at the base of an eyelash. The infection forms a lump that looks like a pimple at the location of the infection. A stye is usually a bacterial infection that causes a red, swollen, and painful eye. It is treated by applying warm compresses that help the discomfort and burst the stye. Conjunctivitis: Conjunctivitis is an infection of the conjunctiva that causes red, swollen eyes. Conjunctivitis is often called pinkeye and can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or environmental irritants. Pinkeye is highly contagious and can be treated with antibiotics. Cataracts: Some older people develop cataracts. A cataract happens when the eye lens loses its flexibility and becomes cloudy. When a cataract develops, light no longer easily passes through. Aging, trauma, increased sunlight exposure, and congenital (born with) defects can lead to cataracts. However, the exact cause is not known. If left untreated, cataracts can lead to blindness, but there is a surgery that can correct this condition. Glaucoma: Glaucoma is caused by increased pressure in the eye's fluids. The increased pressure interferes with the optic nerve. Glaucoma can cause blindness. T he increased pressure comes from too much fluid and not enough drainage. Glaucoma typically begins with a halo around light sources. Next, peripheral vision suffers and eventually leads to tunnel vision and finally blindness. Glaucoma occurs in adults over age 40 and is a leading cause of blindness in America (CDC, 2015). Glaucoma is easily diagnosed and treated with medication and surgery. When the eye doctor checks the eye pressure, he is monitoring for the development of glaucoma. Farsightedness: There are several defects that impair vision. Hyperopia, or farsightedness, happens when the eye cannot focus on nearby objects. This condition occurs when the eye is too short, and the focal point is behind the retina. Convex lenses in glasses or contacts are used to correct hyperopia by allowing the focal point of the retina to be moved forward. Presbyopia is farsightedness that occurs with age. In this case, the lenses become stiff and yellow colored, which makes it difficult for older adults to focus. The eyes also become more sensitive to glare. Bifocal lenses are used to treat presbyopia. Bifocal lenses have two points of focus, the top part for distant vision and a lower part for near vision. Nearsightedness: Myopia, or nearsightedness, occurs when distant objects look blurry. In this condition, the eye is too long, and the focal point of the lens is in front of the retina. Concave lenses in eyeglasses or contacts are used to refocus the focal point back onto the retina. Students who have trouble seeing the board from the back of the classroom may suffer from myopia. Astigmatism: Astigmatism occurs due to the cornea having an oblong or football shape. This condition is usually hereditary but can occur due to an eye injury. Symptoms include blurred vision, eye strain, and headaches. An eye exam is used to confirm the shape of the cornea, but it can be treated with glasses or contact lenses.

pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle)

Is made up of the clavicles and the scapulae. Attaches the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and provides attachment points for muscles that allow the upper limbs to move. This girdle has the largest range of motion due to the structure of how the bones are connected to the axial skeleton. Clavicles (collarbones)- Slender, S-shaped bones that extend horizontally across the superior portion of the thorax. An anchor point for muscles and a brace for the shoulder and arms when they are held out laterally. Weak bones that are easy to fracture in situations such as stretching out the arm to break a fall when riding a skateboard. If there is a fracture, the clavicle is structured to break outward as a way to avoid damage to the major artery in that area. Scapulae (shoulder blades)- Thin, triangular, flat bones commonly called the shoulder blades. Made of three borders that connect with the humerus bone of the arm to form the shoulder joint. Projections and processes of the scapulae allow for muscle attachments and a passageway for the nerves of the arms.

Impaired Joints

Joint stability is maintained by the muscles, ligaments, and bones that make up the joint. The tone of the muscular group surrounding the joint is the most important factor in the stability of that joint. When the groups of muscles at a joint are not capable of functioning, the motion of a joint is unstable and limited. Most muscular movement disorders are neurological, meaning the nerve signals that allow for movement are not functioning properly and cause involuntary movements. Structural damage that limits motion of the joint occurs within the ligaments. Ligaments are important in preventing extra movements outside of the range of motion. Once ligaments are stretched, they can stay elongated and lose their ability to control the motion of the joint. In general, bones do not have a major role in the stability of a joint, except in the hip and ankle where a firm connection is needed. Over time, elements of the joint can start to deteriorate from normal usage. The cartilage can wear down, and the synovial fluid can begin to dry up. Once these changes occur, the protective structures are eliminated, which results in pain in the joint. Some joints can start to change shape and become stiff, swollen, and painful. These changes, called arthritis, are the most common type of joint ailment. Arthritis usually affects the spine, knees, hips, hands, and sometimes shoulders. Rheumatoid arthritis is the second most common ailment of the joints. This reaction is an autoimmune disorder, where the immune system attacks its own joint tissues. It usually involves fingers, wrists, elbows, knees, ankles, and toes. Joints can also be injured due to a work or sports injury. Over usage of a joint, like the ball-and-socket joint of the shoulder being used by a baseball pitcher or quarterback, can lead to ligament damage, as well as cause premature deterioration of the joint. Treatment of joint problems all depends on the cause. Sports injuries usually require ice to reduce swelling and rest to speed up the healing process, followed by rehabilitation. Arthritis and other joint diseases require the use of anti-inflammatory medication, rest, rehabilitation, and sometimes surgery.

sympathetic nervous systems diagram

Just a see through body showing the Parasympathetic diagram.

Preventions

Keep normal body weight , Healthful diet , Sweet food control , Exercise , No smoking

Cartilage Tissue

Less hard and more flexible than bone. They can be found in many areas of the body. -Hyaline cartilage- Most abundant type of cartilage and is found supporting the larynx, connecting the ribs and breastbone, and covering the ends of joints. -Fibrocartilage- Forms a disk that acts as a cushion between vertebrae, and elastic cartilage is found anywhere elasticity is needed, like the ears.

Types of connective tissue diagram

Light purple grapes- Adipose tissue (loose connective tissue) •Big light purple olive base in the grapes- Fat droplets •Small light purple olive top in the grapes- Cell nucleus Pink dove symbol- Dense connective tissue (forming a ligament) •Dove lines- Collagen fibers •purple circles- Cell nucleus Yellow and purple circle- Cartilage (the end of bone) •Light purple/ Dark ovals- cell •Yellow bone pee- Matrix Outside ramen bowl- Compact bone (connective tissue) •Inside ramen bowl- Matrix •Ramen- Cell •Inside ramen- Central canal Cereal bowl- Blood (connective tissue) •Milk- Plasma •Red fruit loop- Red blood cells •White coco puffs- White blood cells Lightning bolts- Loose connective tissue (under the skin) •Orange bolt- Collagen fiber •Purple pellet- Cell •Purple bolt- Other fibers

Types of bones diagram-

Long bones with ankles (ball) from top to bottom- Long bones Seashell- Short bones Splatoon octopus- Irregular bones Half finished pottery- Flat bones

Smooth muscle contraction diagram

Long pink bread- Relaxed Skin of long pink bread- Intermediate filaments Balls on hot-pink rope on long pink bread- Dense bodies Green oval on pink bread- Nucleus Squished pink bread- Contracted Line butter on the squished pink bread- Thick filament Hot-pink rope on squished pink bread- Thin filament

Clarify Your Response:

Look for lasting solutions instead of quick fixes.

Bone Tissue

Made of bone cells surrounded by a hard matrix of calcium and collagen fibers. These layers within bone tissue allow for its hardness and allow it to protect and support the entire body.

cutaneous membrane

Made of stratified squamous epithelium, which is the epidermis, or top layer of skin. This is attached to a thick layer of connective tissue, the dermis. Because this membrane is exposed to the air, it is a dry membrane.

Nervous Tissue

Made up of the cells of the nervous system, called neurons. The function of neurons is to receive and send electrochemical impulses across the body. The structure of neurons is unique in that they have a single central nucleus with long extensions, called dendrites. -Dendrites- Can send impulses long distances across the body. -Supporting cells- Provide insulation and protection to neurons as they send these electrical messages.

Bone tissue

Makes up an active organ of the human body, growing and changing continuously over a lifetime. Every week, the body recycles bone mass. Spongy bone is replaced every three to four years, and compact bone is replaced every ten years. These changes occur in order to stop the bones from becoming brittle and easy to fracture.

Reproduction system

Male- Produces sperm which combines with the egg cell of the female reproductive system. Female- responsible for carrying and developing the fetus in her uterus. Reproductive process- Controlled by hormones of the endocrine system. It could be said that growth and reproduction are the most important life functions, because without them there would not be any new life to carry on.

Serous membranes

Membranes found mostly in the ventral body cavities. These membranes are made of simple squamous epithelium on a thin layer of loose connective tissue. Cells from the epithelium create serous fluid that lubricates the layers so that they are able to slide across each other. named based on the organ they are located in. For example, pleura lines the thoracic wall and covers the lungs, pericardium is around the heart, and peritoneum is around the abdominopelvic region.

Metabolism

Metabolic processes include breaking down complex substances into simple substances and using the nutrients and oxygen for energy in cells. The endocrine system supports metabolism by using hormones to regulate the metabolic processes.

Strains

Mild strain- no tear of muscle fibers / mild pain and stiffness Moderate strain- some tearing of muscle fibers / bruising and weakness Severe strain- complete muscle tear / severe pain, swelling, extensive bruising, and complete loss of movement

receptor

Monitors the environment and senses a stimulus. send information to the control center. The control center recognizes the stimulus and determines what response is needed to maintain control.

Technology

Most endocrine conditions do not require extensive medical interventions. The common use of hormone replacement therapy has been valuable in treating many endocrine conditions, along with digital imaging, surgery, or chemotherapy if a tumor is suspected. Radioactive iodine is used to treat cancer of endocrine organs, specifically the thyroid gland. The radioactive iodine is taken in liquid or capsule forms, where the thyroid cells can take up the iodine without having an effect on the rest of the body. This treatment is used after surgery to destroy any thyroid tissue left and to treat thyroid cancer that has spread to lymph nodes and other parts of the body. Radioactive iodine therapy has become common treatment for cancers that have metastasized, but it is not beneficial for cancers that can be removed with surgery. Adrenal vein sampling (AVS) is a procedure used to collect blood samples from the adrenal glands. The purpose of this minimally invasive procedure is to determine how active the adrenal glands are and if one gland is more active than the other. In this procedure, a catheter is inserted into a vein in the groin and pushed through into the main blood vessels of the abdomen. X-ray dye is injected to help identify the adrenal vein, and the catheter is used to collect blood samples. AVS is beneficial because it allows physicians to collect information about the presence of disease in the glands, examine glands that can be difficult to examine with imaging, and determine if surgery is needed. Potential risks include damage to blood vessels and infection.

Reflex Activity

Most of the body's systems are controlled by reflexes. Reflexes are rapid, involuntary responses to a stimulus. Reflexes are either inborn or learned. Inborn reflexes are rapid, predictable motor responses to a stimulus. These responses occur without having to think about the action. An example of inborn reflexes would be pulling a hand back after touching hot water. The reflexes respond without needing to recognize the pain or use the brain to receive and send a message. Visceral organs are also controlled by inborn reflexes coming from the brain and spinal cord. Learned or acquired reflexes come from practice and repetition. For example, once someone learns how to ride a bike, the actions to do so become reflexes. Reflexes are classified by their function. Somatic reflexes activate skeletal muscles, and autonomic reflexes activate visceral effectors (smooth or cardiac muscles or glands). Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs. All reflex arcs have the following five components: 1 -receptor: site of the stimulus action 2 -sensory neuron: transmits impulses to the CNS 3 -integration center: single synapse between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron or multiple synapses with chains of interneurons; located in the CNS 4 -motor neuron: transmits impulses from the integration center to an effector organ 5 -effector: muscle fiber or gland cell that responds to the efferent impulses The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex is an example of a two-neuron reflex arc. The knee-jerk reflex occurs when there is a sharp tap on the tendon just under the kneecap. The sensory neuron sends an impulse to the motor neuron that causes the thigh muscle to stretch and the leg to kick. This reflex is the most familiar reflex that is tested by a doctor to determine the general condition of the motor portion of the nervous system. The flexor (withdrawal) reflex is a three-neuron reflex arc. This reflex causes quick withdrawal of a body part in response to a painful stimulus. This would occur when someone touches a hot stove or puts his hand under hot water. This reflex arc has five elements: receptor, afferent neuron, association neuron, efferent neuron, and effector. Within this reflex arc, there are multiple synapses that are slowed as the neurotransmitters go through the synaptic cleft. The more synapses, the longer the reflex takes to happen. Spinal reflexes involve only neurons from the spinal cord and occur without brain involvement. As long as the spinal cord is working, then spinal reflexes like the flexor reflex will work. There are some reflexes that require the use of the brain to determine the correct response the body should have. When the pupil of the eye is exposed to light, for example, it has to use the brain to generate the proper response. Reflexes are used to monitor motor neuron activity, and dysfunction in the reflexes can help a doctor identify other disorders.

The Eye and Vision

Most of the sensory receptors in the body are in the eye. The optic tracts carry information from the eyes to the brain in massive bundles that contain over a million nerve fibers. Vision is the sense that requires the most learning, following the expression, "you see what you expect to see." Anatomy of the Eye- The adult eye is about one inch in diameter. We only see the anterior (outer) eye surface. The rest of the eye is enclosed and protected by other materials. There are also parts on the outside of the eye called external accessory structures. External Accessory Structures- The eyelids provide anterior protection for the eyes. The border of each eyelid contains eyelashes that also provide an extra layer of protection. Along the eyelid edges are modified sebaceous glands called Meibomian glands. These glands secrete an oily solution that lubricates the eye. Ciliary glands, which are modified sweat glands, are located between the eyelashes. The conjunctiva is a delicate membrane that lines the eyelids and covers part of the outer surface of the eyeball. This membrane produces a lubricant that helps keep the eyes moist. Inflammation of this membrane is called conjunctivitis, and it causes red and irritated eyes. This inflammation is also known as pinkeye, which is a highly contagious infection caused by bacteria or viruses. The lacrimal apparatus is made of the lacrimal gland and ducts that drain the lacrimal secretions into the nose (nasal cavity). These glands continuously release tears onto the surface of the eye which eventually empty into the nasal cavity. Lacrimal secretions contain enzymes that destroy bacteria. These tears cleanse and protect the eye's surface, while also moistening and lubricating the eye. When tears spill over the eyelids and fill the nasal cavities, this causes crying, congestion, and sniffles. This occurs when eyes are irritated by foreign objects, chemicals, or when a person is emotionally upset. Muscles of the Eye- Have you ever watched something move, like a racecar, and your eyes move with it, but not your head or neck? You are able to do this because of the six external eye muscles. These muscles are responsible for moving the eyes in different directions. Internal Eye Structure- The internal eye structure has many different parts. The eyeball is a hollow sphere made of three tunics, or coats, and filled with humors. Humors are fluids in the eye that help maintain its shape. The lens is the focusing apparatus of the eye, similar to how a camera lens helps to focus a picture. The outermost layer of the eye is a thick, white connective tissue called the protective sclera. This layer is also called the fibrous tunic and is the white portion of the eye. The central portion of this layer is the cornea, a clear transparent window where light enters the eye. The cornea contains nerve endings that are mainly pain fibers. If the cornea is touched, blinking and increased tearing occurs. With the cornea being the most exposed part of the eye, it is most vulnerable to damage, but it also has an amazing ability to repair itself. The cornea is the only body part that can be transplanted from one person to another without the possibility of rejection. Rejection is when the recipient's immune system attacks a transplanted organ or tissue. The middle layer of the eyeball is a blood-rich tunic filled with nutrients called the choroid. This layer contains a dark pigment that stops light from scattering inside the eye. At the anterior portion of the choroids are two smooth muscle structures, the ciliary body and the iris. The iris is the color of the eye that contains the rounded opening called the pupil. As light passes through the pupil, the smooth muscle fibers from the iris regulate the amount of light entering the eye. In close vision and bright light, the circular muscles contract and the pupil constricts; in distant vision and dim light, the radial muscles contract to dilate the pupil, allowing more light to enter. The innermost layer is the sensory tunic, or retina. The retina contains millions of receptor cells, called rods and cones. Rods and cones are photoreceptors that respond to light by passing an electrical signal to a neuron chain via the optic nerve. The result of this transmission is vision. Photoreceptors are all over the retina except for the location where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball. This spot without photoreceptors is the optic disc, or blind spot. Rods and cones are found in different places in the retina. Rods are denser at the edge of the retina and decrease toward the center. Rod cells help to see gray tones in dim light and are used for peripheral vision. Peripheral vision is what allows humans to see out of the "corners" of the eyes. Cones help people see all the details under bright light conditions, including all the colors. Cones are dense in the center of the retina and decrease in number closer to the edge. Vision- Vision occurs due to light, visual pathways in the brain, and reflexes of the eye muscles. As light rays pass through the cornea and humors, they are refracted, or bent, at a constant rate. The lens of the eye will change its shape to accommodate the light, focusing that light on the retina. The resting eye is set for distant vision. Light from a distant source approaches the eye at a parallel level, which doesn't require the lens to change shape. If the light is coming from a close object, the lens has to create a bulge to see up-close. The ciliary body contracts, and the lens becomes more convex to focus on the close object. A person with vision problems has eyes that are not able to perform this accommodation. Humans have binocular, or two-eyed, vision. Each side of the brain receives visual input from both eyes, and each eye sees a slightly different view. These two facets provide depth perception as the two slightly different images are fused together by the visual cortex. Reflexes of the eye muscles allow for proper eye function. The internal muscles are controlled by the ANS, which alters lens curvature and controls pupil size. The external muscles control eye movements, allowing the eyes to follow objects. Two reflexes of these muscles are the photo pupillary reflex that constricts the pupil when the eye is exposed to bright light and the accommodation pupillary reflex that causes the pupils to constrict when viewing close objects, resulting in more acute vision. The muscles of the eye are especially busy when reading. This action requires both sets of muscles to continuously work, often causing eye strain after reading for long periods of time without a break. As you are reading and studying these Lessons, remember to take a break. Look up and stare into the distance to allow your eye muscles to relax. The Ear: Hearing and Balance- Hearing allows humans to differentiate between an extraordinary range of sounds and helps the body maintain equilibrium, or balance. This section will discuss the anatomy of the ear, the function of hearing, and how the body maintains equilibrium. Anatomy of the Ear- The ear is divided into three major areas—the external ear, middle ear, and internal ear. The external and middle ear structures are involved in hearing only, while the inner ear has functions involving both hearing and equilibrium. External (Outer) Ear- The outer ear is made of the pinna and the external auditory canal. The pinna is the visible ear, the shell-shaped structure around the auditory canal opening. The external auditory canal is a short chamber carved into the temporal bone of the skull that is lined with ceruminous glands. These glands secrete cerumen, or earwax. The function of the pinna is to collect and direct sound waves into the auditory canal. Once these sound waves enter the auditory canal, they travel to the tympanic membrane, or eardrum, causing it to vibrate. The eardrum separates the outer ear from the middle ear. Middle Ear- The middle ear, or tympanic cavity, is a small air-filled cavity in the temporal bones. The middle ear has the ear drum on one side and two openings on the edge, the oval window and the round window. The auditory tube runs down to link the middle ear cavity with the throat and the mucosa lining. The auditory tube is flattened and closed, but swallowing and yawning can open the tube to equalize pressure in the middle ear. This function allows for the eardrum to vibrate freely, which only occurs if the pressure on both sides of the eardrum is the same. This provides an explanation for the popping sensation experienced when flying in a plane. This popping is the middle ear trying to equalize pressure. The tympanic cavity contains the three smallest bones in the body, the ossicles. The ossicles transmit the vibrations of the eardrum to the fluids of the inner ear. The hammer moves when the eardrum moves and transfers the vibrations to the anvil, that then transfers the vibrations to the stirrup, pressing on the oval window of the inner ear. The movement at the oval window allows the fluids of the inner ear to move and excites the hearing receptors. Inner Ear- The inner ear is a maze made of different structures. These structures are located deep in the temporal bone behind the eye socket. The inner ear has three parts, the cochlea, the vestibule, and the semicircular canals. Mechanics of Hearing- Hearing receptors, or hair cells, are contained in the membranes of the cochlea, in a snaillike structure called the organ of Corti. As sound waves reach the cochlea through the vibrations of the ossicles, the cochlear fluids are set into motion. The lever activity of the ossicles increases the force of the sound waves as they are transmitted through the ear. Once stimulated, the hair cells send impulses along the cochlear nerve, where sound is interpreted. Sound reaches the ears at different times, which helps in determining where sounds are coming from. Mechanics of Equilibrium- Equilibrium is not seen, heard, or felt. It is how the body responds to head movements. The body has several reactions and reflexes that accommodate for changes in balance. The vestibular apparatus is made up of the equilibrium receptors of the inner ear, which are responsible for static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium. Static Equilibrium- Static equilibrium is the sense of the position of the head in relation to the pull of gravity when the body is not moving. Maculae are receptors in the membrane sacs of the vestibule that report on the position of the head and provide information regarding which way is up or down. Each macula contains a patch of receptor cells with hairs in the otolithic membrane. This membrane is a gel-like material that contains tiny calcium stones called otoliths. As the head moves, the otoliths roll in response to changes in the pull of gravity. The movement creates a pull on the gel, which then slides over the hair cells and bends them. The bending of the cells sends impulses along the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum, informing the brain of the position of the head. Dynamic Equilibrium- Dynamic equilibrium is controlled by receptors found in the semicircular canals. These receptors respond to head movements. In each canal is a receptor region called a crista ampullaris. This receptor region is made of a tuft of hair cells covered with a gel cap called the cupula. When the head moves in an angular direction, the fluid in the canal lags behind and moves in the opposite direction, pushing on the cupula in the opposite direction the body is moving. This movement stimulates the hair cells, and impulses are transmitted to the vestibular nerve followed by the cerebellum. When the angular motion stops, the fluid moves in the opposite direction and reverses the movement, reducing the hair cell transmission. When moving at a constant rate, the receptors gradually stop sending impulses, and the sensation of being in motion ceases. The mechanisms of static and dynamic equilibrium work together to allow the body to maintain balance. Sight, muscles, and tendons also have important roles in providing information to the cerebellum to assist with controlling balance. Fact: It has not been scientifically proven why we cry when we are emotionally upset, other than to reduce stress. Fact: Humans have depth perception because each eye sees a slightly different view.

Negative Feedback Loop

Most processes of the homeostatic control mechanism use to reduce the stimulus. The response shuts off or reduces the intensity of the stimulus. The purpose is to transition the factor being affected in an opposite direction and back to its ideal range or value. regulation of body temperature The thermostat of the body is located in the brain and is the control center that determines the temperature range of the body. When the body temperature is above that range, the control center activates sweat glands that lower the temperature. ex- The same manner a household cooling system uses. ex- the endocrine system controlling blood sugar with insulin.

Disorders of the Nerves

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disorder of the myelin in the CNS. Patients with MS have areas in their body where the myelin has been destroyed in an autoimmune attack. An autoimmune attack happens when the body basically attacks itself. MS is not limited to nerve cells; it can affect axons, cell bodies, the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. When the myelin is removed from these areas, impulses move slowly or are not able to transmit at all. The damaged myelin has scarred areas called plaques. Symptoms of MS vary from patient to patient depending on the location of the myelin damage. Patients can have problems with vision, balance, speech, or movement. There are two types of MS based on the pattern of the disease. Relapsing-remitting MS has flareups of symptoms or relapse followed by periods of no symptoms, or remission. Chronic MS has no periods of remission, and patients become steadily more disabled. Most patients are diagnosed with the relapsing type first but transition into chronic MS. About 200,000-400,000 people in the United States are affected by this condition. MS is more common in women than men and occurs more often in people under the age of 50. There is no definitive diagnosis for MS, as patients can have differing symptoms. Muscle weakness and the presence of plaque can lead to a diagnosis of MS. There is currently no cure for MS. Symptoms are treated with steroids, plasma exchange, or with a special protein complex. Immunosuppressant drugs have been shown to reduce relapses and prevent progression into chronic MS. Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is another autoimmune attack on peripheral myelin, Schwann cells, or peripheral axons. Symptoms occur over time as increased weakness and paralysis of the limbs, face, and diaphragm. The disease is divided into three phases: 1 -acute phase: initial onset of the disease; patient gets steadily worse 2 -plateau phase: days to weeks where the patient's condition is stable 3 -recovery phase: patient recovers function Patients can develop a mild form of GBS, but severe cases require use of a ventilator during the acute phase of paralysis. Patients can recover, but most have some paralysis for up to two years after the recovery phase.

Strains and Tears

Muscle strains occur when the muscles are overstretched. These injuries can range from a slight overstretch, often called a pulled muscle, to a complete muscle tear or rupture. Muscle strains can be acute, coming from trauma like a basketball player pulling a muscle during a game or chronic, resulting from overuse or disease, like a marathon runner continuously using his muscles and experiencing strain. Symptoms of muscle strains and tears vary depending on the severity of the injury. Diagnosis of strains and tears is accomplished by a physical examination, imaging (MRI, x-ray, or ultrasound), and medical history. Treatment depends on the severity of the strain. In the early stages of the injury, the standard treatment is rest, ice, compression, and elevation. Acetaminophen or ibuprofen can be given for pain relief. Rehabilitation begins with gradually increasing activity or by completing physical therapy. If the early interventions do not help, surgery may be needed in cases of a severe strain. Since skeletal muscles cannot repair themselves, muscle strains can be slow to heal.

Functions of the Muscular System

Muscles cells complete the following functions: •produce movement •maintain posture and balance •stabilize joints •generate heat The first and primary function of the muscular system is movement. Muscle tissue responds to a stimulus, allowing muscles to contract and relax. Skeletal muscle tissue is responsible for movement from place to place and for the body's ability to manipulate objects. These muscles are responsible for jumping around, walking to class, or picking up a pen. Cardiac and smooth muscles allow for movement that occurs within the body. Blood moves through the body due to the force exerted by cardiac muscles and the contraction of the smooth muscle tissue of blood vessels. Organs of the stomach, bladder, and reproductive tracts contract to move substances through their systems as well. The next function is to assist with maintaining posture and balance. The skeletal muscles are continuously adjusting to counteract the downward force from gravity and to allow the body to maintain an upright position. Joints are the areas where two bones connect. Joints are made of two bones with cushioning cartilage between them and tendons that attach the skeletal muscles to the bone. Muscles and tendons provide stability for joints during movement. As muscles contract, they generate heat, which helps the body maintain its normal temperature. Skeletal muscles generate the most heat.

Muscle cover

Muscles cover the entire body. They allow for movement and provide an extra layer of protection for internal organs. Muscles come in many different shapes and sizes, depending on their function and location in the body. In this Lesson, we will identify the major muscle groups of the body.

Muscles of Lower Limb

Muscles of the lower limb cause movements of the hips, knees, and feet. These muscles are specialized for walking and balancing, and they are the largest and strongest muscles in the human body. Muscles of the thighs are the massive muscles that hold the body upright. Thigh muscles allow movement of the lower leg, knee, and hip joint. Muscles of the leg move the ankle and foot. Hip Movement- •gluteus maximus: This superficial muscle of the hip forms the buttock. This muscle is a powerful hip extensor and aligns the thigh with the pelvis. This muscle is responsible for extending the hip when climbing and jumping. •gluteus medius: This muscle runs from the ilium to the femur, under the gluteus maximus. This muscle steadies the pelvis when walking and is the site of muscular injections. Muscular injections deliver medication deep into the muscles. •iliopsoas: This region is composed of two muscles: the iliacus and the psoas major. The iliopsoas runs from the iliac bone and lower vertebrae to the femur. This muscle allows for the hip flexion that keeps the upper body from falling backward. •adductor muscles: This group of muscles forms the medial mass of each thigh. These muscles adduct, or press, the thighs together. Movement of the Knee- •hamstring group: Composed of three different muscles, these muscles originate from the pelvis and run down the thigh, inserting on both sides of the tibia. •sartorius: This is a thin strap-like superficial muscle used when people cross their legs. •quadriceps group: This group is made up of four muscles: the rectus femoris and the three vastus muscles of the anterior thigh. This group allows for extending the knee with power, like when kicking a ball. Movement of Ankle and Foot- •tibialis anterior: This superficial muscle on the anterior leg inverts the foot. •extensor digitorum longus: Found lateral to the tibialis anterior, this muscle allows for toe extension and foot flexing. •fibularis muscles: These three lateral muscles of the leg help flex the foot. •gastrocnemius muscles: With two sections that form the posterior calf, this muscle is the primary mover for plantar flexion of the foot. •soleus: These are deep muscles to the gastrocnemius that allow for strong plantar flexion of the foot.

Types of Muscles

Muscles pull, and never push; they are arranged in pairs that work opposite of each other to allow movement. There are four different types of muscles when discussing movement: •prime movers •antagonists •synergists •fixators Prime movers- muscles that have the responsibility for causing a particular motion. The antagonist acts in opposition, or reverse, of the prime mover. When the prime mover is contracting, the antagonist is stretched and relaxed. For example, when the biceps muscle is contracted, it is the prime mover, and the triceps muscle is the antagonist. Synergists- help prime movers either by producing the same movement or by reducing movements that are not wanted. When a muscle crosses more than one joint, any contraction can cause movement in all the joints affected. The job of the synergists is to make the joints stable so only the exact joint needed is mobilized. For example, the finger-flexor muscle crosses joints at the finger and wrist. When you make a fist, you do not bend your wrist because the synergist muscles stabilize your wrist joints and allow only the muscles of the finger joints to be active. Fixators- are synergists that have a specialized function. Fixators hold a bone still at the origin so the tension is used to move the insertion bone. Fixators can be found in the vertebral column and the connections of the scapulae to the thorax.

Fibromyalgia

Myalgia means pain or tenderness in a muscle. Myalgia is a common symptom of many disorders, but fibromyalgia is a chronic pain syndrome. Symptoms of fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) include chronic pain lasting at least three months, sensitivity to touch, fatigue, sleep disorders, depression, anxiety, and exercise intolerance. This syndrome affects about 2% of the population in the United States. and Canada, and it affects mostly women. The cause of FMS is unknown, but it may be caused by a hyperactive stress response or by a sensory neurological problem. FMS is different from other types of chronic pain because the location of pain will be in 11 of 18 specific, tender points. In diagnosis of FMS, other causes of chronic pain should be ruled out first. Treatment of FMS includes symptom management, which is often inadequate in relieving pain. Some patients have experienced success with the use of antidepressants, antiepileptic medications, exercise, or pain relievers.

Myasthenia Gravis

Myasthenia gravis (MG) means grave muscle weakness. This condition is an autoimmune disorder where the immune system attacks and destroys a large number of ACh receptors at the neuromuscular junction. The receptors that are not attacked are instead blocked, and there are modifications of the muscular fiber at the junction. The motor neurons continue to release ACh, but because of the damage, muscles cannot respond. The first muscles affected are usually eye muscles, but some experience difficulty chewing, swallowing, or talking. MG is a progressive disorder that worsens with activity and improves with rest. While MG is a rare disorder, it mainly affects women under 40 and men over 50. Because of its rarity, MG is hard to diagnose, as many diseases can cause muscle weakness. However, the changes in muscle weakness are specific to MG. Blood tests for ACh receptor antibodies and electromyography are used to diagnose MG. While there is no specific treatment for MG, treatment usually includes acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, corticosteroids, immunosuppressant drugs, and plasma exchange.

Cranial Nerves Chart

Name Origin/Course Function: I. olfactory come from receptors in the nasal mucus sensory neurons that carry impulses for smell Name Origin/Course Function: II. optic come from the retina of the eye and form the optic nerve sensory neurons that carry impulses for vision Name Origin/Course Function: III. oculomotor fibers from the midbrain to the eye supplies motor fibers to muscles that control the eyeball, eyelid, and internal eye lens shape and pupil size Name Origin/Course Function: IV. trochlear run from the midbrain to the eye supplies motor fibers for external eye muscles Name Origin/Course Function: V. trigeminal fibers from the pons that form three tracts that run to the face transmits sensory impulses from the skin of the face and the mucosa of the nose and mouth; motor fibers that control chewing muscles Name Origin/Course Function: VI. abducens run from the pons to the eye supplies motor fibers to the muscle that rolls the eye laterally Name Origin/Course Function: VII. facial run from the pons to the face activates muscles for facial expression and the lacrimal and salivary glands; carries sensory impulses from the taste buds to the anterior tongue Name Origin/Course Function: VIII. vestibulocochlear fibers from the equilibrium and hearing receptors of the inner ear to the brainstem sensory impulses for the sense of balance; transmits impulses for hearing Name Origin/Course Function: IX. glossopharyngeal run from the medulla to the throat supplies motor fibers to the throat for swallowing and saliva production; carries impulses from taste buds to the posterior tongue and from pressure receptors of the carotid artery to the brainstem Name Origin/Course Function: X. vagus run from the medulla and descend into the thorax and abdominal cavity sends sensory and motor impulses to the pharynx, larynx, abdominal, and thoracic viscera; promotes digestive activity and regulates heart activity Name Origin/Course Function: XI. accessory fibers from the medulla and superior spinal cord that travel to muscles of the neck and back motor fibers that activate muscles of the upper limbs Name Origin/Course Function: XII. hypoglossal run from the medulla to the tongue motor fibers that control tongue movements; sensory fibers that carry impulses from the tongue to the brain

Bone remodeling process

Negative feedback loop- 1- Calcium levels decrease 2- Release parathyroid hormone 3- Osteoclast break down matrix 4- Release calcium into the blood 5- Calcium levels balance -Repeat-

Nerves

Nerves are cordlike organs that serve as the communication lines for the receptors. Nerves can vary in size, but each nerve is made of parallel bundles of peripheral axons and wrapped in connective tissue. Nerves are classified based on the area of the PNS they serve as well as the direction in which they transmit an impulse: •Sensory, or afferent, nerves carry impulses toward the CNS. •Motor, or efferent, nerves carry impulses away from the CNS. •Mixed nerves are made of both sensory and motor fibers and transmit impulses to and from the CNS. Most nerves are mixed nerves; very few nerves are strictly sensory or strictly motor nerves. Mixed nerves are classified based on the region they serve; peripheral nerves are classified as either spinal or cranial depending on whether they come from the brain or spinal cord. Cranial Nerves- There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves that serve the head and neck. Cranial nerves are numbered in order and are named based on the structures they control. Most cranial nerves are mixed nerves that serve several different functions. Only three pairs (optic, olfactory, and vestibulocochlear) have only one sensory function. Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses- There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves of the spinal cord. Spinal nerves are named for the region of the spinal cord they come from: •8 pairs of cervical spinal nerves, C1-C8 •12 pairs of thoracic nerves, T1-T12 •5 pairs of lumbar nerves, L1-L5 •5 pairs of sacral nerves, S1-S5 •1 pair of tiny coccygeal nerves, Co1 Damage to a spinal nerve can cause loss of sensation or paralysis to the area of the body the damaged nerve serves. The smaller branches of the other spinal nerves form complex networks of nerves called plexuses. The plexuses serve the motor and sensory functions of the limbs.

Contraction of Single Muscle Cells

Nervous Stimulus and Action Potential- Skeletal muscles are stimulated by nerve impulses in order for a contraction to occur. Nerve cells / called neurons- stimulates either a few muscle cells or hundreds of muscle cells to contract. The neuron and the skeletal muscle it stimulates are called a motor unit. The axon, or extension of the neuron- branches into terminals (ends of the axon) that form connections to the muscle cells. These connections are called neuromuscular junctions. Although they are close to each other, the nerve endings and the muscle cell never actually touch. Instead, they form a fluid-filled gap called the synaptic cleft. When an impulse from the nerve reaches the ends of the axon, a neurotransmitter is released. In skeletal muscles, this chemical is the ACh. The ACh- moves across the synaptic cleft and attaches to receptors found on the sarcolemma. The sarcolemma then allows sodium to rush into the muscle cell. This rush of sodium causes the inside of the cell to have a positive charge, which generates an action potential. An action potential- an electrical current that travels over the surface of the sarcolemma, causing the muscle to contract. In order for the muscle to relax, potassium ions move out of the cell.

Neural Tube Defects

Neural tube defects are birth defects of the brain, spine, or spinal cord that occur within the first month of pregnancy, often before the mother even knows she is pregnant. The most common defects are spina bifida and anencephaly. In spina bifida- the spinal column of the fetus does not close completely, causing nerve damage and paralysis of the legs. In anencephaly- most of the brain and skull do not develop. These babies are either stillborn, or they die shortly after birth. The causes of neural tube defects are not known. However, studies have shown that a mother who takes adequate amounts of folic acid before and during pregnancy can greatly reduce the risk of a child having a neural tube defect.

Neuroglia

Neuroglia's have a cell body like neurons, but they are much smaller in size. While neuroglia resemble neurons, they do not transmit nerve impulses, and they do not have the ability to divide. There are six types of neuroglia, four in the CNS and two in the PNS.

Classification of Neurons

Neurons are classified by either their function or their structure. Functional Classification: •Sensory (afferent)- These neurons carry impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS. The purpose of sensory neurons is to inform the brain about what is occurring inside and outside the body. •Motor (efferent)- These neurons carry impulses from the CNS to the muscles and glands. Motor neuron cell bodies are always found in the CNS. •Associated (interneuron)- These neurons connect the motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways. These cell bodies are also located in the CNS. Structural Classification: •Multipolar neurons- This is the most common structural neuron. Multipolar neurons have several processes (projections) from the cell body. •Bipolar neurons- Bipolar neurons have two processes: an axon and a dendrite. These neurons are found in eyes and ears and are rare in adults. •Unipolar neurons- These neurons have a single process from the cell body. This process is short and quickly divides into proximal and distal fibers. The axon conducts impulses in both directions of the cell body. Unipolar neurons are found in the PNS ganglia. Neuron Physiology: A neuron has two functions: irritability and conductivity. Irritability is how a neuron responds to a stimulus by changing to a nerve impulse. Conductivity is the transmission of the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands. This process of transmitting messages is a complicated process of electrical activity.

Resting Membrane Potential

Neurons can identify changes in their membrane potential. Changes in the membrane potential can occur because of changes in ion concentration on either side of the membrane or changes in the membrane permeability of an ion. These changes that occur can produce two types of signals: •graded potentials •action potentials Graded Potentials- Graded potentials are short, localized changes in the membrane potential that are either depolarizations or hyperpolarization's. As changes occur, the current flow decreases when distance increases. Graded potentials vary based on the strength of the stimulus. The stronger the stimulus, the more the voltage changes, and the current can flow a further distance. The stimulus for a graded potential is when gated ion channels are opened. Graded potentials are named depending on where they occur and the functions of their potential: •Receptor, or generator potentials occur when the receptor of a sensory neuron is stimulated by some form of energy. •Postsynaptic potentials occur when the stimulus is a neurotransmitter released by another neuron into the synapse. In a graded potential, the stimulus depolarizes a small portion of the membrane. This action spreads the wave of depolarization across the membrane a short distance. The further the current gets away from the initial site of depolarization, the more the flow starts to decline. Graded potentials are essential to initiating action potentials. Action Potentials- Action potentials are the main way that neurons send signals over a long distance. Action potentials are made in neurons and muscle cells. In a neuron, the action potential is called a nerve impulse. The nerve impulse is only generated when the stimulus changes the permeability of the neuron's membrane by opening specific voltage-gated channels. Generation of the Action Potential- 1 -In the resting state, all gated sodium and potassium channels are closed. 2 -Depolarization opens sodium channels. 3 -Repolarization opens the potassium channels, and sodium channels are deactivated. 4 -Hyperpolarization keeps potassium channels open and resets sodium channels. Action potentials are "all-or-nothing." A strong stimulus, or current flow, has to depolarize the membrane quickly, or the action potential is not generated. In order for the action potential to signal a neuron, the action potential has to be sent along the entire length of the axon. An action potential moves away from the origin towards the axon's terminals. Refractory Period- When a neuron is generating an action potential, it cannot respond to another stimulus. This period of time, from the opening of the sodium channels until they go back to their resting state, is called the absolute refractory period. This period allows for each action potential to be a separate "all-or-nothing" event. Following the absolute refractory period is the relative refractory period. During this time, sodium channels have returned to their resting state, but potassium channels are still open, allowing repolarization to occur. During the relative refractory period, it takes an extremely large stimulus to generate another action potential. How fast do action potentials travel?- The speed of an action potential depends on several factors: •diameter of the axon: The larger the axon's diameter, the faster the impulse. •amount of myelination: The myelin sheath increases the rate at which impulses are made. Myelin serves as an insulator that allows the membrane voltage to change faster. The fibers of a nerve are grouped based on their diameter, amount of myelination, and conduction speed. •fiber A: This group contains the somatic, sensory, and motor fibers of the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints. They have the largest diameter, thickest myelin sheath, and fastest speed of conducting impulses. •fiber B: These are the autonomic nervous system motor fibers of the visceral organs, visceral fibers, and somatic sensory fibers from the skin. They have a medium-sized diameter with lightly myelinated fibers that have an average rate of transmission. •fiber C: This group is also made of autonomic nervous system motor fibers of the visceral organs, visceral fibers, and somatic sensory fibers from the skin. However, fibers in this group have the smallest diameter, no myelination, and conduct impulses at a slow pace.

Development of Neurons

Neurons develop in a three-phase process that occurs mostly in the second month of pregnancy: -Neuroepithelial cells (cells that eventually become the nervous system) are made until the number of cells needed for nervous system development has been achieved. -Neuroblasts (future potential neurons) migrate into their positions based on their characteristics. -The neuroblasts sprout axons to connect with their targets and officially become neurons. If any of the guiding signals for the neuroblasts are not working properly, then there are serious developmental problems to the point of no neural function in a developing fetus. If neurons fail to make the correct or functional synaptic contacts, they die. Throughout development, many neurons die before birth. Those that survive make up the neurons a person has for life.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are the chemicals of the nervous system that allow the neurons to communicate. There are more than 50 neurotransmitters that can be released by a neuron in order to stimulate a response. The response generated occurs due to the neurotransmitters either being enhanced or inhibited. Neurotransmitters are classified by their chemical structure and function.

Bone Remodeling

Occurs by two processes, bone depositing and bone resorption. The parathyroid hormone is the hormone released from the parathyroid glands, which stimulate a negative feedback loop that controls the bone remodeling process. When bone calcium levels decrease, the parathyroid hormone is released into the blood. The increase in parathyroid hormones stimulates the osteoclasts to break down bone matrix and release calcium into the blood, which returns the blood calcium levels to normal.

Mechanical Stress

Occurs due to gravity and muscle pull. Bone remodeling during mechanical stress keeps the bones strong during these stressful times. Wolff's Law states that a bone grows or remodels due to the demands placed on the bone. Based on Wolff's Law, several observations can be made on the structure of bones: •The diaphysis is thickest in the middle to accommodate for weight bearing down on bone, or muscles pulling on bone. •Being right- or left-handed causes bones on one upper limb to be thicker than the other upper limb that is not used as much. •Curved bones are thick in areas where they could buckle and break. •Spongy bone tissue forms struts (a rod or bar) along lines of compression. •Bony projections occur where heavy muscles are attached. •Bones of a fetus or of a bedridden person atrophy (waste away) as they are not used •Stressed or deformed bone produces an electrical signal. These signals stimulate the remodeling process due to mechanical stress. •Bone remodeling is important for bones to maintain normal proportions and strength as that body increases size and weight.

extracellular matrix

Only be found in connective tissue. This matrix allows connective tissues to attach to each other and also provides the connective tissue with the strength needed to bear weight and withstand stretching.

Cardiac Muscle

Only found in the heart. Is involuntary, meaning a person does not control when it moves. Contracts to push blood out of the heart and relaxes to bring blood back into the heart.

The layers of human skin diagram

Orange cake level one- Stratum corneum Yellow veins- Stratum lucidum Orange meat- Stratum granulosum Light orange ball- Stratum spinosum Dark red tentacles- Melanocyte Dark orange snake line- Stratum basale Cake level one to Dark orange snake- Epidermis Pink square to Sunshine line- Dermis Red line to Orange bubbles- Hypodermis

Tissue repair in skin diagram

Orange top mattress- Epidermis Meat- Fibrin clot Brown liquid under meat- Granulation tissue Yellow wallpaper- Dermis White ball mattress- Fat Yin and Yang brown and yellow symbol- Monocyte Ticket line- Basal cell Snowflakes- Platelet Clock- Neutrophil Bag- Macrophage Green Plankton- Fibroblast

parasympathetic nervous system diagram

Organized top to bottom: -Eye -tongue -Larynx -Esophagus -Heart -Liver -Adrenal gland -Stomach -Pancreas -Large intestine -Kidney -Small intestine -Bladder

bony skeleton

Ossification and osteogenesis both mean the process of bone formation. This process begins as an embryo. Ossification continues until early adulthood. Once the human body reaches adulthood, ossification only occurs for bone remodeling and repair.

Osteomalacia and Rickets

Osteomalacia means "soft bones," which includes several disorders where bones are not properly mineralized. In these conditions, osteoid is still being produced, but calcium salts are not being deposited, which makes bones soft and weak. When this occurs, the main symptom is pain when putting weight on the affected bones. When children are affected by osteomalacia, they have a condition called rickets. A child with rickets can develop bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage. When the epiphyseal plates cannot calcify, they get wider and the ends of long bones become enlarged and abnormally long. Because children's bones are still growing, rickets is more severe than adult osteomalacia. In the United States, rickets has been eliminated as a public health concern, but there are still some isolated cases. Both osteomalacia and rickets are caused by a deficiency in calcium and vitamin D. Increasing vitamin D in the diet and exposure to sunlight can usually cure these disorders.

Parathyroid Glands

Parathyroid glands are made of tiny glandular tissue found on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium ions in the blood. When calcium levels drop below a set level, PTH is released, which stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone matrix and release calcium into the blood. PTH has a negative feedback loop with calcitonin. PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone, which acts to increase blood calcium level; calcitonin is a hypo-calcemic hormone, acting to decrease blood calcium levels. PTH is also responsible for stimulating the kidneys and intestines to absorb more calcium.

Abdominal muscles diagram

Pecks- Pectoralis Behind abs- External oblique On abs- Rectus abdominis Other side of abs- Internal oblique Tan part- Transverse abdominis Upper back- Trapezius Shoulders- Deltoid Lower back- Latissimus dorsi

Muscle diagram

Picasso. I like it.- Skeletal Arby's, we have the meats- Cardiac Astronaut in the ocean- Smooth

Role of Ion Channels

Plasma membranes contain proteins that act as ion channels. Ion channels selectively allow ions to pass through the channel. ex: potassium ion channels allow potassium ions to pass through. Channels can be non-gated, meaning they are always open, or gated, which means there is a protein that acts as a gate to open or close the channel. There are three main types of gated channels: •Chemically gated channels open when a neurotransmitter binds to the protein. •Voltage-gated channels open and close based on changes in the membrane potential. •Mechanically gated channels open if the receptor changes shape physically. When these gated channels are opened, the ions move across the membrane, creating electrical currents and changes in the voltage. Ions move along the chemical concentration gradient, meaning they move from an area of high concentration to areas of low concentration. When these gated channels are opened, the ions move across the membrane, creating electrical currents and changes in the voltage. Ions move along the chemical concentration gradient, meaning they move from an area of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

Development of the Autonomic Nervous System

Preganglionic and somatic neurons develop from the neural tube, while postganglionic neurons, adrenal medulla, and all autonomic ganglia develop from the neural crest. Neural crest cells migrate along growing axons to reach their target destinations. The presence of nerve growth factor and signaling chemicals guide this migration process. With age, the function of the ANS decreases due to structural changes in preganglionic axon terminals. Problems that occur due to structural changes include constipation, dry eyes, and frequent eye infections.

functions of epithelial tissue

Protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion.

Skeletal system

Protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to support movement. Made up of bones and joints

connective tissue

Provides support for your body and connects all its parts.

Lobes

Psychologists and doctors can use knowledge of the parts and lobes of the brains in treating people. ex- damage to a single lobe might affect one's ability to smell but not one's ability to touch or see. There is another way that the brain divides functionality, and that is seen in the two hemispheres.

Structure of skeletal muscle diagram

Red licorice- Blood vessel Light white part at the end of the licorice- Muscle fiber Tan licorice holder- Fascicle Inside red meat- Endomysium Rim of red meat- Perimysium Side of red meat- Epimysium Red meat holder- Tendon Tan skeleton- Bone

Vertebrae

Red section- cervical curvature: first seven vertebrae (C1-C7) Blue section- thoracic curvature: 12 vertebrae (T1-T12) Green section- lumbar curvature: five lowest mobile vertebrae (L1-L5) (Intervertebral disc) The yellow Under Green section- Sacral curvature: five fused vertebrae Yellow tip/end section- coccyx: four fused vertebrae (Sacrum and coccyx form sacrococcygeal)

negative feedback diagram

Reduces- Stimulus Sensor Control effector Reduces- Body temperature exceeds 37 C Nerve cells in skin and brain Temperature regulation center in brain Sweat glands throughout the body

Effects of Exercise on Muscles

Regular exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance. We will look at two types of exercise: •aerobic exercise •isometric exercise Aerobic exercise / Endurance exercise- muscles become stronger, more flexible, and they do not easily tire. Aerobic exercises- includes jogging, biking, and swimming. The changes that occur to muscles results from an increased blood supply, more mitochondria being created, and more oxygen in the cells. Aside from improving the skeletal muscles, Aerobic exercise- makes metabolism more efficient, improves digestion, enhances muscle coordination, and makes the skeleton stronger. With continuous aerobic exercise, the heart enlarges, which allows more blood to be pumped with each heartbeat. Blood vessels become clearer, and the lungs become more efficient in gas exchange. Isometric exercise / resistance exercise- is exercise that occurs when muscles are pushed against an immovable object. This type of exercise increases the size of the individual muscle cells and does not increase the number of muscle cells. The large muscles of a bodybuilder are the result of isometric exercise. Resistance exercise does not require equipment or a lot of time to make changes in the muscles. Simple exercises like pushing against a wall or clenching the leg muscles while standing are examples of resistance exercise. As long as the muscle is CONTRACTING with as much FORCE as possible, it is performing isometric exercises.

Conclusion

Reporting the results and should identify if the hypothesis was correct or incorrect.

Reproductive system

Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (oocytes)

plexus

Sacral- Hip Lumbar- Lower abdomen Brachial- Deltoid muscle Cervical- Diaphragm

Muscular Cancer

Sarcomas are cancers that develop from connective tissues like muscles. There are many types of sarcomas, but rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a cancer that develops in skeletal muscles cells. Around seven weeks into embryonic development, cells called rhabdo-myoblasts begin to form and can develop into RMS. Because this is a cancer of embryonic cells, it occurs more often in children, though it can occur in adults. The cause of RMS is unknown, but it is believed that changes in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contribute to the development of these cancerous cells. There are two main types of RMS: embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma, and alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma. Embryonal RMS (ERMS)- affects children within their first five years of life. The cancer cells look like developing embryonic muscle cells and tend to occur in the head, neck, bladder, and reproductive organs. Alveolar RMS (ARMS)- affects all age groups; however, it is mostly diagnosed in older children and teens. ARMS occurs in the large muscles of the trunk, arms, and legs, where the cells look like muscle cells that would normally be seen in a 10-week-old fetus. ARMS grows faster than ERMS and requires more intense treatment. Skeletal muscle cancer can start anywhere in the body, but the most common sites of RMS include: •head and neck •urinary and reproductive organs •arms and legs •trunk Symptoms of RMS are small tumors that can easily be seen or felt by the child or parent. These tumors can start in the muscles behind the eye and make the eyes bulge, or in the nasal cavity, causing congestion, nosebleeds, or bloody mucus. Some cases of RMS can start in the bladder, causing the child to have trouble emptying his bladder or to have blood in the urine. If the tumors start in the reproductive organs, it can cause testicular swelling in boys and vaginal bleeding or discharge in girls. Tumors found on the arms, legs, or trunk often go unnoticed or are believed to be athletic or play injuries. RMS is diagnosed with medical history and physical examination of the tumors. Imaging tests are used to identify if the area is cancerous and if the cancer has spread. •X-rays are used to look for tumors. •Computerized tomography (CT) scans are used to look at and identify a tumor in detail. •MRI scans are an alternative to a CT scan that can also identify the tumor in greater detail. MRI scans are vital in assisting with planning for surgery or radiation therapy. •Bone scans use a small amount of radioactive material to identify if the cancer has spread to the bones. •Ultrasound is beneficial for viewing tumors in the pelvic area. This technology is used to identify if the tumors are growing or shrinking. Treatment of RMS depends on finding the tumors and identifying the stage. Treatments used include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or very rarely stem cell transplant. The first line of treatment is to remove the tumor. If that is not possible, then radiation or chemotherapy is used to shrink the tumor. The hope is that the therapy used shrinks the tumor so that it is small enough to be surgically removed. All RMS patients have to have chemotherapy in order to limit metastasis in other parts of the body. RMS makes up about 3% of all childhood cancers, with about 350 cases occurring in the United States each year. RMS is more common in boys than in girls, and no particular race seems to have a higher rate. The prognosis for RMS depends on the type, location, size of the tumor, the results of surgery, and the rate of metastasis. Children ages one to nine have a better prognosis than infants or older children.

epithelial tissue of certain glands

Secretes hormones.

control center

Sends information to the effector. As control systems become less efficient, they create an internal environment that is no longer stable.

Sensory Receptors

Sensory receptors are specialized to respond to changes in the environment called stimuli. There are several different types of receptors based on the types of stimuli, their location on the body, and the structure of the receptor. Receptor Stimulus Type- The following receptors are named based on the stimulus that activates it: •Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical force, such as: touch, pressure, vibration, or stretch. •Thermoreceptors respond to a change in temperature. •Photoreceptors respond to light and can be found in the retina of the eye. •Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals that are smelled or tasted, or changes in blood or interstitial chemistry. •Nociceptors respond to stimuli that can result in pain, such as: extreme heat or cold, excessive pressure, and chemicals. Receptor Location- The following receptors are named based on their location or the location of the activated receptor: •Exteroceptors are located at or near the body's surface and respond to stimuli from outside the body. Examples include touch, pressure, pain, and temperature receptors in the skin. •Interceptors respond to stimuli within the body, such as from the internal viscera and blood vessels. Stimuli that affect these receptors include chemical changes, tissue stretch, and temperature. The activity of interceptors allows the body to feel pain, discomfort, hunger, or thirst. •Proprioceptors are located in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, and ligaments in the connective tissue of bones and muscles. They respond to internal stimuli. These receptors constantly inform the brain about body movements. Receptor Structure- The majority of the sensory receptors belong to the general senses (touch, taste, sight, hearing, and smell). General sensory receptors allow the sensation of touch, temperature, pain, and muscle sense: •Free nerve endings are non-encapsulated (not enclosed) nerve endings of sensory neurons found in epithelia and connective tissue. Free nerve endings respond to temperature, painful stimuli, and itchiness. Hair follicle receptors are one example of free nerve endings. •Encapsulated nerve endings contain one or more fiber terminals of sensory neurons covered in a connective tissue capsule. The majority of encapsulated receptors are mechanoreceptors that vary in size and shape. Examples of these receptors include tactile corpuscles, muscle spindles, tendon organs, and joint kinesthetic receptors.

melanoma

Signs & Symptoms- Itching Bleeding Hair-loss Changes in size shapes and colors (poop stuff) Risks- Genetics Old age UV radiation Nevus Degree of skin pigmentation Prevention and treatment- Sunscreen Radiation therapy Surgery Laser therapy

Skeletal Cartilage

Skeletal cartilage tissue is built differently depending on its location and function within the body. Cartilage has no nerve or blood vessels and is made of mostly water. This structure allows for the resilience and flexibility of cartilage found in the skeletal system. There are three varieties of skeletal cartilage: •hyaline cartilage •elastic cartilage •fibrocartilage

Gross Anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye ex: the heart, lungs, and stomach.

Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscle cells have unique structures that contribute to muscle function. Skeletal muscle cells contain many nuclei that can be seen under the sarcolemma. These nuclei are pushed to the side by myofibrils. Myofibrils- ribbonlike organelles of the muscle cell. Sarcomeres contribute to the banded appearance of skeletal muscles. Striations of the muscle cells appear due to alternating light (I) and dark (A) bands of aligned myofibrils. The I-band of myofibrils- contains an interruption called the "Z-disc," or Z-line, A-band- contains a lighter area called the H-band. All these sections of the myofibril are important in relating the structure of skeletal muscle cells to the function of these cells. The banded or striated appearance of muscle cells comes from the structure of filaments on the myofibrils. There are two working proteins called myofilaments within each sarcomere. These myofilaments can be classified two ways: •thick filaments •thin filaments Thick filaments- made of myosin and generate the power for muscle contraction. These filaments go the entire length of the dark A-bands. They are smooth in the middle and have projections on the ends. These projections are myosin beads, called a cross unit. The cross unit- links thick and thin filaments together when muscles contract. Thin filaments- are connected to either the Z-disc or the I-band and are made of actin, a contractile protein. When contraction occurs, the actin of the thin filaments slide toward each other into the center of the sarcomeres. Also found within sarcomeres are muscle fiber organelles called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. These organelles store calcium. When a muscle fiber is stimulated, the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases its calcium. The calcium signals the muscle to contract.

Role of Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle makes up the majority of body mass and contributes to maintaining body temperature. The average temperature of the human body is 37 °C or 98.6 °F. When body temperature drops below that set point, it activates a negative feedback loop to get the body back within the correct temperature range. In this negative feedback loop, the receptor recognizes the change in temperature and sends a message to the control center. The control center recognizes that reduced temperature and sends a response to the effector, the skeletal muscle cells. The response of the skeletal muscles is to shiver to generate heat. If the body did not complete this feedback mechanism, it would freeze to death.

Activity of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscles contract and relax to allow movement. This process occurs due to the precise stimulus and response mechanisms of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems. Muscle cells have two special properties that allow them to complete their duties: irritability and contractility. Contractility- the ability to forcibly shorten when the stimulus is received. Irritability- the cells are able to receive and respond to a stimulus, while contractility is the ability to forcibly shorten when the stimulus is received.

comparing muscle types

Skeletal: Body location- attached to bones Shape and appearance- long cells with striations Contraction control- voluntary Speed of contraction- slow to fast Rhythmic contraction- no Smooth: Body locations- internal organs Shape and appearance- no striations contraction control- involuntary speed of contraction- very slow Rhythmic contraction- yes Cardiac: Body locations- heart Shape and appearance- branching with striations Contraction control- involuntary Speed of contraction- slow Rhythmic contraction- yes

Nail Structure diagram

Skin under nail- Cuticle White almost oval on top of the skin under nail- Lunula The transparent part- Nail plate Inside of nail separating skin under nail and oval- Nail fold Above pink snake- Nail matrix Pink snake- Nail bed

Osteoporosis

Some elderly women can be described as hunched over, walking with a cane. This image comes from elderly women suffering from bone conditions such as osteoporosis. Osteoporosis includes a group of diseases where resorption of the bone outpaces bone deposit. In osteoporosis, the bone matrix stays the same, but the bone mass declines. This causes bones to become porous and light. When this occurs, bones become extremely fragile. Even something as simple as bumping into a wall can cause the bones to break. While these conditions can affect the entire skeleton, spongy bone of the spine is the most vulnerable; the femur and neck are also commonly fractured in people with osteoporosis. -Risk Factors- Osteoporosis occurs most often in postmenopausal Caucasian women. Approximately 30% of American women between the ages of 60-70 have osteoporosis. By the age of 80, 70% of women have the condition. Sex hormones help maintain the normal density of the skeleton, but as these hormones decline after menopause, the deficiency in estrogen increases the likelihood of osteoporosis. Other risk factors include: •petite body •insufficient exercise to stress the bones •deficiency in calcium and protein in the diet •abnormal vitamin D receptors •smoking •hormone-related conditions -Treatment- Osteoporosis is treated with calcium and vitamin D supplements, weight-bearing exercise, and hormone replacement therapy. Hormone replacement therapy is the use of artificial estrogen to slow down the progression of osteoporosis. Estrogen replacement therapy has side effects such as increased risk of heart attack, stroke, and breast cancer; therefore, it is considered a controversial treatment. New experimental treatment includes: •bisphosphonates, which decrease osteoclast activity and partially reverse osteoporosis •selective estrogen receptors that mimic estrogen's properties without affecting the uterus or breasts •statins, drugs normally used to lower cholesterol, that also increase bone mineral density -Prevention- The following modifications in diet can prevent or delay the onset of osteoporosis: 1 -Get enough calcium. 2 -Reduce the number of carbonated drinks and alcohol intake, as they take away minerals from the bones and reduce bone density. 3 -Get plenty of weight-bearing exercise throughout the lifetime.

Role of Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle can be found in all the internal organs. This type of muscle plays a major role in homeostasis. Smooth muscle is involuntary, meaning it works without conscious control. This function allows internal organs to complete their jobs on their own. Major functions such as breathing, digesting food, and eliminating waste all occur within organs made of smooth muscle. All these essential functions of smooth muscles have to continue in order to survive. What would happen if the stomach stopped contracting to digest food? The body would not be able to survive without the necessary nutrients that digestion provides. During digestion, the body breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars that are then converted to glucose for energy. If more sugar is consumed than the body needs, the excess energy is converted to glycogen and stored in the muscle tissue. If too little sugar is consumed, then the body will not have enough energy. This is the stimulus for a negative feedback loop. The receptor will send a message to the control center that there is not enough sugar. The control center sends the response to the effector to release glycogen from the muscles. Once this glycogen is released, it is broken down to supply enough energy to last about a half a day. In the extreme case that the body runs out of glycogen storage, it will break down muscles to find the energy needed. Normally, the body would not use proteins for energy, but the negative feedback response is to break down proteins into amino acids, which are converted to glucose to be used for energy. If the body uses muscle tissue for energy, the body will lose muscle mass.

Regulation of Contraction

Smooth muscle contraction is regulated by nerves, hormones, or local chemical changes. When smooth muscles are regulated by nerves, neurotransmitters help calcium levels to rise in the cell. The nerves release different neurotransmitters which can excite a certain group of the muscle. Neurotransmitters' effects on the smooth muscles depend on the type of receptor. For example, when the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) binds to receptors on smooth muscles in bronchioles (part of the lungs), the bronchioles contract. When norepinephrine, another neurotransmitter, is released to the same smooth muscle cells, they relax and dilate the bronchioles. If the smooth muscle lacks nerve supply, the smooth muscle layers respond to hormones and local chemical factors. Chemical factors cause a smooth muscle to contract and relax by enhancing or stopping calcium entry into the cell. Chemical factors that can cause this to occur include hormones, histamines, excess carbon dioxide, low pH, or lack of oxygen (Fig. 2.4). These chemical stimuli alter the smooth muscle activity depending on the needs of local tissues and contribute to smooth muscle tone. For example, hormones in the stomach stimulate smooth muscle contractions to digest food more efficiently.

Special Features of Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle has special features that contribute to the structure and function of internal organs: Response to stretch— Stretching of smooth muscle allows contraction that moves substances along the internal tract. These increased contractions last briefly as the muscle adapts to the new length and relaxes. This mechanism is called the stress-relaxation response. This response allows hollow organs to fill and expand slowly without expelling the contents of the organ. This response is most important in organs like the stomach. The stomach needs to expand to hold nutrients long enough for digestion to occur. The bladder also needs to expand to hold urine until a person is able to use the restroom. Length and tension changes— Smooth muscles can stretch and generate more tension than other muscles types. The irregular, overlapping arrangement of smooth muscle filament and the lack of sarcomeres allow the muscles to generate more forces even when stretched. Even when smooth muscles are stretched past their resting length, they can contract, which allows hollow organs the ability to accept changes in volume, while maintaining their shapes when the organ is empty. Hyperplasia—All muscle cells can increase in size, but some smooth muscle cells can also divide to increase the number of cells. This division is called hyperplasia. Hyperplasia occurs in females during puberty, as the uterus responds to the hormone estrogen. As the estrogen binds to receptor sites on the uterus' smooth muscle, the uterus grows to its adult size. A similar process happens during pregnancy, allowing the uterus to expand in size for a growing fetus.

Types of Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscles are usually organized into two categories: single-unit and multiunit. Single-unit smooth muscle is also called visceral muscle. This is because these muscles are found in the walls of all hollow organs except the heart. Single-unit smooth muscles share the following characteristics: •arranged in opposing longitudinal and circular sheets •respond to autonomic nerve fibers and have rhythmic contraction •electrically coupled by gap junctions and contract as a unit •respond to various chemical stimuli Multiunit smooth muscle can be found in large airways to the lungs, large arteries, and internal eye muscles. It is also found on arrector pili muscles of hair follicles, which help form goosebumps when the hairs seems to stand up straight. Characteristics of multiunit smooth muscle include: •independent muscle fibers •rich supply of nerve endings that form a motor unit with a number of muscle fibers •responds to neural stimulation with graded contractions •responds to the autonomic nervous system and hormones Here we have discussed the basic structures and functions of all smooth muscle cells. With each system containing smooth muscles, we will go into more detail as to how individual organs contribute to the function of each system.

Energy Efficiency of Smooth Muscle Contraction

Smooth muscles take longer to contract and relax than skeletal muscles. However, they can contract for longer periods of time. This uses less energy than skeletal muscles. Smooth muscles make ATP (the type of energy used by cells) slowly, which is one reason they use less energy or have greater energy efficiency. Another aspect of energy efficiency is the ability for smooth muscle myofilaments to latch together during long contractions, which also saves energy. Smooth muscle routinely keeps a moderate degree of contraction called smooth muscle tone. Smooth muscle has low energy requirements and makes enough ATP to help with the small demand of maintaining this level of contraction.

Loose Connective Tissue

Softer and have more cells than any other connective tissue, except blood. Can be found in areolar tissue and adipose tissue. -Areolar tissue- Soft tissue that protects the body's organs, helps hold them together, and keeps them in their proper positions. This tissue has a loose and fluid structure that allows for it to hold water and salts for the surrounding tissues. When an area of the body is inflamed, the areolar tissue takes in extra fluids and causes edema, or swelling. Areolar tissue that contains a lot of fat is called adipose tissue. -Adipose tissue- Located beneath the skin, where it insulates the body, protecting other organs from extreme heat and cold. Also protects organs like the kidneys and can store energy in areas like the hips and breasts.

Classification by Chemical Structure

Some neurons are classified by their chemical structure •Acetylcholine (ACh). This chemical is released by all neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles and some neurons of the autonomic nervous system. •Biogenic amines- This class includes chemicals such as dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, and histamine. These neurotransmitters are released in the brain and play a role in emotional behavior, as well as biological clock regulation. If these neurotransmitters are imbalanced, it may result in depression or other mental illnesses. •Amino acids- It is hard to identify their specific role as neurotransmitters because they are found in all cells and are important to many chemical reactions in the body. •Peptides- This includes endorphins which are natural opiates that reduce perception of pain. •Purines- These nitrogen-containing chemicals break down products of nucleic acids. The cells natural source of energy, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is a major neurotransmitter of the CNS and PNS. •Gases and lipids- These structures contain nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. These chemicals can be excitatory or inhibitory and react due to indirect second messengers that release in the brain, muscles, and gland junctions.

Are you right-brained or left-brained?

Some people claim they are right-brained or left-brained. When they say this, they are meaning that one hemisphere is dominant over the other hemisphere. According to the popular claim, left-brained people are more logical, and right-brained people are more creative. Many scientific studies have shown that this is not true. People use their entire brain in both creative and logical tasks.

Listen Carefully:

Sometimes you can help by listening. Listen carefully without jumping to conclusions or offering hasty solutions.

Chemical neuron classification diagram

Space between blue and orange- Synaptic cleft Tiny orange dots- Neurotransmitter Dark orange Sorry The Game pawn- Receptor White circle of light orange gathered dots- Vesicles White arrow pointing up- Reuptake pump

Regional Anatomy

Specific regions of the body

Long bone structure

SpongeBob sponge- Spongy bone Through the red and blue veins- Bone marrow cavity Inch on outside of bone and sponge- Epiphysis The rest of the inch until the balls- Diaphysis Top balls to bottom balls- Epiphysis

shape of epithelial cells

Squamous cells (flat cells) Cuboidal cells (dice-shaped cells) Columnar cells (cells shaped like a column)

Steroids and Athletes

Steroids can also be abused by athletes. Anabolic steroids cause an increase in muscle mass that allows an athlete enhanced performance. These steroids have significant side effects; men experience changes in sperm production, enlarged breasts, and shrinking of their testicles. Women experience deepening of their voices, decreased breast size, and excessive hair growth. Steroid abuse can also cause aggressive behavior, cardiovascular disease, increased levels of cholesterol, and suppressed immune function. Because steroid users often share needles, they expose themselves to hepatitis B and HIV infections as well. All major professional and amateur athletic organizations have banned the use of steroids as performance enhancers.

Homeostatic Relationships

System x Relationship Cardiovascular system X •Blood transports hormones. •Hormones influence blood volume, blood pressure, and heart contractility. Digestive system X •Digestive system provides nutrients to endocrine hormones. •Local hormones influence digestive function; vitamin D is needed to absorb calcium from diet; catecholamines influence digestive function. Integumentary system X •Skin produces provitamin D, a substance that converts to vitamin D in the presence of sunlight. •Androgens activate sebaceous glands; estrogen increases skin hydration. Lymphatic/Immune system X •Lymph transports hormones. •Thymic hormones program lymphocytes that make up lymph nodes; glucocorticoids suppress inflammation caused by the immune system's response. Muscular system X •Muscular system protects some endocrine glands. •Growth hormone is needed for normal muscular development; other hormones influence muscle metabolism. Nervous system X •Hypothalamus controls anterior pituitary function. •Hormones influence normal development and function of the nervous system. Reproductive system X •Gonadal hormones influence endocrine system function. •Endocrine organs and hormones direct reproductive system development. Respiratory system X •Epinephrine influences ventilation. Skeletal system X •The skeleton protects endocrine organs. •Hormones are necessary for normal skeletal development. Urinary system X •Kidneys activate vitamin D. •Aldosterone and ADH influence renal function.

Homeostatic Relationships - Nervous System Relations Chart

System: cardiovascular system- •ANS helps regulate heart rate and blood pressure. •Cardiovascular system provides blood with oxygen and nutrients to the nervous system and carries away waste. endocrine system-Relationship •Sympathetic division of the ANS activates the adrenal medulla; hypothalamus helps regulate the anterior pituitary gland. •Hormones influence the metabolism of neurons. digestive system-Relationship •ANS regulates digestive system activity. •Digestive system provides nutrients needed for the health of neurons. immune/lymphatic system-Relationship •Nerves serve lymphoid organs; the brain plays a role in regulating immune function. •Lymphatic vessels carry away leaked tissue fluids from tissues surrounding nervous system structures; immune elements protect all body organs from pathogens. integumentary system-Relationship •Sympathetic division of the ANS regulates sweat glands and blood vessels in skin. •Skin serves as heat loss surface. muscular system-Relationship •Somatic division of nervous system activates skeletal muscles and maintains muscle health. •Skeletal muscles are the effectors of the somatic division. reproductive system-Relationship •ANS regulates sexual erection and ejaculation in males; erection of the clitoris in females. •Testosterone masculinizes the brain and underlies sex drive and aggressive behavior. respiratory system-Relationship •Nervous system regulates respiratory rhythm and depth. •Respiratory system provides life-sustaining oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide. skeletal system-Relationship •Nerves innervate bones. •Bones serve as a depot for calcium for neural function and protect CNS structures. urinary system-Relationship •ANS regulates bladder emptying and renal blood pressure. •Kidneys help to dispose of metabolic wastes and maintain proper electrolyte composition and pH of blood for neural functioning.

medial

TOWARD or at the midline of the body

Technology

Technologies used to examine, diagnose, and treat conditions of the skeletal system include the following: •X-rays are used to view and diagnose fractures. •Magnetic resonance imaging, MRI, is used to diagnose fractures, joint disorders, arthritis, and bone cancers. •Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, DXA, uses two x-ray beams to measure total bone mineral density; this machine is also used to diagnose osteoporosis. •Bone scans use gamma rays to scan the whole skeleton, creating helpful images of diseased bones that could not be identified by other imaging sources. •Bone marrow transplants take red marrow from a healthy donor and inject it into the bloodstream of the patient; the stem cells of the new bone marrow settle into the marrow cavity and produce healthy bone cells.

Tetanus

Tetanus is a muscle disorder that is the result of an untreated bacterial infection in a wound. The bacteria releases a toxin that keeps the muscle contracted. Only a small amount of this toxin is needed to cause the disease. Tetanus has been thought to come from a rusty nail, but the bacteria actually resides in soil. Whether someone steps on a rusty or clean nail, tetanus can only occur if the bacteria gets inside the wound. Tetanus symptoms include muscle spasms, rigid paralysis, stiffness, and pain that usually starts at the jaw. Some patients may have a fever. Symptoms usually appear within three days to three weeks of the initial injury and progressively get worse, possibly leading to diaphragm paralysis. Tetanus is diagnosed by physical examination and laboratory tests that rule out other conditions. Treatment includes cleaning the wound to eliminate the source of the bacteria, injection of tetanus antitoxin, sedation, ventilator support, and pain management. Recovery can take several weeks, and most patients are treated in the intensive care unit of the hospital. There is a vaccine for tetanus that greatly reduces the number of cases of tetanus seen throughout the United States.

Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are two bean-shaped glands that curve over the top of the kidneys. Each adrenal gland is two endocrine organs made into one, containing glandular and neural tissue parts. The glandular, or cortex, is made of three separate cell layers that cover the central medulla, or neural tissue. The adrenal cortex produces three steroid hormones called corticosteroids: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones. •Mineralocorticoids are produced by the outermost cell layer of the adrenal cortex. These hormones help regulate the amount of salts (mostly sodium and potassium ions) in the blood. Mineralocorticoids target the kidney since the kidney filters minerals by either reabsorbing them or passing them into urine. Mineralocorticoids have a major role in keeping the balance of water and electrolytes in body fluids. •Glucocorticoids include cortisone and cortisol. These hormones are responsible for normal cell metabolism and increasing blood glucose levels when needed (usually at times when the body is under stress). Glucocorticoids reduce pain by stopping prostaglandins, molecules that create pain. Due to these factors, glucocorticoids are often used as treatment in patients with inflammatory disorders. •Sex hormones for both males and females are produced in the adrenal cortex. Most of the hormones are androgens, or male sex hormones. However, some estrogens, female sex hormones, are made in the adrenal cortex. Hormones of the adrenal medulla are released due to the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system neurons. Two hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine, are released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream. Together, these hormones are called catecholamines. Catecholamines are released during the fight-or-flight response to increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels. They dilate small passageways of the lungs which allow more oxygen and glucose into the blood and increase circulation of blood to the body organs. Due to these changes, the body is better able to deal with a short-term stressor, fight the stimulus, or heighten alertness to run from the stimulus. Pineal Gland- The pineal gland is a small gland found in the brain. The main endocrine function of the pineal glands is to release melatonin. Levels of melatonin rise and fall throughout the day. They peak at night when the body is ready to fall asleep; therefore, melatonin plays an important role in establishing the body's day and night cycle. Thymus- The thymus is located in the thorax posterior to the sternum. This gland is its largest in infants and children and decreases in size throughout adulthood. The thymus produces thymosin and stores white blood cells during childhood. The thymus plays an important role in the immune system.

Bones

The adult skeleton is made of 206 bones that are divided into two divisions: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is all the bones along the longitudinal axis of the body. The appendicular skeleton are the bones of the limbs and girdles.

Synovial Joints

The articular surfaces of the bones in synovial joints are covered by elastic cartilage. The synovial cavity contains synovial fluid that lubricates the joint and provides nourishment to the cartilage. This lubrication allows for varying degrees of smooth motion. There are six types of synovial joints: •ball-and-socket •gliding •condyloid •hinge •pivot •saddle The ball-and-socket joint is composed of a ball-shaped structure on the end of one bone that fits into the cuplike end of another bone. This joint allows for the largest range of motion. The ball-and-socket joint can move in all planes of the body, as well as rotate. This type of joint is in the hips and shoulders. Gliding joints only allow a smooth, gliding motion. One bone will slide over another to make short side-to-side motions. Gliding joints, sometimes called plane joints, can be found in the wrists and ankles. Condyloid joints are similar to gliding joints. Instead of a smooth gliding motion, they have an irregular surface where the bones move past each other. This type of joint can be found at the meeting of the radius and carpal bones of the wrist. Hinge joints function like the hinge on a door. They allow motion in two directions, forward and backward. These joints have a pulley shape and have strong ligaments to provide stability to the joint. Hinge joints can be found in the knees, elbows, ankles, and fingers. Pivot joints only allow rotating motion. These joints are formed by a bony pivot surrounded by a ring made of ligaments. This type of joint is at the connection of the radius and ulna, which allows for turning the hand up and down. A pivot joint is also located between the first and second vertebrae, and it allows for the range of motion of the head while keeping the neck stable. Saddle joints are structured like a rider in a saddle. This joint will allow a bending motion in several directions without sliding against other bones. This type of joint is responsible for the movement of the thumb.

Internal or External stimulus

The body assesses the stimulus and develops a response to change or correct the process that is being affected.

Internal stimuli

The body can respond to an internal stimulus, which is something coming from inside the body. ex: Levels of hormones, invasion of bacteria, or levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood.

Role of Hormones

The bone growth process is controlled by hormones. During childhood, the growth hormone is released to stimulate the epiphyseal plate. Once a child hits puberty, male and female sex hormones promote growth, as well as changes specific to the male and female structure of the skeleton. These hormones are also responsible for starting the process of closing the epiphyseal plate. Excessive hormones or hormonal deficits can result in abnormal skeletal growth. If there is too much growth hormone, children can suffer from excessive growth called gigantism; deficits in growth hormone produce dwarfism.

positive feedback diagram

The brain stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin. Oxytocin is carried in bloodstream to uterus Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes the baby towards the cervix The head of the baby pushes against the cervix Nerve impulses from the cervix are transmitted to the brain

Brainstem

The brainstem is located underneath the cerebral hemispheres and is about 7.6 centimeters (cm) or 3 inches (in) long. The structures of the brainstem are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The brainstem also contains many small areas of gray matter. The nuclei in the brainstem form the cranial nerves which control vital activities such as breathing and blood pressure. The midbrain is a small part of the brainstem that contains the cerebral aqueduct, a tiny canal that connects the parts of the brain. The rounded structure found just below the midbrain is the pons. The pons contains most of the fiber tracts and the nuclei involved in controlled breathing. The medulla oblongata is the most inferior section of the brainstem that merges into the spinal cord. Areas that control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting are located in the medulla oblongata. The reticular formation is a mass of gray matter that extends the entire length of the brainstem. The neurons of this area are involved in motor control of the visceral organs. The reticular formation plays a role in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycles. Damage to this area can result in a coma.

Disorders of the CNS

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Several conditions can alter the function of these structures. Traumatic Brain Injuries- Traumatic brain injuries are the leading cause of accidental death in the United States. Injury during a car accident or a fall not only causes damage at the site of impact, but the effect of the brain hitting the skull can cause injuries as well. A concussion occurs when there is a mild brain injury. Symptoms include being dizzy and briefly losing consciousness. No permanent brain damage occurs in a concussion. A brain contusion occurs when there is damage to the brain tissue. If there is damage to the cerebral cortex, the person can remain conscious, but brainstem contusions always result in a coma that could last a lifetime. The resulting intracranial bleeding or cerebral edema (swelling of the brain) from a head injury can result in death. If a person hits his head and progressively loses neurological functioning, he is mostly likely hemorrhaging or his brain is swelling. Cerebrovascular accidents, or strokes, occur when circulation to the brain is blocked by a blood clot or ruptured blood vessel. The area of the blockage can be determined based on the symptoms the patient exhibits. ex: if a person has right side paralysis, then their left motor cortex is damaged. Aphasias are a common result of damage to the left cerebral hemisphere, where language areas are located. Motor aphasia occurs when there is damage to Broca's area and a person loses the ability to speak. Most patients surviving a cerebrovascular accidents do not survive past three years, although some patients recover part of their lost capabilities. Spinal Cord Injuries- The spinal cord is well protected by the bones and meninges, but trauma can cause damage to the neural tissue of this structure. Car accidents are the most common cause of spinal cord injuries followed by violence, falls, work injuries, and disease. Most spinal cord injuries occur in males 16-30 years old. Spinal cord injury can range from a bruised cord up to a severed or crushed spinal cord. The initial injury to the spinal cord is often not the main problem. How the body responds to the injury is what damages the tissue. After an injury, the spinal cord swells, blood flow decreases, the immune system removes and demyelinates tissue, a release of excess neurotransmitters kills cells, and any damaged neurons self-destruct. The result is paralysis and sensory loss below the injury. The severity of paralysis depends on the location of the spinal cord injury. A patient injured at the cervical (upper) spinal cord level will develop quadriplegia, a paralysis of all four limbs. Some people with quadriplegia who have a high cervical cord injury also have paralysis of the diaphragm and cannot breathe on their own. Patients with injury to the thoracic (middle) and lower regions develop paraplegia. They can move their arms but have paralysis of their legs. Sensory information can also be lost below the point of the injury. These patients have no sense of touch, including pain or temperature. Diagnosis of a spinal cord injury occurs with a neurological exam to test sensory and motor function and through the use of MRI, x-ray, CT scans, and myelography. Treatment for spinal cord injuries immediately following the injury consists of trying to stop any further damage. During this acute phase, the patient is immobilized and given assistance with respiration, low blood pressure, or cardiac problems. Steroids are given to reduce inflammation, and surgical techniques may be used. After the acute phase, the focus is on long-term management of the result of the injury. Rehabilitation is used to attempt to regain function after the injury. Alzheimer's Disease- Alzheimer's disease is a progressive degenerative disease of the brain. This disease is most common in people over 65 and is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly. Alzheimer's is characterized by memory loss and diminishing cognitive function. As the disease progresses over 5-18 years, tangled fibers develop in nerve cells, and abnormal protein surrounds the cells. Both these changes interfere with brain function. Symptoms usually begin with gradual forgetfulness, such as difficulty remembering familiar names and events. In the first stage, patients experience confusion, anxiety, memory loss, and poor judgment. During the second stage, patients have more memory loss, difficulty recognizing people, sleeplessness, and confusion. At this time, they experience motor problems and loss of social skills. By the third stage, they have trouble speaking, reading, writing, and completing daily hygiene routines. As the condition worsens, their personality changes; they can become aggressive, anxious, and so confused that they get lost in familiar places. There is no known cure for Alzheimer's, but there are medications that can slow the progression of the early and middle stages. Current research is focused on preventative medicine that may reduce the buildup of plaque in the brain. Diseases of Motor Deficits- Cerebral palsy (CP) describes a permanent set of motor issues diagnosed in infants and young children. It is thought to be the result of damage to the motor cortex. Although there is no single cause identified, risk factors include low birth weight, premature birth, infection or brain injury during pregnancy, brain hemorrhage, lack of oxygen, and childhood illness. Symptoms of CP vary from foot dragging and incoordination to complete paralysis and an inability to speak. Other symptoms include increased muscle tone, overactive reflexes, lack of coordination of voluntary movements, drooling, speech difficulties, fine motor problems, and tremors. Some people with CP can have cognitive disabilities, autism, or seizures. However, many have average or above average intelligence. Diagnosis of CP can be difficult, but observing motor skills and developmental milestones assists in that diagnosis. CT scans or MRIs can rule out other causes of motor deficiency and are the best way to diagnose CP. Treatment includes the use of physical and occupational therapy, assistive devices, and drugs to control the symptoms. Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic progressive motor disorder common in elderly patients. PD is recognized by a resting tremor, slow movement, impaired balance, rigidity, fatigue, and cognitive and emotional disturbances. PD is caused by the disappearance of dopamine neurons in one of the basal nuclei that spreads to the cerebral cortex. The cause of PD is unknown, but toxins, viruses, or malfunction in the mitochondria may be involved. There are some cases of PD that are genetic, and some younger people can have early onset. Diagnosis is obtained through patient history and a physical exam. PD patients have a familiar shuffling gait, and their muscles pop or snap. The rigidity looks as if their muscles catch and then release, called cogwheel rigidity. The presence of cogwheel rigidity is diagnostic for PD. Imaging can be used to rule out other causes, but in the early stages of PD, there will be no evidence on a scan. Treatment of PD includes the use of dopamine-enhancing drugs, but these drugs have bad side effects when used over a long period of time. Other medications and deep brain stimulation can be used to treat the symptoms of PD. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), better known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a rapidly progressive and fatal degenerative disease of the motor system. People with ALS typically die within five years of diagnosis. Symptoms appear between the ages of 40 and 60, beginning with muscle weakness, twitching, and cramping. Eventually, they progress to complete paralysis, difficulty speaking and swallowing, and paralysis of the diaphragm. Once patients reach this point, a ventilator is used, but death usually occurs due to respiratory failure. The cause of ALS is unknown, but it has shown to have an increase in self-destruction of motor neurons in the cerebral cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord. There is also evidence that toxins, damage from free radicals, and mitochondrial problems may be involved. There is no test for ALS, but it is the only motor disorder that affects both upper and lower motor neurons, resulting in paralysis. Imaging is used to rule out other conditions, and a neural biopsy can be beneficial in confirming diagnosis. There is no cure for ALS, and only one drug, riluzole, is used for treatment. The drug decreases glutamate and cell death, which slows the progression of the disease. Extra: Lou Gehrig's disease gets its name from New York Yankees baseball player Lou Gehrig, who died from ALS in 1941.

Development of the Central Nervous System

The central nervous system starts development when the embryo is three weeks old. The neural tube is formed by the fourth week of pregnancy and quickly forms into the CNS. The brain and spinal cord both form from the neural tube: The ectoderm cell- layer thickens along the midline axis of the embryo to form the neural plate. The neural plate forms a neural groove with neural folds on the side. Neural folds- small groups migrate between the surface ectoderm and the neural groove, forming the neural crest. The neural crest cells turn into neurons that will reside in the ganglia. Neural groove- as it deepens, the superior edges of the neural folds fuse, forming the neural tube, which will detach from the ectoderm and fall into a deeper position. The brain and spinal cord form from this neural tube deepens, the superior edges of the neural folds fuse, forming the neural tube, which will detach from the ectoderm and fall into a deeper position. The brain and spinal cord form from this neural tube As the brain and spinal cord continue to grow and mature, gender-specific areas start to appear. The secretion of testosterone determines which gender-specific development occurs. If testosterone is being secreted, then the male parts will begin to develop. Otherwise, female parts develop. One of the last areas of the CNS system to mature is the hypothalamus, which contains the body's temperature control centers. This late development is the reason why premature babies have problems with regulating their body temperature. The visual cortex also develops later, which is the reason babies respond to touch but have poor vision. By eight months, the visual cortex is developed to the point that babies are able to have thoughts about the things they see. Maternal exposure to radiation, drugs, and infections can cause harm to developing infant nervous systems. ex: if a mother gets measles during pregnancy, it can cause deafness and other CNS damage in a newborn. The nervous system continues to grow throughout childhood, with the brain reaching maximum weight in adolescence. Over the adult life, neurons are damaged and die, which causes the brain weight and volume to decrease. While there are neurons lost over the years, the neurons that remain develop new connections that allow people to continue to learn throughout their lives. With age, cognitive ability (brain function) declines in spatial awareness, speed of perception, decision-making, reaction time, and memory. However, these losses are not significant until around age 70. Math skills, verbal expressions, and the ability to build new connections do not decline with age.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum contains two hemispheres and a folded surface like the cerebrum. The cerebellum also has an outer region made of gray matter and an inner region made of white matter. The cerebellum is responsible for the precise timing of skeletal muscle activity and controls balance and equilibrium. The cerebellum is what allows people to have smooth and coordinated movements.

Cerebral Hemispheres

The cerebral hemispheres are at the top of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres are responsible for many higher order functions, such as speech, memory, and logical thinking. Consciousness, sensation, and voluntary movement are also controlled by these hemispheres. All these functions are controlled by cerebral cortex neurons within the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single deep fissure. The two hemispheres are sometimes referred to as the left brain and the right brain. There are several structures in the hemispheres with different functions. Somatic Sensory Area- The somatic sensory area is located in the parietal lobe. This part of the brain recognizes sensations like hot, cold, touch, and pain. The lips and fingertips contain the most sensory receptors and send impulses to neurons that make up most of the sensory cortex. The sensory pathways are crossed pathways, meaning that the left side of the sensory cortex receives impulses from the right side of the body, and the right side of the sensory cortex receives impulses from the left side of the body. Cortical Areas- Cortical areas of the hemispheres are responsible for the interpretation of impulses from other sensory organs of the body. The occipital lobe is the visual area, the auditory (hearing) area is found in the temporal lobe, and the olfactory (smell) area is found deep inside the temporal lobe. Primary Motor Area- The area responsible for conscious control of the skeletal muscles is called the primary motor area, and it is found in the frontal lobe. The axons of these motor neurons make up voluntary tracts that go into the spinal cord. Most neurons in the primary motor area control fine motor movements of the face, mouth, and hands. The pathways of motor neurons are also crossed, which allows the right side of the cortex to control the left side of the body and vice versa. Broca's Area- Broca's area controls the ability to speak. This area is usually located in the left hemisphere at the base. If there is any damage to this area, a person loses the ability to say words correctly. She might know what she wants to say but cannot vocalize what she is thinking. Frontal Lobe- Areas controlling higher intellectual reasoning are located in the frontal lobe. Complex memories are stored in the temporal and frontal lobes. The Broca's area is located within this lobe, while the area for language comprehension (Wernicke's area) is found at the connection of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. Other Parts- The cell bodies responsible for the functions of the cerebral hemispheres are found in the cerebral cortex. The cerebral white matter is made of bundles of nerves that send impulses to or from the cerebral cortex. Basal nuclei are sections of gray matter buried deep into the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres. Basal nuclei are responsible for regulating voluntary motor activities by changing instructions sent to the skeletal muscles. When people have problems with their basal nuclei, they are unable to walk or carry out normal voluntary movements.

Homeostatic Relationships

The chart identifies the relationships between the muscular system and the other systems of the human body: circulatory system- • Skeletal muscle activity increases the efficiency of circulatory function, helps prevent atherosclerosis, and causes cardiac hypertrophy. • Circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to muscles and carries away waste. digestive system- • Muscular activity increases mobility of digestive system. • Digestive system provides nutrients for muscle health. endocrine system- • Growth hormone and androgens contribute to skeletal muscle strength and mass. immune/lymphatic system • Muscular activity enhances or depresses immunity. • Lymphatic vessels drain tissue of excess fluids. • Immune system protects muscles from disease. integumentary system- • Muscular exercise enhances circulation to skin and improves skin health. • Muscular exercise increases body heat, which helps the skin. • Skin provides protection for the muscles. nervous system- • Facial muscle activity allows emotions to be expressed. • Nervous system stimulates and regulates muscle activity. skeletal system- • Skeletal muscle activity maintains bone health and strength. • Bones provide levers for muscle activity. reproductive system- • Skeletal muscles help support pelvic organs. • Testicular androgen promotes increased muscle size. respiratory system- • Muscular activity increases respiratory capacity. • Respiratory system provides oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide from muscles. urinary system- • Muscular activity promotes normal elimination behavior. • Skeletal muscle forms the voluntary sphincter of the urethra. • Urinary system disposes of waste from muscles.

Cognitive Theory

The cognitive theory considers both internal and external factors. It even attempts to explain motivations not driven by biological or environmental factors. According to the cognitive theory, biological needs or external rewards drive extrinsic motivations. If you plant flowers for a landscape company, you do it for an extrinsic reason: a paycheck. In contrast, intrinsic motivations seek to fulfill beliefs and expectations. If you plant flowers in your front yard, you do it for intrinsic reasons—to beautify your property or for the satisfaction it brings. The motivation for an activity can be both extrinsic and intrinsic. Imagine that you choose a biography about a favorite celebrity for a school book report. Reading the book can satisfy an extrinsic need (requirement for the assignment) and an intrinsic need (incentive to learn more about your favorite celebrity). Consider this scenario: Evelyn used to spend much of her free time cooking and baking for family and friends. She dreamed of opening a bakery with her husband where they could spend all day working in the kitchen. After much planning and hard work, she and her husband opened a small bakery and spent their days baking and attending to business. However, Evelyn soon reached the point where she had no desire to cook outside of work. She—and her deprived family and friends—fell victim to the over-justification effect. Some psychologists theorize that extrinsic motivation can overwhelm intrinsic motivation. In essence, the person begins to ask "Why am I doing this?" rather than saying "I enjoy getting to do this."

Thermostat

The control center that is set at a temperature of 72 °F. ex- When the home reaches that set temperature, the air conditioning is turned on and cools the house down.

pancreas

The control center that sets the levels of sugar in the blood. When the receptors sense a rise in blood sugar, the pancreas responds by secreting insulin into the bloodstream. Once insulin is secreted in the bloodstream and the amount of blood sugar is reduced, the insulin response is cut off. This intricate process of recognizing a stimulus, communicating information, and generating a response that turns off that stimulus is important to maintaining the balance within the body's systems.

Lower Limbs

The lower limbs are responsible for carrying the weight of the body. The lower limbs consist of the thighs, legs, and feet. Thigh- Made of a single bone, the femur. The femur is the largest, longest, and strongest bone in the body. The head of the femur connects with the hip bone, and then it connects medially with the knee. The femur is secured by ligaments and contains markings for muscle attachment. Distally, the femur connects to the knee at the patella, or kneecap. The patella is a triangular bone covered by tendons that secures the thigh muscles to the bones of the leg. This bone provides protection for the knee joint and assistance with leverage during movement. Leg- contains two parallel bones, the tibia and fibula. These bones articulate on both ends and are connected by an interosseous membrane, like the radius and ulna of the forearm. Unlike the joints of the forearm, the joints of this region allow for almost no movement. -The tibia- the second largest bone in the body. It transfers the weight from the femur down to the foot. The lateral surface of the tibia is flat and contains no muscle tissue; therefore, it is easy to feel this bone in the leg. -The fibula- a thin bone that connects laterally with the tibia. The distal end of the fibula creates the bulge on the side of the ankle. While the fibula does not bear any weight, several muscles originate from it. Foot- contains the bones of the tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges. The foot is responsible for supporting body weight and allows the body to propel forward when walking. -The tarsus- made of seven bones called tarsals. In this area, body weight is carried by two tarsal bones that make up the heel of the foot. The tarsus is to the foot like the palm is to the hand. -The metatarsus- made of five small bones called metatarsals. The first metatarsal found lateral to the big toe supports the body weight and forms the ball of the foot. -The phalanges- make up the toes. There are 14 phalanges that make up the small bones of the feet. These bones have a similar structure to the phalanges of the hand. In order to support the weight of the human body, the foot has three arches. The arches of the feet are created by the structure of the foot, strong ligaments, and tendons that pull during movement. The arches form a half dome that distributes half of the weight to the heels, and half to the heads of the metatarsals. This dome structure allows for less energy to be used while running or walking.

Cranium

The cranium is made of eight large, flat bones: •frontal bone •parietal bones (2) •temporal bones (2) •occipital bone •sphenoid bone •ethmoid bone Frontal bone- forms the forehead, projections under the eyebrows, and the top part of each orbit. Parietal bones- found in pairs and form most of the walls of the cranium. The size, shape, and location of these bones make up the sutures: •coronal suture: where the parietal bones meet the frontal bone •sagittal suture: where the parietal bones meet each other at the midline •lambdoid suture: where the parietal bones meet the occipital bone •squamous sutures: where parietal bones meet temporal bones, on each side of the head Temporal bones- located on the lateral surface of the skull and are divided into three sections: •Squamous : The squamous section is next to the squamous suture. The squamous part connects to a projection, the zygomatic process, which meets with the zygomatic bones of the face. These bone structures create the zygomatic arch that makes up the projection of the cheek, also known as the cheekbones. •Tympanic : The tympanic section surrounds the external ear canal and is how sound enters the ear. •Petrous : The petrous section contains the middle and internal ear cavities that control sensory receptors for hearing and balance. This section of the temporal bone also contains the mastoid process, which is an anchoring point for some neck muscles. Reach behind your ear; you can feel this process as a lump protecting posteriorly from the ear. The styloid process is a needlelike projection of the petrous part. This projection is an attachment point for tongue and neck muscles. Occipital bone- Forms the posterior section of the skull. Supports the cerebellum of the brain and has a large opening through which the spinal cord connects to the brain. The connection of occipital projections and the vertebrae of the spinal column allow for the "nodding yes" motion of the neck. Sphenoid bone- a bat-shaped bone that covers the middle of the cranial area. This bone is a key section of the cranium because it forms the central section that connects with all other cranial bones. The unique shape of this bone creates one central body, and three processes. The openings within the sphenoid bone include sphenoidal sinuses, locations for cranial nerves, and the connection of facial muscles. Ethmoid bone- lies between the sphenoid and nasal bones of the face and makes up most of the area between the nasal cavity and orbits of the eyes. The perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone divides the nasal cavity into right and left halves and is filled with sinuses. Openings in this bone allow for the smell receptors in the nasal cavities to pass through to the brain.

Diencephalon

The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits on top of the brainstem within the cerebral hemispheres. The thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus are the major structures of the diencephalon. The thalamus transmits sensory impulses to the sensory cortex. As impulses move through the thalamus, a person can recognize if a sensation is pleasant or unpleasant. The hypothalamus plays an important role in the regulation of body temperature, water balance, and metabolism. It also serves as the center for many emotions. Thirst, appetite, pain, and pleasure centers are all found in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus also has endocrine (hormone) functions. The epithalamus connects the thalamus and hypothalamus to other parts of the brain.

two hemispheres

The differences between the two hemispheres extend beyond motor control. Left- tends to take charge of verbal, mathematical, and analytical functions. Language Speech Writing Logic Right- specializes in nonverbal, spatial, and holistic (combining parts into a whole) functions. Spatial Emotions Music Art The hemispheres not only each control a different half of the body, but control different abilities. Ex- Left hemisphere must send a signal if you wish to kick a ball with your right foot.

Waste

The digestive system creates waste as the by-product of breaking down nutrients. *After all the nutrients have been absorbed, the waste is passed through the large intestine, creating feces that is then eliminated from the body. *The kidneys of the urinary system filter the blood in order to create urine. This liquid waste is held in the bladder and excreted out the urethra. *The cardiovascular system and lymphatic system collect waste from cells, tissues, and organs in the body and eliminate them. All of these systems work together to assure that there is no accumulation of waste in the body.

Hormones

The endocrine system influences the metabolic activity of the body using hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids of the body. Hormones travel through the blood and regulate the functions of other cells in the body. Hormones bind to cell receptors called target cells to initiate a response that occurs with a waiting period from seconds up to days. Once the response is initiated, it can last for a long period of time if needed. Hormones are secreted from specific glands and travel throughout the body in the blood and extracellular fluid, with a target cell as its focused destination point. Local chemical messengers, autocrine and paracrine, are also grouped with the endocrine system. This grouping is a controversial placement because hormones of the endocrine system are long-distance messengers that travel in blood or lymph, while autocrine and paracrine are short-distance messengers. Autocrine- chemicals that have effects on the same cells that secreted them. ex: some autocrine released by smooth muscle cells allow those smooth muscle cells to contract. Paracrine- local messengers that affect other local cell types. ex: paracrine released by pancreatic cells can stop the release of insulin from other pancreatic cells.

Development and Aging of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is one of the first systems a new embryo develops. Once the child is born, the endocrine system continues to function, allowing the body to grow, keeping balance of fluids, and allowing for many different processes to occur throughout the lifespan. It is not until middle age that endocrine function declines, and even after that, without actual endocrine organ malfunction, the decline is minimal.

Negative Feedback Mechanism

The endocrine system responds to stimuli using a negative feedback mechanism. The different chemicals and physical characteristics of the body have a particular level they like to maintain, a set point. ex: blood pressure, oxygen in the blood, and heart rate all have a normal range they like to be held within. The nervous and endocrine systems work together to keep these important functions at their set points. The receptors of these symptoms are constantly measuring levels and allowing the body to issue responses as needed. Consider how the body monitors and responds to temperature. The hypothalamus determines the set point, and if body temperature is above or below the set point it generates a response. When cold, the body shivers; and when it is hot, the body sweats. This process is called a negative feedback. In negative feedback, the body is reacting to a change to get the stimulus back to its set point. Once that point is met, the response is stopped. The endocrine system uses the same mechanism to monitor and respond when the amount of a hormone gets out of balance. ex: if the levels of calcium in the blood drop, this generates a response from the parathyroid gland to secrete parathyroid hormone. The hormone will continue to be secreted until the calcium levels are back to normal. Another example of negative feedback in the endocrine system is the control of blood glucose levels. When the blood glucose levels rise above the set point, the pancreas releases insulin into the blood. The response of the body is to take glucose from the blood, which returns the blood glucose level back to the set point, and the release of insulin is stopped. These mechanisms are continuously active within the endocrine system as it works to maintain homeostasis.

Layers of the Epidermis

The epidermis can have four or five layers, which is determined by the thickness of the skin. Areas with more thickness, like palms, fingertips, and the soles of the feet, have five layers. *The deepest layer is the stratum BASALE, or basal layer. The function of this layer is the continuous reproduction of keratinocytes. The average person sheds millions of these cells a day. This continuous replacement of keratinocytes allows the skin to repair itself quickly when injured. DID YOU KNOW? Humans shed about 500 million skin cells a day. *The next layer is the stratum SPINOSUM, which is made of several layers of keratinocytes. This layer has the greatest amount of dendritic cells present. Dendritic cells are cells that help fight disease-causing pathogens. *The stratum GRANULOSUM is the next layer of epidermis. It is made of five flattened layers. This layer is where the process of keratinization begins, which means the cells in this layer start filling up with keratin. *The stratum LUCIDUM is an extra layer that is only found in thicker areas of skin. This layer is a thin, clear layer above the stratum granulosum composed of two or three layers of flat, dead keratinocytes. *The last layer is the outermost stratum CORNEUM layer. This layer is 20-30 layers of thick cells and makes up most of the epidermis. This layer has dead keratinized cells that provide protection, stop water loss, and defend the body from biological, chemical, and physical attacks.

Incentive Theory

The first two theories of motivation focus on internal factors. The incentive theory considers the role of environmental factors in motivation. Drives may push us toward certain actions, but an incentive pulls us toward a certain action. We seek incentives, goals, or objects that we desire through motivated behaviors. For example, dinner might meet the need caused by hunger. However, if your mom brings out your favorite dessert, you might find yourself saying "I'll have just one slice," even though you are no longer hungry. Most of our motivations are a combination of drives and incentives. If a drive (hunger) is strong, we may not care if an incentive is weak. For example, you might be willing to settle for a mediocre sandwich at a nearby restaurant rather than make the effort to drive across town to a better establishment. While people seek positive incentives, they avoid negative ones. If a restaurant's food makes you sick, you might avoid eating there again no matter how hungry you are.

Extra Structures

The following accessory structures assist with movement of the cell

convex

having an outline or surface curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere

Homeostatic Relationships

The following information highlights how the skeletal system works with other systems of the body to maintain homeostasis: Digestive System- •Skeletal system provides protection. •Digestive system provides nutrients for bone health and growth. Cardiovascular System- •Blood cells form in bone marrow cavities. •Bone matrix stores calcium that the cardiac muscle needs. •Cardiovascular system delivers nutrients and oxygen to bones and carries away waste. Endocrine System- •Skeletal system provides protection. •Hormones regulate calcium levels from bone. •Hormones promote long bone growth. Immune/Lymphatic System- •Skeletal system provides protection. •Cells for immune response come from bone marrow. •Lymphatic system drains tissue fluids. •Immune cells provide protection against pathogens. Integumentary System- •Skin produces vitamin D for calcium absorption and use. Muscular System- •Skeletal system assists with movement. •Skeletal system provides calcium for muscle activity. •Muscles pull on bones to increase bone strength and viability. •Muscles help determine bone shape. Nervous System- •Skeletal system protects the brain and spinal cord. •Skeletal system provides calcium ions for neuron function. •Nerves provide for pain and joint sense. Reproductive System- •Skeletal system provides protection. •Reproductive system produces hormones that influence bone growth. Respiratory System- •Skeletal system protects lungs. •Respiratory system provides oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide waste. Urinary System- •Skeletal system protects organs. •Urinary system activates vitamin D and gets rid of waste.

Special Movements

The following special movements do not fit into the most common types of motion: •dorsiflexion and plantar flexion: These are specialized movements of the foot at the ankle. Dorsiflexion is lifting the foot so the surface comes closer to the shin, as when rocking back on the heels. Plantar flexion is depressing the foot and pointing the toes. •inversion and eversion: These are also specialized movements of the foot. Inverting the foot means turning the sole medially, and eversion of the foot turns the sole laterally. •supination and pronation: These are specialized movements of the radius and ulna. Supination occurs when the forearm rotates laterally and allows the palm to face anteriorly. In supination, the radius and ulna become parallel. Pronation occurs when the forearm rotates medially and allows the palm to face posteriorly. This crosses the radius and ulna, making an X. •opposition: This is a specialized movement of the saddle joint of the thumb. This action allows the thumb to touch the tips of other fingers.

Muscle Tissue

The function of muscle tissue is to contract and relax as needed for movement. There are three types of muscle tissue: •skeletal •cardiac •smooth

Gonads

The gonads are male and female endocrine organs that produce sex hormones. The female gonads are the ovaries. Ovaries are almond-shaped organs located in the pelvic cavity. Ovaries produce female sex cells and two hormones, estrogen and progesterone. The ovaries are stimulated by pituitary gonadotropic hormones during puberty which cause the rhythmic ovarian cycles. Estrogens are produced by the follicles of the ovaries and stimulate the development of secondary sex characteristics, such as growth of reproductive organs and hair on the pubis. Estrogens also work with progesterone to prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg, contribute to the menstrual cycle, help maintain pregnancy, and prepare the breast to produce milk. The male gonads are called testes and are suspended in a sac on the outside of the pelvis. The testes produce male sex cells, or sperm, as well as male sex hormones, androgens. The most important androgen is testosterone. Testosterone is responsible for the development of secondary male sex characteristics such as growing a beard, heavy bones and muscles, and lowering the voice. Androgens promote growth and development of the reproductive system and prepare a young man for reproduction. As an adult, testosterone is necessary for the continuous production of sperm. The endocrine organs and the hormones they secrete play a major role in many processes of the body from childhood into adulthood. When thinking about all these different processes, imagine the effects of even one hormone malfunctioning. Homeostasis within the endocrine system is an extremely important factor of survival of the human body.

blood clot

The injury is the stimulus that initiates the release of platelets to the site of injury, thus beginning the process of forming a clot. Once the clot is formed, the positive feedback is stopped. An important aspect to recognize about positive feedback loops is that they can get out of control, which is why the body does not use them on a day-to-day basis.

Homeostatic Relationships

The integumentary system works with the other body systems to maintain homeostasis in the following ways: Skeletal System- •skin provides protection •skin makes vitamin D that helps with calcium absorption, which is important for bone strength •skeletal system provides support Muscular System- •skin provides protection •muscles generate heat that assists with temperature control Nervous System- •skin provides protection •sensory receptors for touch, pressure, and pain are located in the skin •hypothalamus regulates diameter of blood vessels in temperature regulation Endocrine System- •skin provides protection •hormone conversion for integumentary system •hormones activate sweat glands and assist in hair growth Cardiovascular System- •skin provides protection •skin stops fluid loss •cardiovascular system transports oxygen and nutrients to skin and transports waste from skin Respiratory System- •skin provides protection •nose hairs filter particles from air •respiratory system provides oxygen to skin cells Digestive System- •skin provides protection •digestive system uses vitamin D for calcium absorption and metabolic functions for liver •digestive system provides nutrients to skin Urinary System- •excretes waste in sweat Lymphatic and Immune System- •skin provides protection •skin prevents pathogen invasion •integumentary system activates immune response •lymphatic system stops edema of skin Reproductive System- •skin provides protection •larger quantity of sensory receptors in the integumentary system increases sensation •modified sweat glands produce milk •skin stretches to accommodate growing body during pregnancy

Epithelial Tissue

The lining or covering tissue of the body. Cells fit close together to make continuous sheets of tissue. Has no blood supply of its own and depends on capillaries from connective tissue for food and oxygen. Also able to easily regenerate themselves. Classified by the number of cell layers as well as the shape of the cells.

Cranial sutures

Top green blob- Occipital bone Squiggly line under Green blob- Lambdoid suture Middle squiggle- Sagittal suture Squiggly above yellow blob- Coronal suture Left blue side- Left parietal bone Right blue side- Right parietal bone Yellow blob at the back- Frontal bone Side of back Yellow blob- Zygomatic bone Under Yellow blob at the back- Nasal bones

Functions of Hair, Nails, and Glands

The main function of hair is to keep the body warm, but what about clothing and jackets? Clothes provide more warmth than hair does. Due to these additional layers of insulation from clothing, the hair's function of warmth is reserved for other mammals. In humans, hair serves as a sensory receptor for touch and protects from sunlight, heat loss, and trauma. Nails function as a modified tool to help pick up small objects as well as scratch an itch. Human nails are comparable to the claws and hooves of animals. Sweat and oil glands secrete substances that contribute to temperature control, get rid of waste, kill bacteria found on the skin, and assist with water entry and loss.

Structures of the Nervous System

The main structures of the nervous system include the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Brain- The brain is the largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body. The brain can be divided into four regions that each have specialized functions: •Cerebrum. This part of the brain is the center for thought and reasoning. It has two parts—the right and left hemispheres. Each hemisphere controls movements and activities on the opposite side of the body. •Cerebral cortex. This part of the brain is located outside of the cerebrum and is in charge of higher functions like learning, language, memory, and reasoning. •Cerebellum. This section lies below the cerebrum at the back of the skull. It controls voluntary muscles and balance. •Medulla. This forms the brainstem that joins the cerebrum to the spinal cord and controls heart rate, breathing, swallowing, and coughing. Spinal Cord- The spinal cord is a long extension of the brainstem. It is found inside the vertebral column and is cushioned by meninges. The meninges are three membranes that cover the skull and vertebrae canal. The spinal cord is a pathway to and from the brain. It is also the main place for reflexes. Motor nerves send impulses from the brain down the spinal cord to various organs, while sensory nerves send impulses from body to spinal cord and up to the brain. Nerves- The nerves, or neurons, are specialized cells of the nervous system. The function of neurons is to send messages, or nerve impulses, from one part of the body to another. The general structure of nerve cells includes a cell body and extensions from this cell body called dendrites and axons. T he cell body is the center of the neuron that contains the nucleus and normal organelles of eukaryotic cells. The extensions of the neurons can reach across the whole body. Dendrites are processes that generate nerve impulses toward the cell body, while axons are the extensions that generate nerve impulses away from the cell body. The longest dendrite reaches from the lumbar region of the spine to the big toe. While neurons can have hundreds of dendrites, they only have one axon. The nervous system is an extremely complex system.

Neurons

The major structural cells of the nervous system are neurons. Neurons are large, highly specialized cells that conduct electrical messages, or nerve impulses, from one part of the body to another. Neuron Anatomy- While neurons have a unique structure, they contain many features common of other cells. Neurons have a nucleus and slender projections that protrude from the cell body. These projections are also referred to as processes. The cell body contains the usual organelles of other eukaryotic cells, except that they do not have centrioles. There is an abundant amount of rougher filaments that help maintain the cell body's shape. The projections of the cell body are either dendrites or axons. A neuron may contain hundreds of dendrites but will only ever have one axon. Axons branch into thousands of terminal ends called axon terminals. Inside axon terminals are neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are released when an impulse reaches the axon terminals. Terminals of different neurons do not touch; they are separated by a gap. The gap is the location of the synapse. Nerve fibers are covered by myelin, a protective fatty substance. Myelin insulates neuron fibers, allowing messages to move faster along these fibers. Axons of the PNS contain Schwann cells that wrap around the axon. After the Schwann cells have tightly wrapped around the axon, a myelin sheath covers the axon. The myelin sheath encloses individual Schwann cells, creating gaps between each cell called nodes of Ranvier. Oligodendrocytes in the CNS have the same function as Schwann cells in the PNS. Instead of coiling around individual cells, oligodendrocytes can surround as many as 60 different fibers at the same time. The biggest difference in Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes is the lack of neurilemma in oligodendrocytes. Neurilemma is the outermost part of the plasma membrane of the Schwann cells. Neurilemma plays an important role in fiber regeneration if a peripheral nerve fiber is damaged. Without the neurilemma, the CNS neurons do not have the ability to regenerate. Cell body clusters and nerve fibers are named based on their location. Most cell bodies form clusters called nuclei within the CNS. This location provides protection for these delicate cells. Nuclei carry out the metabolic functions of the neuron. If they are damaged, the cell body may die and cannot be replaced. Small collections of cell bodies in the PNS are called ganglia. Nerve fiber bundles in the CNS are called tracts. Nerve fibers in the PNS are called nerves. In the brain, white matter refers to myelinated tracts of the CNS, while gray matter is the unmyelinated fibers.

Hyaline cartilage

The most abundant cartilage in the human body is hyaline cartilage. The function of hyaline cartilage is to provide support with both flexibility and elasticity. Hyaline cartilage can be found in the following locations: •articular: covers the ends of many bones and joints •costal: connects the sternum to the ribs •respiratory: forms the larynx skeleton and reinforces respiratory passages •nasal: supports the outer portion of the nose

Muscles of Upper Limb

The muscles of the upper limb are divided into three groups: •shoulder girdle •muscles of the elbow •muscles of the forearm Muscles of the shoulder girdle include the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, and the deltoid which have all been previously discussed. In this section, we will discuss muscles of the elbow and forearm. •biceps brachii: This muscle creates a bulge in the forearm when the elbow is flexed. It originates from the shoulder girdle and inserts into the radial tuberosity. This muscle allows for a turning and pulling motion. •brachialis: This muscle lies deep to the biceps muscle and allows the elbow to flex. •brachioradialis: This weak muscle originates from the humerus and inserts into the forearm. •triceps brachii: The heads of this muscle originate from the shoulder girdle and the humerus, and inserts into the ulna. This muscle is a powerful mover that allows elbow extension. This is the muscle that would deliver a straight-armed knockout punch in a boxing match. •flexor carpi: This group of anterior muscles of the forearm flexes the wrist. •flexor digitorum: These anterior muscles of the forearm flex the fingers. •extensor carpi: These lateral muscles of the forearm extend the wrist. •extensor digitorum: These lateral muscles of the forearm extend the fingers.

Appendicular skeleton diagram

Top of the ribcage oval bone- Pectoral girdle Arms- Upper-limbs Flat bone on each side of the spine- Pelvic girdle Legs- Lower limbs

Anatomy of Muscular System

The muscular system is made of three different types of muscle tissue: •skeletal muscle •smooth muscle •cardiac muscle All muscle cells are elongated (longer than they are wide) cells, called muscle fibers. These fibers have the ability to shorten, or contract, depending on the type of fibers present.

Development and aging of the nervous system

The nervous system begins developing in the first month of an embryo's life. The embryo is made of three layers that will eventually develop into organs, bone, muscle, skin, and neural tissue. Skin and neural tissue come from the ectoderm, which is the outer layer. The neural tube develops from the thickening of the ectoderm and will eventually become the central nervous system.

Organization of the Nervous System

The nervous system is structurally divided into two divisions, the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system is made of the brain and spinal cord. These structures are the integration command centers of the nervous system. This division is responsible for interpreting sensory information and analyzing past experiences as well as current conditions to generate a response. Throughout this Unit, the central nervous system will be abbreviated to CNS. The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that branch from the brain and spinal cord. Nerves that carry impulses to and from the brain are called cranial nerves. Nerves that carry impulses to and from the spine are called spinal nerves. These peripheral nerves link the body to the CNS, providing the path for communication. Throughout this Unit, the peripheral nervous system will be abbreviated to PNS. The PNS has two parts or divisions: the sensory (afferent) division and the motor (efferent) division. The sensory division is made of nerve fibers that send impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors located throughout the body. Somatic sensory fibers send impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints. The visceral sensory fibers send impulses from the internal organs. The sensory division is responsible for constantly informing the CNS of what is occurring inside and outside the body. The motor division carries impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands. These impulses allow muscles to contract and glands to secrete. The motor division has two parts: somatic and autonomic nervous systems. •The somatic nervous system- made of somatic motor nerve fibers that send impulses from the CNS to the skeletal muscle. This is what allows the body to consciously control skeletal muscles, like moving arms and legs. Because of this, the somatic nervous system is also called the voluntary nervous system. •The autonomic nervous system- made of visceral motor nerve fibers that control the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. Since a person has no control over the beating of the heart or smooth muscles like the stomach digesting food, this division is called the involuntary nervous system. The autonomic nervous system controls functions of the body that a person does not control and can perform even when someone is unconscious.

Function of the Nervous System

The nervous system is the master control system of the body. The nervous system is responsible for receiving sensory information from the environment and developing a response to that information. The nervous system uses fast moving electrical impulses to send a message that creates an almost immediate response. The nervous system has three interconnected functions: 1 -Sensory input. The nervous system monitors changes inside and outside the body with sensory receptors. The changes are called stimuli. The information collected is known as sensory input. 2 -Integration. The nervous system interprets sensory input and then decides a course of action for what should be done about the input. This process is called integration. 3 -Motor output. The nervous system generates a response by activating muscles or glands. This response is called the motor output. These functions work together for the body to accurately respond to the environment. For example, when riding a bike, a person sees a car coming. This is the sensory input. The brain integrates that the person needs to stop the bike to avoid being hit. A motor output is sent that allows the muscles of the hand to clamp the bike's brake to stop it.

Anatomy of the Skeletal System

The organs of our skeletal system include: cartilage, ligaments, joints, and bones.

Development of the Senses

The organs of the special senses are part of the nervous system and are developed early in embryonic stages. •The auditory system is completely developed by 20 weeks of gestation, but the fetus cannot respond to loud noises until about 23 weeks of gestation. After birth, infants can hear their own cry. By three or four months old, they are able to vocalize sounds in response to the voices of family members. A toddler's ability to begin speaking is tied to her ability to hear well. Other than ear infections, there are few problems that affect the ears during childhood or adulthood. Gradual deterioration starts at around 60 years old. This leads to not being able to hear high tones or sounds of speech. •Taste buds emerge at week 8 of gestation, and by 13-15 weeks the fetus has taste buds similar to adults. •Smell develops along with the sense of taste. Until 28 weeks, the nasal cavity is filled with tissue, but after that time the fetus can start to respond to scents. The senses of taste and smell are sharpest at birth. Infants are able to taste foods that adults would think are tasteless. In childhood and young adulthood, there are few problems associated with taste and smell. In the mid 40s, receptor cells begin to decrease in number, causing the sense of smell and taste to not be as strong. Many people who are in their 80s cannot smell or taste very well, if at all. •Eye development begins as early as week 4 and continues after birth. Sight is the only sense that is not fully developed at birth. It takes years of learning for the eyes to be completely functional. At birth, vision is blurry, even for objects that are near. As the eyeballs grow, babies see more clearly. Newborns are also color-blind (can only see in gray tones), and they only use one eye at a time instead of both. Babies are usually tearless for a few weeks until the lacrimal glands develop fully. By five months, babies can clearly see anything near them and is able to follow moving objects. By age five, children have fully developed color vision, improved visual acuity, and depth perception. Vision continues in emmetropia until about the age of 40. Emmetropia means that the eyes are relaxed and able to focus on objects at varying distances. Around age 40 presbyopia can start to set in, which makes it difficult to focus on close objects. This condition is why some older people hold reading materials at arm's length. With continued aging, the lacrimal glands become less active. This leads to dry eyes that are more vulnerable to infection by bacteria. Lenses lose their clarity and become discolored, and the muscles of the iris do not work as well and become constricted. Other conditions that occur in the elderly, like glaucoma, cataracts, and diabetes, can also contribute to damage and changes in vision.

Joints and Ligaments

The other structures of the skeletal system are joints and ligaments. Joints contain cartilage between the bones for cushioning and ligaments that connect the bones to each other, while also providing support to the joint.

Pancreas

The pancreas is located in the abdominal cavity close to the stomach. The pancreas is a mixed gland that contains the pancreatic islets. The pancreatic islets are hormone-producing tissues mixed with enzyme-producing tissues inside the pancreas. The enzyme tissue works within the digestive system, so this Lesson will discuss only the islets. Two important hormones made inside the islets are insulin and glucagon. Insulin is released from the islets due to high levels of glucose in the blood. Insulin acts on all body cells and increases their ability to transport glucose across the plasma membrane. Inside the plasma membrane, glucose is converted for energy or fat storage. As blood glucose levels decrease, insulin is no longer released. Glucagon is an antagonist to insulin that helps regulate blood glucose levels. Glucagon is released from alpha cells of the islets when the blood glucose levels are low. The primary target of glucagon is the liver, where it breaks down stored glycogen into glucose and releases that glucose into the blood.

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

The parasympathetic division of the ANS is responsible for conserving energy in the body. The first neurons of this division are located in the brain nuclei of several cranial nerves and in S2-S4 of the spinal cord.

Development of the Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system develops from the neural crest of the neural tube. The growth and branching of the spinal nerves are developed by the embryo's fourth week. With age, sensory receptors atrophy, muscle tone decreases, and reflexes slow down. Deterioration occurs due to a general loss of neurons, fewer synapses per neuron, and a slowdown in central processing.

Development of Endocrine Organs and Hormones

The pituitary gland forms within the neural plate. By seven weeks of gestation, the pituitary system starts to develop and is capable of secreting adrenocorticotropic hormone; by eight weeks, the human growth hormone starts developing. By 12 weeks, TSH and the gonadotrophic hormones are found, and at 24 weeks of gestation, prolactin production begins. The adrenal cortex begins developing within four weeks of gestation, starting from the mesoderm layer. After five or six weeks, the tissue starts producing cells for the development of the gonads and the adrenal cortex. By seven weeks of gestation, adrenal cells are joined by sympathetic cells from the neural crest to create the adrenal medulla. By the end of the eighth week, the adrenal glands have formed an organ above the developing kidneys. By 25 weeks after birth, the adrenal glands are responsible for the creation of steroids. By 16-17 days of gestation, the thyroid gland starts developing from two clusters of embryonic cells. By 12 weeks, the thyroid can store iodine, which helps make thyrotropin-releasing hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and a free thyroid hormone. At 20 weeks, the fetus starts responding to feedback mechanisms to produce thyroid hormones. The parathyroid glands start to develop at four weeks of gestation. By 14 weeks, the gland begins to enlarge, and it begins functioning at the beginning of the second trimester. The pancreas starts to develop by week four. By eight to ten weeks of gestation, the pancreas is making insulin and glucagon. The reproductive system starts to develop at four to five weeks of gestation. The differentiation of gonads begins as early as 42 days after conception. The testes form in males at six weeks, and by ten weeks, androgen hormones are made. These hormones help the male external genitalia continue to develop. Testicles start descending from the pelvic cavity at eight weeks of gestation and continue until the middle of the third trimester when they reach the scrotum. The ovaries start to develop by the eighth week of gestation, and by 16 weeks they are producing follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. At 20 weeks of gestation, mitosis of egg cells is occurring, and by 25 weeks, the development of follicles can begin. As long as there are no complications, the endocrine system will continue to function into adulthood.

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is about the size of a grape and hangs from the hypothalamus in the brain. The pituitary gland contains two functional lobes, the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary. Anterior Pituitary- There are six hormones that originate from the anterior pituitary. All the hormones of the anterior pituitary hormones include the following factors: 1 -made of proteins 2 -act by secondary messengers 3 -regulated by hormonal stimuli and a negative feedback loop Growth hormone (GH) is a general metabolic hormone that plays a major role in determining the final body size. The major effects of growth hormones occur in the growth of the skeletal muscles and long bones of the body. GH is a hormone that causes amino acids to be made into proteins that stimulate the target cells to grow in size and divide. It also causes fats to be broken down and used for energy, instead of glucose, which helps maintain blood sugar balance. Prolactin (PRL) is a protein hormone similar to growth hormone. The only target for PRL is the breast, as it stimulates and maintains milk production after a woman gives birth. These two hormones of the anterior pituitary act on nonendocrine targets. In contrast, tropic hormones stimulate a target organ (another endocrine gland) to secrete a hormone that acts on other body organs or tissues. •Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) controls endocrine activity in the cortex portion of the adrenal gland. •Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), also called thyrotrophic hormone, influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland. •Gonadotropic hormones regulate hormone activity of the gonads (ovaries and testes). •Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates follicle development in the ovaries of females; in males, FSH stimulates sperm development. •Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation of an egg and causes the follicle to become a corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and estrogen; in men, LH stimulates testosterone production. Posterior Pituitary- The posterior pituitary is technically not an endocrine gland because it does not make the hormones it secretes; it is instead a storage place for hormones made by the hypothalamic neurons. Oxytocin is a hormone stored in the posterior pituitary to be released during childbirth and in women who are nursing. Oxytocin is sometimes called the "love hormone." This hormone helps facilitate bonding between romantic partners and between parents and children. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) causes the kidneys to reabsorb water from the urine. As more water is removed, it decreases the urine volume and increase the blood volume. ADH also increases blood pressure by causing constriction of small arteries and is considered a vasopressin. Hypothalamus- The hypothalamus is also part of the nervous system and is located in the diencephalon of the brain. The hypothalamus controls activities such as thirst, fluid balance, and body temperature, among other functions. The hypothalamus is the gland that controls the pituitary gland, which means it controls most of the other glands in the endocrine system. The hypothalamus releases the following hormones: •thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) •gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) •growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) •corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH)

Denotative

The primary meaning of a word

Experimental investigation

The process of performing a fair test to gather evidence to support or refute a hypothesis.

Connective Tissue

The purpose is to connect body parts. It can be found everywhere in the body. Has varying types of blood supply depending on its location, many different types of cells, and an extracellular matrix.

Facial muscles

Top middle circle- Temporalis Front of the cranium- Frontals Eye area- Orbicularis Under/ beside the frontal- Orbicularis Oculi Lips- Orbicularis Oris Behind Oris- Buccinator Cheek bone- Masseter Neck- Platysma Behind neck- Sternocleidomastoid In front of cheek bone- Zygomaticus

periosteum

a dense layer of vascular connective tissue that envelops the bones

Sense of Taste

The receptors of taste are the taste buds found in the mouth. Humans have about 10,000 taste buds, and most are located on the tongue with a few on the soft palate and inner surface of the cheeks. The dorsal tongue surface is covered by papillae, small peg-like projections. There are three types of papillae: sharp filiform papillae, rounded fungiform papillae, circumvallate papillae. Taste buds can be found on the sides of the circumvallate papillae and on the fungiform papillae. Gustatory cells are the specific cells that respond to chemicals that are dissolved in the saliva. These cells are surrounded by supporting cells in the taste bud. The gustatory hairs have long microvilli that go through the taste pore. When they are stimulated, they send impulses to the brain. There are five different tastes that result from five different types of taste buds: •sweet receptors •sour receptors •bitter receptors •salty receptors •savory receptors (also called umami) It was believed that the tip of the tongue was sensitive to sweet and salty substances, while the sides were sensitive to sour and the back sensitive to bitter substances. However, it has since been discovered that there are only slight differences in the locations of the taste receptors in the different areas of the tongue. Also, taste buds can respond to more than one of the taste receptors. The sense of taste has a homeostatic balance importance. Craving sugar and salt can help satisfy the body's need for carbohydrates and minerals; sour or naturally acidic foods, such as oranges, lemons, and tomatoes, are sources of vitamin C. The dislike for bitter foods serves as a protection from natural poisons and spoiled foods. Taste can be affected by many factors, because it depends on sense of smell. Smelling foods helps give them flavor. People who cannot smell typically do not enjoy eating. Without olfactory receptors, taste receptors are not able to develop the complex sensations of taste. Other factors such as temperature and texture of food can hurt or help the taste experience. ex: some people dislike the texture of yogurt or avocados, and the hot temperature of peppers will excite taste and pain receptors in the mouth.

Excretion

The removal of waste from the body. Several systems assist with excretion of accumulated waste, including the digestive system, cardiovascular system, urinary system, and lymphatic system.

Positive Feedback Loop

The response increases the original stimulus and accelerates the response. The response goes in the same direction as the initial stimulus and pushes the factor further away from the original point. Part of infrequent events of the body, such as contractions during labor or blood clotting. During labor, the hormone oxytocin is released, which increases the contractions of the uterus. As more oxytocin is released, the contractions become stronger until the baby is delivered. Once the delivery occurs, the positive feedback mechanism is turned off.

Sense of Smell

The sense of smell is possible because of olfactory receptors found in each nasal cavity. With each sniff, there is an increase in airflow over the olfactory receptors that intensify the sense of smell. Olfactory receptor cells are neurons with olfactory hairs covered by a layer of mucus. When the receptors are stimulated by chemicals found in the mucus, they send impulses to the olfactory nerve. These impulses are sent to the olfactory cortex of the brain where interpretation of the odor occurs. The olfactory pathways are closely tied to the limbic system, which means that olfactory memories are a long lasting part of the emotions. ex: the smell of cookies may remind someone of his grandma, while smoked barbecue reminds him of family reunions. Olfactory receptors are extremely sensitive; it only takes a few molecules to activate them. The olfactory neurons are also able to adapt with changing stimuli, or odors. This factor is why over time people stop smelling their own perfume or cologne but can quickly smell the scent of someone else's.

Formation of Bony Skeleton

The skeleton of an embryo is made of hyaline cartilage and fibrous membranes. During about week 8 of pregnancy, bone tissue starts to develop. The bone that develops occurs by two processes: •endochondral ossification: creates bones from endochondral cartilage •intramembranous ossification: creates bone from the fibrous membrane; membrane bone

Metabolic Function

The skin contains cholesterol molecules that are converted to vitamin D by sunlight. Vitamin D is important in the metabolism of calcium. Calcium cannot be absorbed into the digestive system without the presence of vitamin D. Getting sunlight is important for the production of this nutrient; however, too much sun can be damaging to skin cells.

Excretion

The skin contributes to the elimination of waste through the sweat glands. There are more than 2.5 million sweat glands on the average human body. These glands eliminate water, urea, uric acid, and salts from the body.

Protection

The skin is the first layer of protection for the human body. The skin is made of many layers that serve as barriers to the outside world. The skin is a chemical barrier, physical barrier, and biological barrier. *The secretions of the skin and melanin serve as chemical barriers. The acidic nature of sweat and sebum secretions kill bacteria found on the skin. They are acidic, which means the secretions have the properties of an acid and possess a pH lower than 7. Melanin acts as a chemical shield from ultraviolet radiation. *The hardness of keratinized cells creates a physical barrier. These cells regulate water loss as well as the penetration of water and other substances into the body. The dendritic cells of the epidermis serve as a biological barrier. These cells activate the immune response when foreign substances enter the skin.

Facial Bones

The skull is made up of 14 facial bones. The differences in a man and woman's face come from the structure of these 14 bones. A woman's facial skeleton is usually rounder and has fewer angles, while a man's facial skeleton is more elongated. •mandible •maxillary •zygomatic bones •nasal bones •lacrimal bones •palatine bones •vomer •inferior nasal conchae Mandible- the U-shaped lower jawbone and the largest and strongest bone of the face. This bone forms the chin and has two branches that go up the lateral portion of the face. The mandible contains processes and projections that support the jaw while chewing, anchor the teeth, and allow nerves and blood vessels to pass through the chin and lower lip. Maxillary (or maxillae)- form the upper jaw and central section of the facial skeleton. The maxillae are the central bones of the facial skeleton, and they connect with all the facial bones. The maxillae anchor the upper teeth, form the bridge of the nose, and allow blood vessels and nerves to reach the face. Zygomatic bones- commonly called the cheekbones. The articulation of the zygomatic bones, processes, and temporal bones create the prominence of the cheeks. Nasal bones- thin, rectangular bones that form the bridge of the nose and connect to cartilage that creates the external nose. Lacrimal bones- contribute to the wall of each orbit and contain a passageway that allows tears to drain from the eye. Palatine bones- L-shaped plates that make up the hard palate, or roof of the mouth. Vomer- located in the nasal cavity and forms the nasal septum. Inferior nasal conchae- thin, curved bones paired within the nasal cavity, and they make up the lateral walls of the cavity.

Homeostasis

The state of having a stable environment

Sternum

The sternum, or breastbone, is positioned in the anterior midline of the thorax. The sternum is a flat bone about 15 cm, or 6 in, long. This bone serves as an attachment place for the clavicle bone and ribs and a protection plate for the heart that lies deep to this bone.

Nerve cells

The structures in control of most of the body responses. These cells are very sensitive and highly irritable. They communicate with each other and the brain to control all aspects of the human body, thereby keeping the body responsive to all internal and external stimuli.

Anatomy

The study of body structure

Physiology

The study of the functions of an organism

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

The sympathetic division is responsible for supporting the body during extreme situations. The first neurons of this division are located in the gray matter of the spinal cord from T1-L2.

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a fairly large gland that can be found at the base of the throat. The thyroid is made of two lobes connected by a central mass called the isthmus. The thyroid gland is composed of hollow structures called follicles that store colloid material, which helps to create hormones. The thyroid gland makes two hormones, thyroid hormone and calcitonin. Thyroid hormone is the body's major metabolic hormone. It controls the rate of glucose being converted into body heat and chemical energy. Since all cells need chemical energy, all cells are target cells of the thyroid hormone. Thyroid hormone is also used in normal tissue growth and helps develop the reproductive and nervous systems. Calcitonin is the second hormone produced by the thyroid gland. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited into the bone and acts as an antagonist to parathyroid hormone. Calcitonin is made by the cells found in the connective tissues between the follicles and is released directly into the blood as a response to increasing levels of blood calcium.

Split-brain

There have been situations in which the corpus callosum of a patient has been damaged or purposely severed out of medical necessity to stop frequent, harmful seizures. essentially leaves the person with two brains operating independently of one another. Some split-brain individuals are mentally impaired. ex-In one case, a woman who was suffering from seizures had her corpus callosum severed. She was still able to write with her right hand because it was connected to the language-oriented left hemisphere. However, she could no longer use her right hand to draw or work a jigsaw puzzle because that would have required the nonverbal right hemisphere to pass information through the left brain. When allowed to use her left hand, she was able to complete the puzzle.

Protection of the Central Nervous System

The tissue of the nervous system is irreplaceable and can be easily damaged by even the smallest amount of pressure. The human body has built-in structures to provide levels of protection for the central nervous system: the meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood-brain barrier. Meninges- Meninges are three connective tissue membranes that cover and protect the CNS. The outermost layer is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the brain called the dura mater. The middle meningeal layer is the arachnoid mater, named because it looks like a spider (arachnid) web. The threadlike extensions of this layer cover the subarachnoid space and attach to the inner membrane, called the pia mater. The pia mater holds tight to every fold of the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal Fluid- The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery substance that has a similar composition to the plasma in the blood. CSF contains less protein than plasma, but more vitamin C, and it has a different ion composition than plasma. The CSF provides a cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue from any trauma. The CSF continuously circulates around the brain and drains back into the blood. The flow of the CSF has to keep a constant rate and normal pressure and volume. If there are significant changes in the composition of the CSF, it could be a sign of several different brain diseases. CSF is obtained for analysis by a healthcare professional through a spinal tap, in which a needle is used to withdraw fluid from the lower back. The Blood-Brain Barrier- The blood-brain barrier keeps neurons separated from blood-borne substances that could modify the environment of the brain. This barrier is made of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body. Only water, glucose, and essential amino acids can pass through the walls of these capillaries. The barrier does not protect against fats, respiratory gases, and other fat-soluble molecules which can easily get through the membrane. This is the reason why alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics can affect the brain. Spinal Cord- The spinal cord is approximately 43 cm (17 in) of tissue that extends from the brainstem. The spinal cord provides a two-way transmission pathway to and from the brain. It also serves as a major reflex center. The spinal cord is located inside the vertebral column and is protected by the meninges. Humans have 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Gray matter of the spinal cord surrounds the central canal of the cord and contains CSF. The gray matter contains sensory neurons that, if damaged, can cause a person to lose sensation in the area of the body these nerves serve. The white matter of the spinal cord is made of myelinated fiber tracts that send impulses from one side of the cord to another.

Regions and Curves

The vertebral column is 70 centimeters (cm), or 28 inches (in), long and is divided into five major regions. The vertebrae contained in each region are labeled by the initial of the region and the number of the vertebra. •cervical curvature: first seven vertebrae (C1-C7) •thoracic curvature: 12 vertebrae (T1-T12) •lumbar curvature: five lowest mobile vertebrae (L1-L5) •sacral curvature: five fused vertebrae •coccyx: four fused vertebrae Moving down the vertebral column, the vertebrae become larger to accommodate the greater amount of weight. When looking at the column from the side, the curves create an S shape, called a sinusoid.

Ribs

There are 12 pairs of bones that make up the lateral section of the thoracic cage. These bones, called ribs, attach to the thoracic vertebrae and curve toward the anterior surface of the body. The first seven pairs of ribs are attached directly to the sternum by costal cartilage. The remaining five pairs do not have a direct attachment to the sternum, but instead attach to the costal cartilage of the superior ribs. Ribs 11 and 12 are called "floating ribs" because they do not have any attachment to the sternum. Between the ribs are intercostal muscles that lift the rib cage while breathing. The ribs increase in length as they go from pair 1 to pair 7, then decrease from pair 8 to pair 12. When touching the lateral chest area, you should be able to count most of your ribs.

Homeostatic Imbalance

There are a number of factors that can block the conduction of impulses. Alcohol, sedatives, and anesthetics all block nerve impulses by reducing membrane permeability to sodium ions. If there are no sodium ions, there is no action potential. That is why someone who has drunk too much alcohol or taken a sedative has slowed responses.

Bone Cells

There are four major bone cells that create bone tissue: •osteogenic cells •osteoblasts •osteocytes •osteoclasts Osteogenic cells- active stem cells found in the membranes of the bones. These cells can differentiate depending on their location and the condition of the body. When a young person is still growing, osteogenic cells are flattened squamous cells. If stimulated, they change into osteoblast cells. Osteoblast cells- responsible for forming bones and secreting bone matrix. Osteocytes- mature bone cells that monitor and maintain the bone matrix. These cells sense any stress or strain on the bones and communicate this information to other cells for bone remodeling. Osteoclasts- responsible for breaking down bone for resorption, or absorption into the circulation of cells or tissue.

(ANS)

There are many parts of your body that work without your conscious control—your heart beats, your stomach contracts to digest, and your glands secrete hormones. ex: Imagine if you had to think about these actions; imagine if you had to consciously remember to tell your heart to beat. These vital functions of the visceral organs are controlled by the autonomic nervous system The autonomic nervous system is the motor subdivision of the PNS that automatically controls the body's activities. This division is made of a special group of neurons that control the cardiac muscle of the heart, the smooth muscles found in visceral organs and blood vessels, and the glands. The ANS plays an important role in maintaining the homeostasis of the body's internal environment. Signals are constantly being sent from the visceral organs to the CNS, where messages are sent to the autonomic nerves to make any changes necessary to support the body's activities. ex: a message could be sent that the heart needs to beat faster to get more oxygen to the lungs while exercising, or the secretions in the stomach may need to be adjusted to properly digest food. Most of these changes are made by the body without the individual's awareness, which is what makes the ANS the involuntary nervous system. Motor nerves and activity of the nervous system that controls skeletal muscles—the somatic nervous system. There are several differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. These two systems have different organs that they activate; they release different types of neurotransmitters and send messages using different pathways. The ANS also uses a two-motor neuron system instead of a one-motor neuron system. The ANS is divided into two divisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Both of these divisions serve the same organs, but they have opposite effects as they work to keep the body at equilibrium. The sympathetic division activates the body during extreme situations, such as fear, exercise, or rage. The parasympathetic division allows the body to relax and conserve energy.

Spinal Curvatures

There are several types of abnormal spinal curvatures. These curvatures can occur at birth or come from disease, poor posture, or unequal muscle pull on the spine. -Scoliosis- means twisted disease, is an abnormal lateral curvature of the thoracic vertebrae. This condition occurs more often during late childhood and usually affects girls. Scoliosis occurs when muscles on one side of the baby are not functioning and create a pull on the spine that forces it out of alignment. Treatment of scoliosis includes body braces or surgery. These treatments have to occur before growth is complete to prevent permanent damage and potential breathing problems. -Kyphosis- Kyphosis, or hunchback, is an abnormal, exaggerated dorsal thoracic curvature. This condition is common in the elderly due to osteoporosis but can also be a side effect of rickets or osteomalacia. -Lordosis- Lordosis, or swayback, is a noticeable lumbar curvature which can also occur from osteomalacia. Temporary lordosis can occur when extra weight is being carried up front, like during pregnancy. People suffering from lordosis are attempting to maintain their center of gravity and throw back their shoulder, which causes the extra lumbar curvature.

Types of Joints

There are three major types of joints: •fibrous joints •cartilaginous joints •synovial joints Fibrous joints are immovable connections of bones. These joints are held together by collagen and can be found in the bones of the skull. Cartilaginous joints are partly movable and have a very limited range of motion. These joints are held together by cartilage. The vertebrae, ribs, and sternum are connected by cartilaginous joints. Synovial joints allow for the most movement and are the most prevalent joints in the body. These joints are connected by ligaments and can be classified further by their range of motion.

Classification of Bones

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. -Compact bone is smooth and dense. -Spongy bone consists of small pieces of bone and open spaces. Inside the open spaces of spongy bone is red or yellow bone marrow. Blood cells are formed in bone marrow. Bones can further be classified by their shape as either long, short, flat, or irregular Long bones- longer than they are wide. These bones have a rounded end, or head, on each end of the bone. Long bones make up the limbs (arms and legs) and are made mostly from compact bone. Short bones- found in the ankles and wrists. They are made of more spongy than compact bone and have a cubed shape. Flat bones- thin, flat, and usually curved. Flat bones make up the skull, ribs, and the sternum. All other types of bones are irregular bones. The unique shape of the vertebrae and hip bones classifies them as irregular bones.

Types of Contractions

There are two types of contractions: •isotonic contractions •isometric contractions isotonic contractions- the myofilaments are able to complete their sliding motion, which allows the muscle to shorten and move. These types of contractions are the most common and occur when bending the knees, moving the arms, or even smiling. Isometric contractions- are contractions where the muscle does not shorten. When these contractions occur, the myofilaments are not able to move, and it creates tension in the muscle. Isometric contractions occur when someone tries to lift a heavy object alone.

stimulus

There are two types of responses. Negative and positive feedback.

Regulation of Temperature

There is a series of events that must occur in order to keep the body within the proper temperature range. *First, the nervous system has to communicate with the integumentary system in order for this process to occur. *The hypothalamus is a gland found in the brain that serves as the body's thermostat. As the receptors in the skin experience a change in temperature, the process that will attempt to regulate body temperature is activated. *If the receptor senses increased body temperature, the response is vasodilation and sweating. The purpose of increasing the size of the blood vessels is to expose hot blood to the cooler outside temperature. This allows the heat to radiate from the body to the outside environment. When sweating occurs, sweat glands secrete water and waste products onto the skin's surface. As the water evaporates off the surface of the skin, the body starts to cool. When the receptors sense a cold environment, the response is vasoconstriction, goosebumps, and muscle shivers. Reducing the size of blood vessels pulls the heat of the blood away from the surface of the skin. Goosebumps occur when the arrector pili muscles attached to the hair contract, causing the hairs to stand up. These goosebumps create a layer of insulation from the cooler environment. Muscles will also shiver, or relax and contract rapidly, as a way to generate body heat.

External stimuli

Things experienced with the five senses. Any stimulus that is heard, seen, touched, tasted, or smelled can be an external stimulus.

Functional neuron classification diagram

Tree branches/ veiny branches- Dendrites To the right- Direction of conduction On top of Direction of conduction- Sensory neuron Butt plug- Cell body Blue line attaching every thing- Axon Big blue circle with tentacles- Cell body Below big blue circle with tentacles- Interneuron Under the final axon- Motor neuron

Trunk Muscles

Trunk muscles include all muscles that move the vertebral column; the anterior thorax muscles that move the ribs, head, and arms; and the muscles of the abdominal wall. Anterior Muscles- •pectoralis major: This is a large fan-shaped muscle covering the upper part of the chest. The origin is in the shoulder girdle and the first six ribs, and it inserts at the proximal end of the humerus. This muscle allows one to adduct and flex the arm. Adduct means to move toward the midline. •intercostal muscles: This is a group of deep muscles found between the ribs. The external intercostal helps raise the rib cage when breathing air in, and the internal intercostal depresses the rib cage when breathing air out. Abdominal Movement- All the muscles of the abdominal area create a supportive girdle that reinforces the body's trunk. The fibers of these muscle cells run in different directions, forming a muscular wall built for containing and protecting the organs of the abdominal region. •rectus abdominis: These are the most superficial muscles of the abdomen, running from the pubis to the rib cage. The muscles are used during defecation and childbirth. •external obliques: The external obliques are a set of paired superficial muscles that make up the lateral walls of the abdomen. These muscles help the trunk to rotate or twist from side to side and bend laterally. •internal obliques: This set of paired muscles is deep to the external obliques. The fibers of the internal oblique run at 90° angles to the external oblique. They also have a similar function to the external obliques. •transverse abdominis: This is the deepest muscle of the abdominal wall. It comes from the ribs and inserts into the pubis. This muscle helps stabilize the core and is used in deep breathing or trying to make the stomach look as flat as possible. Back Movement- The posterior muscles make up the muscles of the back. •trapezius: These superficial muscles of the posterior neck and upper trunk form a diamond-shaped muscle mass across the back. The function of these muscles is to elevate, depress, adduct, and stabilize the scapulae. •latissimus dorsi: This is the large, flat muscle that covers the lower back. •deltoid: This is a group of rounded, triangular muscles that attach at the front, side, and back of the shoulder.

Data

Two types: Qualitative- Data is obtained through observations of the quality of an object, such as color, texture, smell, consistency, sound, and taste. Quantitative-Data that has a quantity (number) that is measured.

Skeletal muscle cell diagram

Upper brown dot- Nucleus Line between the bottom dot- Sarcolemma The red end of the hot dog pointing to a dot inside- Mitochondria Sticking out of the red end- Myofibril

Descripted investigations

Used when there is little known about the topic being studied.

melanoma diagram

Very top brown faded stuff- Abnormal area Brown bubbles- melanoma Orange top to orange dashes- Epidermis Milk bone area- Dermis Yellow bubbles- Hypodermis Red bottom meat- Muscle layer

Technology and the Senses

Vision Technology: There are several different technologies that are used for treating eye conditions. Advances in laser cataract surgery use computer-guided lasers to improve accuracy and precision in the elimination of cataracts. Use of this new technology allows the surgeon to use lower levels of laser energy to break apart the clouded lens and speeds up the recovery process. Refractive surgery is the surgical procedure used to correct vision problems such as nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism, and presbyopia. This surgery reduces the dependency on glasses or contact lenses. LASIK is a type of refractive surgery performed using lasers. In the procedure, the laser reshapes the cornea to allow light to enter the eye and objects to properly focus on the retina. LASIK is painless and completed within 15 minutes for both eyes, with improved vision being seen as soon as 24 hours after surgery. Advanced intraocular lenses are corrective lenses for an astigmatism. These lenses minimize the effects that an astigmatism has on the cornea and significantly reduce the use of glasses or contact lenses after surgery is completed. Hearing Technology: With today's technology, just about any level of hearing loss can be helped with hearing assistive technology. Hearing aids are the most common devices used to improve mild to moderate hearing loss. Hearing aids can be tiny devices that fit in the ear canal or larger devices that are placed behind a person's ear. Hearing aids either use tubes to deliver sounds into the ear canal, or they use a tiny speaker to deliver sounds into the ear. Cochlear implants- used when there is severe to complete hearing loss in both ears. A cochlear implant has inner and outer parts. The internal component is surgically inserted under the skin behind the ear, and a wire is threaded into the inner ear. The internal component is connected to the external component through the skin. With the implant, incoming sounds are converted into electrical currents, which flow to the wire and send electrical impulses to the inner ear. Implanted hearing- help increase the transmission of sound vibrations into the inner ear. A small device is attached to one of the bones of the middle ear to allow the bones to move and strengthen sound vibrations. Osseo integrated devices are bone-anchored hearing devices that are implanted in the skull behind the ear. A microphone and hearing aid cause the device to vibrate and transmit the vibrations to the inner ear to produce sound. Hearing assistive technology- used to improve hearing in various listening situations as well. These technologies enhance telephone use, TV reception, and improve listening ability in various public areas. Ex: audio loops, infrared systems, and FM transmitters. •Audio loops are wires that connect to a sound system and transmit the sound through electromagnetic waves. The signal is picked up by a hearing aid or cochlear implant. •An infrared system uses invisible light beams to carry sounds from the source to a personal receiver. •An FM system sends radio waves to a personal receiver. These devices help the user hear when background noise is loud and there is a long distance from the speaker. The special senses play a role in homeostasis by interacting with the environment to transmit information to the brain. As each of these senses transmit the collected information, the nervous system becomes responsible for generating the appropriate response to maintain balance in the human body.

Control of Hormone Release

We have identified that hormones are released in order to control bodily processes, but how do endocrine hormones know when to release, and which hormone should be released? Hormones are released based on a negative feedback mechanism. These mechanisms are the main way that blood levels of almost all hormones are controlled. Hormone secretion is triggered by a stimulus to generate a response in the target cell. The stimulus is either hormonal, humoral, or neural. Hormonal stimuli are the most common for endocrine organs. In these cases the endocrine organs react because of other hormones. ex: the hypothalamus hormones stimulate the release of other hormones in the following ways: 1 -The hypothalamus secretes hormones. 2 -The hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete hormones. 3 -These hormones stimulate the thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, and testes to secrete hormones. After the final target organs secrete their hormones into the bloodstream, they send a negative feedback to stop the release of the anterior pituitary hormones that started this sequence of events. The hormones released by this mechanism are rhythmic; they release with the rise and fall of hormone blood levels. Humoral stimuli activate the release of hormones due to the changing levels of ions and nutrients in the blood. ex: the release of parathyroid hormone occurs due to decreasing levels of calcium in the blood according to this pattern: 1 -Capillary blood has a low concentration of calcium. 2 -Parathyroid hormone is released from the parathyroid gland. 3 -Blood calcium levels are increased, and the parathyroid hormone is no longer released. Insulin from the pancreas is also released by the humoral response. Neural stimuli occur when nerve fibers generate a hormone release. Though infrequent, the sympathetic nervous system's response during stressful times comes from a neural stimulus: 1 -Preganglionic SNS fibers stimulate the adrenal medulla cells. 2 -The adrenal medulla cells secrete norepinephrine and epinephrine. 3 -These hormones generate a response to stress.

endocrine system

We have identified that the nervous system controls the human body by sending fast electrical messages, but the endocrine system is responsible for sending slow chemical messages to regulate the body. We will now focus on the endocrine system and how it controls the human body. There are two main structures of the endocrine system, hormones and glands. The function of this system is to control the following processes of the human body: •reproduction •growth and development •maintenance of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance in the blood •regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance •mobilization of body defenses

Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

We will now identify and describe the gross, or major, skeletal muscles of the body. Facial Movement- Facial muscles are inserted into soft tissues of the face, such as other muscles or skin. The movements of facial muscles allow people to smile and make the many unique expressions of human faces: • frontalis: covers the frontal bone and inserts at the eyebrows. This muscle allows a person to raise the eyebrows in surprise and to wrinkle the forehead. • orbicularis oculi: runs in circles around the eyes. This muscle is used when someone closes or squints the eyes, winks, or blinks. • orbicularis oris: circular muscle of the lips. This muscle closes the mouth and allows one to protrude the lips. It is called the kissing muscle. • buccinator: runs horizontal across the cheek and inserts at the orbicularis oris. This muscle flattens the cheek for whistling and for holding food between the teeth when chewing. •zygomaticus: covers from the corner of the mouth to the cheekbone. It is called the smiling muscle because it raises the corners of the mouth. Chewing Movement- Chewing muscles are responsible for the movements that break down food. This category includes the following muscles: •masseter: covers the lower jaw from the temporal bone to the mandible. This muscle opens the jaw. •temporalis: fan-shaped muscle over the temporal bone. This muscle inserts into the mandible and works to open the jaw. Neck Movement- The muscles of the neck move the head and shoulder. There are two muscles of this area, and both are small and strap-like. •platysma: This is a single sheet-like muscle that covers the anterolateral region of the neck. This muscle originates from the connective tissue of the chest muscles and inserts near the mouth. This muscle pulls downward on the mouth. •sternocleidomastoid: These paired muscles are found on each side of the neck. One muscle comes from the sternum while the other comes from the clavicle. The heads of these muscles fuse and insert into the temporal bone. When these muscles contract together, they flex the neck so a person can bow his head. When only one muscle contracts, the head rotates to the opposite side.

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: Sliding Filament Theory

What causes the filaments of muscle cells to slide during a contraction? This question requires further examination of the cross bridges of the thick filaments. When muscle fibers are activated by the nervous system, the cross bridges attach to the thin filaments for sliding to begin. Each cross bridge will attach and detach several times during the contraction, creating tension that pulls the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. Calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, allowing the cross bridges to attach to the actin. These calcium ions are released due to the action potential. As several sarcomeres go through these motions, the muscle cell contracts.

Second lesson

When a neuron is stimulated, it creates an electrical impulse that transmits along the axon. The response that is generated is called the action potential, or nerve impulse. This process underlies all of the activities of the nervous system.

Contraction of Whole Skeletal Muscles

When a single muscle cell contracts, it operates under the all-or-none law. A muscle cell- will contract to its fullest extent when stimulated, and it never partially contracts. This law is not true for the entire skeletal muscle, as it reacts with graded responses. When there are graded responses to stimuli, there will be different degrees of shortening in the muscle. Graded responses- are produced by changing the frequency of muscle stimulation or by changing the number of muscle cells being stimulated. When the frequency of muscle stimulation is changed, the cells contract at such a fast pace that they do not have time to relax. At this time, the muscle contractions are smooth, continuous, and the muscle does not relax. When this occurs, the muscles are fused. The amount of force a muscle has during contraction is determined by how many muscle cells are stimulated. The more motor units activated, the more muscles cells are stimulated; therefore, the muscle contraction is at its strongest.

Bone Deposit

When blood calcium levels are too high, a bone deposit will occur. Osteoblasts mark areas where a new matrix deposit needs to occur, and calcium salts are then deposited into the matrix.

Bone Resorption

When bone calcium levels drop too low, the negative feedback loop is activated, and the parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts to break down the bone matrix and release calcium ions into the blood.

main organ

When most people think of the nervous system, their first thought might be of the brain. The brain is the main organ of the nervous system, along with the spinal cord. Together, they make up the central nervous system. The brain is made of pinkish gray wrinkled tissue that has the texture of cold oatmeal. It weighs a little over three pounds and is the largest and most complex organ in the body. The brain is divided into four regions: •cerebral hemispheres •diencephalon •brain stem •cerebellum

Dominate

While a person with a healthy brain benefits from both sides, one tends to be dominant. This partially explains why some people gravitate toward creative left brain endeavors, while others find more satisfaction in analytical right brain tasks.

Functions of the Skeletal System

While the skeletal system serves as the framework of the human body, it also has the following functions: •support •protection •movement •storage •blood cell formation The first function of the skeletal system is to support all the organs. When standing, the bones of the legs provide support to the body trunk. Bones provide an extra layer of protection to organs. Skull bones protect the brain. Vertebrae protect the spinal cord, while the heart and lungs are protected by the rib cage. Skeletal muscles attach to the bones to allow for the body to move. Two bones are connected together by ligaments, which create a joint. These connections allow for fluid motion, such as walking, swimming, or even breathing. Without ligaments, the body would fit together like a system of pipes. Imagine how difficult it would be to move then. Bones also store minerals, like calcium and phosphorus. Calcium in the blood helps the nervous system send messages, such as telling the blood when to clot. It also helps muscles move. When the blood needs more calcium, hormones send signals for the calcium to move out of the bones and into the blood.

Accessory Skin Structures

While the skin is the main structure of the integumentary system, it also includes accessory structures that assist in maintaining homeostasis of the body. These structures include: •hair •nails •oil and sweat glands Hair- a structure that can be found all over the body. Hairs are composed of dead keratinized cells produced by hair follicles. The part of the hair inside the follicle is the root; the part that comes out from the surface is the shaft. Each hair is made of a central core called the medulla that is surrounded by the cortex layer. The cortex layer is then surrounded by the cuticle. The cuticle provides strength and tightly compacts the inner hair layers. To keep people warm and allow sensory reception. On the head, hair provides protection from sunlight, heat loss when its cold, and physical trauma. Eyelashes are hairs that protect the eyes, and nose hairs filter the air while breathing. Contribute to homeostasis. Surrounding the follicle are smooth muscle cells, arrector pili, which are connected to the dermis layer. When these muscles contract, the hair is pulled up, creating goosebumps. These goosebumps add a layer of insulation that helps people keep warm. *can be thick or thin, straight, wavy, or curly. The shape of hair is determined by the shape of the shaft. An oval shaft makes wavy hair that is smooth. -A flat shaft produces curly or kinky hair. -A perfectly round shaft produces hair that is straight and coarse. -Hair color comes from the melanocytes produced in the hair bulb. Different amounts of melanin combine to make all the different hair colors. Nails- Fingernails and toenails are scale-like structures made of hard keratin. Each nail is made of a free edge, nail plate, and root. - The nail bed is found in the innermost layers of the epidermis. The actual nail is the outer layers of keratin. The nail matrix next to the nail bed provides actual nail growth. As the nail cells become keratinized, they slide over the nail bed, growing the nail. - Nails are transparent; the visible color comes from the blood supply in the underlying dermis. The only area of the nail with color is the lunula, which is the white crescent-shaped thickening of the nail matrix. - Changes in the appearance of nails can help diagnose some medical conditions. Yellow-colored nails may mean a person has a respiratory or thyroid gland disorder; thickened yellow nails could mean a fungal infection; horizontal lines across the nails may mean malnutrition; and changes in the concave shape could signal an iron deficiency. Oil and Sweat Glands- Glands are structures in the body that secrete different liquids according to their different functions. The skin contains sweat glands and oil glands. Sweat glands cover the entire surface of the skin. They are also called sudoriferous glands. The two types of sweat glands are called eccrine and apocrine glands. eccrine glands- more in the body than epocrine glands, and they are the most numerous in the palms, soles, and forehead. Eccrine glands- secrete sweat, which is an acidic fluid made primarily of water. Sweat also contains salts, vitamin C, antibodies, a microbe-killing peptide called dermcidin, and traces of waste. The exact composition of sweat depends on heredity and diet. The function of sweat is to prevent the body from overheating, and this mechanism is controlled by the nervous system. Sweating from heat starts at the forehead and spreads over the body. Sweating induced by emotions, such as fright or nervousness, begins in the palms, soles, and armpits and then spreads over the body. Apocrine sweat glands- found in the armpits and anogenital area. These glands secrete a substance similar to the sweat of eccrine glands, but they also contain fatty substances and proteins, which can give secretions a milky or yellowish color. Once the secretion mixes with bacteria on the skin, it takes on a musky smell that is responsible for body odor. These glands start functioning at puberty and are controlled by the male sex hormones. Their exact function is unknown, but they are activated by pain and stress. *Ceruminous and mammary glands are modified apocrine glands Ceruminous glands- found in the ear and secrete a sticky cerumen, or earwax. The purpose of earwax is to block the entry of foreign substances. Mammary glands- found in the female breast and secrete milk during motherhood. Sebaceous (oil glands)- simple glands found everywhere except in the palms and soles. These glands secrete sebum, an oily substance secreted into hair follicles and pores on the skin's surface. The function of sebum is to soften and lubricate the hair and skin. This keeps hair from becoming brittle, slows down water loss from the skin, and kills bacteria. Hormones stimulate the secretion of sebum and, like apocrine glands, are not activated until puberty has begun.

Noise Levels

Whisper- Green 30dB Moderate rainfall- Lighter green 50dB Typical conversation- Lime green 60dB Blow dryer- Green yellow 80dB Motorcycle- Yellow 90dB Chainsaw- Light orange 105dB Maximum volume- Orange 110dB Siren- Dark orange 120dB Jet aircraft- Red orange 140dB Grande- Red 164dB

External accessory structures of the eye diagram

White part of the eye- Conjunctiva Meat above the eyelashes- Upper eyelid Black feathers- Eyelashes Tear corner- Lacrimal apparatus Meat under the eyelashes- Lower eyelid Under meat under the eyelashes- Orbital part of eyelid

Instinctive theory

William McDougall (1871-1938)- offered one of the first theories concerning motivation. He believed that animal instincts drove human behavior just as they drove salmon to migrate and spawn. Critics point out that McDougall's instinct theory only labels biological behaviors such as parental care, curiosity, and fear, but fails to explain them.

Aging of the Endocrine System

With age, the rates of hormone secretion can decrease as the target cell receptors become desensitized. Without a disorder affecting the system, the function of the endocrine system is generally not affected. Structural changes can occur in the pituitary with age: the amount of connective tissue increases, vascularization decreases, and the number of hormone-secreting cells declines. These changes can affect hormone production but are not guaranteed to do so. ex: in women, blood levels and the release of ACTH can remain constant, but the levels of gonadotropins will increase with age. Regardless of sex, growth hormone levels decline, which causes muscle atrophy in the elderly. The adrenal glands show structural changes, but there are no changes in cortisol as long as the person remains healthy. If there is chronic stress, the level of cortisol in the blood is increased, which is related to elderly deterioration in memory. As levels of aldosterone decrease, the kidneys become less responsive to stimuli. Any age-related changes in the release of catecholamines by the adrenal medulla have yet to be identified. Glucose tolerance begins to decline as early as age 40. As blood glucose levels rise, they start to return to resting state at a slower rate. Islet cells continue to secrete normal amounts of insulin, but the gradual decrease in glucose tolerance reflects the onset of adult diabetes. The production and secretion of thyroid hormone decreases with age. The follicles become loaded with colloids, and the gland becomes fibrous. With continued aging, the basal metabolic rate declines, and mild hypothyroidism occurs. The gonads, particularly the ovaries, undergo significant changes with age. In middle age, the ovaries become smaller and no longer respond to some hormones. These changes cause menopause. Menopause is the period where a woman's reproductive organs begin to decline, and her ability to have children ends. At this point, estrogen deficiency occurs, which causes problems such as arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis, decreased skin elasticity, and changes in the sympathetic nervous system that cause hot flashes. It is also common for fatigue, nervousness, and mood changes to occur. Most men do not have as dramatic changes during middle age. Testosterone production begins to decrease in middle age but there is often not a drastic change until old age. There is also a decrease in melatonin from the pineal gland which affects immune function, but the parathyroid glands do not have many changes with age. PTH remains normal throughout life.

Aging of the Skeleton

With old age, changes occur in parts of the skeleton, especially the spine. The discs of the spine become thinner, dehydrated, and less elastic. These changes allow for disc herniation to occur. Shortening of the skeleton occurs, causing the loss of several centimeters in height by the time a person reaches 55 years of age. With continued aging, the vertebral column starts to revert back to its arc shape of infancy. As the cartilage of the thorax starts to ossify, the rib cage loses elasticity, which causes shallow breathing and less efficient gas exchange. The bones of the skeleton continue to lose mass with age and make it easier for fractures to occur, especially in the vertebrae and femurs.

Cranium bones diagram

Yellow blob front top- Frontal bones Pink blob near eye- Sphenoid bone Between Pink blob and cheekbone- Ethmoid bone Orange side of the head- Temporal bone Green under head- Occipital bone Light blue top head- Parietal bone

Facial bones diagram

Yellow bone front- Frontal bone Teal under the Yellow bone- Nasal bone Inside of socket closest to the Teal under Yellow- Lacrimal bone Pearl deeper inside of socket- Palatine bone White cheek bones- Zygomatic bone Rib cage inside of dark Teal cave- Inferior nasal concha Red triangle inside of Teal cage- Vomer Above the teeth- Maxillary Light blue below teeth- Mandible

Bone marrow cells diagram

Yellow circle at the top- Marrow Tan cylinder- Osteon Vein circle inside of the tan cylinder- Osteocyte Ghost macaroni- Osteoclast Bean cans- Osteoblast Tan part on the cylinder- Collagen Red dot in the inside of the tan cylinder- Blood vessels, Lymphatic vessels, Nerve cells Puddle of the ocean light orange in cylinder- Matrix The whole thing- Bone

Upper limb diagrams

Yellow collarbone- Clavicle Bottom of the collarbone- Scapula Long bone attached to the scapula- Humerus On top of twisted bones- Radius Bottom of twisted bones- Ulna Wrist- Carpals Half-way fingers- Metacarpals The rest of the half-way fingers- Phalanges

Contraction of muscles by nerve impulse diagram

Yellow friendship bead bracelet- Myelin sheath surrounding axon of motor neutron Koro-sensei blue tentacles- Axon terminal Koro-sensei blue tentacle nubs- Synaptic bulb at the neuromuscular junction Dragonballs inside of the end of the orange pipe- myofibril of muscle fiber Orange pipe- Sarcolemma Tan pool that holds the dragonballs- Sarcoplasm Inside the blue nub with a red lightning bolt- Nerve impulse (action protentional) Red ball inside of the yellow circles in the blue nub- Synaptic vesicle containing ACh Fading orange through the green squiggles- Synaptic cleft Green squiggles- Sarcolemma Red dots near green squiggles- Motor endplate Yellow circles that holds red dots- Synaptic vesicle Close up red dot in Yellow circle- ACh Between red dot and grey nut- Binding of ACh to its receptor opens the channel Fading orange inside black bent line with red dots- Synaptive vesicle releases ACh by exocytosis Dark grey on the nut- ACh receptor Light orange that holds the nuts- Synaptic cleft Whole orange rectangle- Na-

Comparative investigation

You are collecting data on different organisms in different conditions to make a comparison.

Bone Repair (Bone Break)

You're riding your bike to school, run into a bumpy patch of sidewalk, and lose control. You try to brace your fall but end up breaking your forearm. When you go into the doctor, they place you in a cast, but your bone will complete all the real work for repairing itself. In a simple fracture, there are four steps that occur in order for the bone to be repaired: -Hematoma forms- Blood vessels in the bone are torn and start to bleed. In order to stop the bleeding, a mass of clotted blood (hematoma) forms in the injured locations. The hematoma stops nutrients from getting to the local cells, and the area becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed. -Fibrocartilaginous callus forms- Capillaries start to grow into the hematoma, and cells begin cleaning up the area. Fibroblast, cartilage, and osteogenic cells start to reconstruct the bone. All the repair tissue in the area is called the fibrocartilaginous callus. This callus splints the broken pieces together. -Bony callus forms- New bone appears in the fibrocartilaginous callus and converts it to bony, or hard, callus made of spongy bone. This bony callus replacement continues for months to create a firm union of the broken bone pieces. -Bone remodeling occurs- Finally, all extra material on the diaphysis and in the medullary cavity is removed and replaced with compact bone.

endemic

a disease found among a group of people within a common area

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

Your skeleton is continuously changing throughout life, but the biggest changes occur during childhood. Bone development begins during the second month of embryo development, but even at birth the skull is incomplete. When a child is born, the skull contains fibrous membranes called fontanelles. These soft spots allow the infant's head to be compressed during childbirth and allow space for the brain to continue to grow. These spots are replaced with bone by the child's first birthday. When first born, the skull of an infant is extremely large as compared to their face. There are several bones that are still unfused; the maxillae and mandible are shortened; and the face appears flat. By the time the child reaches nine months old, the cranium is already half of its adult size, and by nine years old the cranium has reached adult size. Between the ages of 6 and 13, the face starts to grow out from the skull, allowing the jaws, cheekbones, and nose to become more prominent. These changes occur due to growth of the nose, sinuses, and permanent teeth. At birth, only the thoracic and sacral curvatures of the vertebral column are complete. These are the primary curvatures and create the arch in an infant's spine, like a four-legged animal. The secondary curvatures, cervical and lumbar, are convex and associated with the child's development. These curvatures occur as a result of reshaping of the intervertebral discs. The cervical curvature is present at birth, but it does not become noticeable until the infant can raise his own head, around three months. The lumbar curvature develops when the child begins to walk, near 12 months. The lumbar curvature is responsible for supporting the infant's weight over the center of the body and providing balance when standing. While growing, the body is also changing proportions. At birth, the head and trunk make up more of the body than the lower limbs. The lower limbs then begin to grow significantly more than the head and trunk, and by age ten the head and trunk are almost the same size as the lower limbs. During puberty, the female pubis becomes wider, preparing for childbirth, while the male skeleton becomes stronger. Once adult height is achieved, there are very few changes in the skeleton until late middle age.

corpus callosum

a bundle of nerves connecting the brain's hemispheres

rotator cuff

a capsule with fused tendons that supports the arm at the shoulder joint

sinus

a cavity within a bone or tissue

duct

a channel or tube for conveying or moving something

stressor

a chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus, or event that causes stress to an organism

Skin Cancer

a common cancer. While the cause of most skin cancers is unknown, too much UV radiation is the biggest risk factor. Infections, chemicals, and physical trauma are other factors that can predispose someone to skin cancer. Most tumors of the skin are benign (not cancerous) and do not spread. Warts are usually benign skin growths. However, if tumors are malignant (cancerous), these tumors can easily invade other body areas and spread the cancer. Basal cell carcinoma- the most common type of skin cancer. It is also the least malignant. In this type of cancer, the cells of the stratum basale cannot form keratin and invade the dermis and hypodermis tissue. These cancer lesions occur most often in areas that are not covered and have more exposure to the sun, like the face. Basal cell carcinoma is a slow growing cancer and is usually noticed before the cancer spreads. The lesions can be surgically removed and result in a 99% cure rate. Squamous cell carcinoma- comes from the cells of the stratum spinosum and appears on the scalp, ears, back of the hands, and lower lip. These sores appear as a scaly, reddened elevation of the skin that gradually forms a shallow, raised ulcer. An ulcer is an open sore on the body. This cancer is believed to come from sun exposure, but if caught early, it can be surgically removed or radiation therapy can be applied. With these treatments, there is a good chance of being completely cured. Malignant melanoma- cancer of the melanocytes (Fig. 3.2). This type of cancer is responsible for only a small amount of skin cancers, but it is the most deadly. Melanoma is found anywhere there is skin pigment. This cancer starts as a brown or black patch that spreads quickly to nearby lymph and blood vessels. Melanoma has about a 50% survival rate. Early detection is important. People who spend a lot of time in the sun are suggested to examine their skin for new moles or pigment spots. If a melanoma spot is identified, the treatment is surgical removal of the spot and immunotherapy.

Cancer

a condition that has affected millions of people across the world and has had an impact on almost everyone's life at some time. occurs when cell growth becomes out of control, and too many cells are being produced. This overgrowth of cells leads to the development of a lump or a tumor. diagnosed through radiologic images, blood tests, and biopsies more than one type of treatment has to be used to combat cancer. The success of the treatment plan all depends on the location and severity of the cancer. A significant amount of medical research is attempting to develop more efficient ways to diagnose and treat cancer.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

a series of folded membranes that create channels in the cytoplasm can exist in two forms: rough and smooth.

concave

a shape that curves inward, like the interior of a circle

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder in which there are pauses in breathing or shallow breaths while sleeping

tubercle

a small rounded projection found on a bone

saline

a solution of salt in water

incentive

a stimulus that encourages an action

Skeletal Muscle

a striated (long, cylinder-like) tissue that is attached to bones. Skeletal muscle tissues are voluntary, meaning a person can control when they move. Skeletal muscles create movement by pulling on bones.

Placebo

a substance that has no beneficial effect

antagonistic

a substance that interferes with or inhibits the action of another

anesthetic

a substance that stops sensitivity to pain

papillary layer

a thin layer of connective tissue. This tissue contains small blood vessels and defensive cells that search the area for bacteria that has entered the skin. Projections from the dermal layer called dermal papillae contain pain and touch receptors. thick skin, like the palm of the hands and the soles of the feet, dermal papillae form friction ridges that enhance the ability of fingers and toes to grip. These friction ridges create the genetically unique ridge patterns that make fingerprints

Stimuli

a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue.

Lung cancer

a type of cancer well-known for its ability to metastasize to many different areas of the body before it can be properly diagnosed.

phagocyte

a type of cell that engulfs bacteria, viruses, and other particles

virus

a type of disease, and a disease is a condition where the body is not functioning properly.

epidemic

a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community

acromegaly

abnormal growth of the hands, feet, and face caused by overproduction of growth hormone by the pituitary gland

herniation

abnormal projection of an organ or other body structure

microcephaly

abnormal smallness of the head

Epigatric

above the stomach

resorption

absorption into the circulation of cells or tissue

kinase

an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a specified molecule

hypercholesterolemia

an excess of cholesterol in the bloodstream

theory

an explanation of an aspect of the world that has been confirmed by repeated testing. (If even one part of the theory is proven to be incorrect, the whole theory is incorrect.)

spinal cord

an extension of the brain, and vertebrae surround the spinal cavity.

Non sequitur

an illogical statement

plane

an imaginary line that separates the body into specific sections. There are three planes that the body can be divided into: median, frontal, and transverse. Each one of these planes allows for different views of the body or internal organ being studied.

Homeostasis

an important aspect of survival for all body systems. Like other systems, the skeletal system has its role in maintaining homeostasis.

Health research

an important role in identifying information on disease trends, risk factors, and outcomes of treatments.

vasodilation

an increase in the diameter of blood vessels

The skeletal system

an internal framework built to be strong but light, and it is perfect for its functions of protection and movement. No other organism has the skeletal structures that humans have, which allows us to stand upright and maintain balance.

ulcer

an open sore on the body

receptor

an organ or cell that can respond to light or heat and send a signal to a sensory nerve

vector

an organism that transmits a disease

allergy

an overactive immune response to a stimulus

Allergies

an overactive immune response to a stimulus. Contact dermatitis is an allergic response caused by skin coming in contact with chemicals. Allergic reactions of the skin can produce swelling, redness, itching, and sometimes blisters.

embryo

an unborn offspring in the process of development

free radical

an uncharged molecule, typically highly reactive and short-lived

stem cells

an undifferentiated cell that is capable of making more cells of the same type

beta blockers

any of a class of drugs that prevent the stimulation of the adrenergic receptors responsible for increased cardiac action

corticosteroids

any of a group of steroid hormones produced in the adrenal cortex or made synthetically

Scientific theories

are formed based on the law of parsimony, which means thriftiness (Examples of scientific theory include the big bang theory of how our universe was created, Newton's laws of motion, evolution and natural selection)

tactile cells (merkel cells)

are found at the connection of the epidermis and the dermis. Each tactile cell is connected to a sensory nerve cell, which allows for the sense of touch.

Centrosomes

are organelles found near the nucleus. create centrioles, which play a role in cellular division and reproduction.

Ribosomes

are small organelles found on the endoplasmic reticulum and floating around in the cytoplasm. made of ribonucleic acid from the nucleolus and are responsible for the production of enzymes and proteins that are used in cell repair and reproduction of cells.

Cells

are the basic functioning unit of all living things. We study cells in anatomy and physiology because they are major contributing structures to an organism's survival. can be a prokaryote, which does not have any organelles or a nucleus, or a eukaryote, which contains membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus

Constants

are the items in the investigation that are kept the same and not allowed to change. ( Controlled variables )

Flagella

are whip-like tails on the outside of cells that help propel them through a liquid the male reproductive system have flagella to propel them up the vaginal tract.

insertion

attachment of the bone that moves with each contraction

deep

away from the body surface

inferior

away from the head or toward the LOWER part of a structure or body

lateral

away from the midline; on the outer side

ligaments

bands of fibrous tissue

Surgery

be used to attempt to remove all cancer cells if caught early

Mitochondria

bean-shaped organelles that are responsible for providing the energy within a cell have special enzymes that use oxygen to create a type of energy called ATP. The more energy a cell needs, the more mitochondria present in that cell.

calcified

being hardened by conversion into calcium compounds

intermediate

between a more medial and more lateral structure

infertility

biological inability of a person to conceive a child

nasal septum

bone and cartilage in the nose that separates the nasal cavity

Nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves

epidemiology

branch of medicine that deals with incidence, distribution, and possible control of a disease

atherosclerosis

buildup of a waxy plaque on the inside of blood vessels

gluteal

buttock

sural

calf

Tumors

can be classified as benign or malignant.

Nucleus

can be described as the brain of the cell. responsible for directing all the cell's activities surrounded by its own membrane that allows materials to pass in and out of it. Inside the nucleus is DNA, which contains all the information that makes a cell unique to an individual center of the nucleus is the nucleolus, responsible for making ribonucleic acid (RNA), which forms into ribosomes.

organism

can be single-celled, which means it is made of only one cell, or multicellular, made of many cells.

Burns

can come from intense heat, UV radiation (which causes sunburns), chemicals like acids, or electricity. A burn results in skin tissue damage and cell death. When skin is burned, two life threatening problems arise: loss of fluids and infection. When fluids are lost, dehydration can occur, which might cause the kidneys to shut down and blood circulation to be impaired. In order to save the burn victim, fluids must be replaced immediately. Infection is the next and most important threat. Burned skin remains sterile for 24 hours, but after that time frame pathogens can easily invade the destroyed area. After two days, the immune system is weakened and is not able to keep up with the increased amount of pathogens in the body. Burns are classified as first, second, or third degree, based on their severity.

homeostatic imbalances

can impact the system. When an imbalance occurs within the skeletal system, it is usually occurring due to problems with bone deposit and bone resorption.

Cardiac Muscles

can only be found in the heart. makes up the walls of the heart. With each contraction, it pumps blood into the blood vessels and through the rest of the body. When the heart contracts, the internal chambers become smaller and force blood out of the heart. cells are striated and involuntary. A person cannot control how his heart beats. The fibers are supported by connective tissue and arranged in spiral-shaped bundles. the cells are branching cells. this specialized structure allows it to contract at a steady rate due to stimulation from the nervous system.

stage III

cancer has spread to the lymphatic system and is mobilized.

Malignant tumors

cancerous tumors that grow rapidly and take over the healthy tissues in the location of the tumor.

Variable

capable of being changed or altered. Independent: Is a purposeful change. (Manipulated ) Dependent: What is measured in the investigation to determine the results.

tensile

capable of being drawn out or stretched

viability

capable of living

opposable

capable of moving toward and touching the other digits on the same hand

blood-borne

carried by the blood

etiology

cause of a disease

Levels of Structural Organization

cells , tissue, organ, organ system, organism

prokaryotic

cells are bacteria, and eukaryotic cells would be plants and animals

Dendritic

cells are star-shaped cells that travel to the epidermis from the bone marrow. These cells eat foreign substances and can activate the immune system. These cells are also called Langerhans cells, after the German anatomist who first discovered them.

Keratinocytes

cells responsible for making keratin. *are found in the stratum basale, which is the deepest layer of the epidermis. These cells are continuously reproducing. As the new cells build up, older cells are filled with keratin and pushed up to the surface. By the time they reach the surface, keratinocytes become dead, scale-like cells.

buccal

cheek

hormones

chemical messengers that are secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids of the body

neurotransmitter

chemicals that pass messages along nerves

telophase

chromosomes go to the end of the cell. The spindles disappear, and the nuclei reappear.

metaphase

chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.

anaphase

chromosomes split as the spindle fibers pull them apart.

cerebrospinal fluid

clear fluid that fills spaces in the skull

proximal

close to the origin of the body, or the point of attachment

nervous and endocrine

collect data and communicate responses, other systems are also contributing to homeostasis.

maintaining balance

complicated and requires all systems working together.

effector

component of homeostatic control that applies a response to the factor

receptor

component of homeostatic control that senses a change in a factor

afferent

conducting inward or toward something

efferent

conducting outward or away from something

Routes of transmission

contact transmission: occurs from either direct or indirect contact with a pathogen. Direct contact would be kissing a person who has a cold. This would place the body in direct contact with the virus. vector transmission: occurs from insect or animal to person. The insect or animal has the pathogen inside it, and when someone is bitten, it passes the pathogen onto her. Mosquitos are common vectors of pathogens that are transmitted to people. vehicle transmission: occurs when a contaminated product is ingested or consumed. An outbreak of listeria poisoning from a popular ice cream company is an example of a common vehicle transmission. The contaminated ice cream provided a common vehicle to transmit a pathogen to many people. Airborne transmission: is spread by droplets that contain the pathogen floating in the air. A patient infected with tuberculosis can infect many just from the droplets spread in a series of coughs. Pathogens in droplets can also be transmitted through the ventilation of an air conditioning system.

dorsal body cavity

contains the cranial cavity and the spinal cavity.

abdominal cavity

contains the liver, stomach, intestines, and other internal organs

thoracic cavity

contains the lungs, heart, and other internal organs that are protected by the rib cage.

pelvic cavity

contains the reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum.

ventral body cavity

contains the thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity, and pelvic cavity.

Skin Color

determined by three different pigments: •melanin •carotene •hemoglobin Melanin- is a protein pigment ranging in color from reddish yellow to brownish black. made from the melanocytes in the epidermis. Each person has the same number of melanocytes. Skin color differences are due to the amount of melanin the cells produce. The more melanin people have, the more protection they have from sun radiation. People who live closer to the equator have more melanin and darker skin color, which gives them better protection. Patches of melanin in the skin create freckles. Carotene- gives people a yellowish hue to their skin. Carotene can be found in the stratum corneum, which allows the color to be best seen in the palms and soles where this layer is thicker. Hemoglobin- gives fair skin a pinkish hue from the red coloring of oxygenated red blood cells circulating in the capillaries of the dermis. Skin cells with less melanin allow the hemoglobin color to show more. *The absence of or having only a small amount of pigment produces a condition called albinism. Albinism- a genetic disorder that does not allow body cells to produce the normal amount of melanin in skin, hair, or eyes. Due to the lack of pigment, this condition can cause vision problems and puts individuals with albinism at a greater risk for skin cancer.

thermostat

device that helps regulate temperature

defecation

discharge of feces from the body

ovulation

discharging of female sex cells from the ovary

frontal plane

divides the body into anterior and posterior portions

involuntary

done without conscious control

various types of cells

each have their own structure and function based on location. A nerve cell does not look the same as a muscle cell or blood cell, and none of them have the same function. Examples of cells you can find in the body include: bone cells, blood cells, connective tissue cells, fat cells, muscle cells, nerve cells, and reproductive cells. Although each type of cell has its own unique structure and function, there are common structures that can be found in any type of cell: a nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and organelles.

adrenal

endocrine glands above the kidneys that produce a variety of hormones

edema

excess of watery fluid collecting in the cavities or tissues of the body

fatigue

extreme tiredness

distal

farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment

myelin sheath

fatty insulation that surrounds nerve fibers

anatomical position

feet are parallel, arms are hanging at the side, and the palms are facing forward. Directional terms are used to describe the exact location of a structure in relation to the body.

Signs of a disease

fever, development of a tumor, or any alteration of the vital signs, which include pulse, blood pressure, body temperature, and respiratory rate. Signs are a measurable indication of a disease.

first, second, third degree burns

first degree- epidermis red, swollen, temporary pain sunburn second degree- epidermis and upper region of the dermis red, painful, can develop blisters scalding liquid; brief contact with flames, chemicals, or electricity third degree- all of epidermis and dermis gray or blackened skin, no pain due to destroyed nerve endings scalding liquid; extended contact with open flame, chemicals, or electricity

humor

fluid substance in the eye

ad hoc

formed for a particular purpose

Intramembranous Ossification

forms the cranial bones and the clavicles. At eight weeks of development, this ossification process begins in the fibrous connective tissue membranes with the following steps: 1 -Osteoblasts form an ossification center in the fibrous connective tissue membranes. 2 -Osteoblasts secrete osteoid that calcifies the tissue. 3 -Osteoid and embryonic blood vessels create a network of bone that becomes the periosteum. 4 -Lamellar bone replaces the periosteum, forming compact bone plates with internal spongy bone that becomes red marrow. At the conclusion of this ossification, flat bones are created.

Epithelial tissue for filtration

found in the kidneys

Smooth Muscle

found in the walls of hollow organs, such as the stomach, bladder, and respiratory passages. Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped and do not contain striations. fibers are arranged in two sheets, or layers. As these two layers contract and relax, they change the size and shape of the organ. The function of smooth muscles is to apply a force to push fluids or other substances through the internal organs. tissues are involuntary muscles that have slow, rhythmic (occurring regularly) contractions. involuntary means a person cannot control the motion, like the contraction of the stomach to digest food or the movement of urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

body tissue

four main types of tissues are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

Organ system

group of organs that work together to perform a specific function. Example, the heart and blood vessels work together to pump blood throughout the body.

Cilia

hair-like projections that have a wavelike motion which helps remove particles over the cells. line the cells of the lungs, where they help remove dust particles from the lungs.

Fibrocartilage

has great tensile (can be stretched) strength and can be compressed. This type of cartilage is found in areas that need to withstand great pressure while also stretching. Fibrocartilage can be found in the knees and the discs between the vertebrae.

Smooth ER

has no ribosomes and creates fats and steroids within the cell.

Stage I cancer

has not spread.

Simple tissue

has one layer of cells

Rough ER

has ribosomes on it and is responsible for making proteins within the cell.

Tissue Repair

has to occur after any injury to the tissue. This repair can be completed by either regeneration or fibrosis. The first step in the tissue repair is the inflammation process, which is kickstarted by the actual tissue injury. In the inflammation process, a clot is formed that stops the bleeding, closes the injury, and creates a scab. The next phase is organization, where the blood clot is replaced by granulation tissue, restoring the blood supply. The final step is regeneration and fibrosis to permanently repair the tissue. The process that occurs depends on the type of tissue that is damaged and how severe the damage is to the tissue. Epithelial tissues and connective tissues can regenerate easily. Skeletal tissue, on the other hand, regenerates poorly, and Cardiac and nervous tissue are replaced with fibrous scar tissue. -Regeneration- is the replacement of injured tissue with the same kind of cells. -Fibrosis- a repair made with dense connective tissue to create a scar.

metastasis

have the ability to break off and travel through the lymphatic system to other parts of the body and invade tissues in a new area. does not occur in benign tumors.

spindle-shaped

having a circular cross section and tapering toward each end

convex

having a surface curve like the exterior of a circle

pseudohypertrophy

increase in size without true hypertrophy

positive feedback

increases the change of the factor that is out of balance

Fungal

infections of the skin, or tinea, is cracking and weeping skin that itches. These infections are located in warm, moist regions of the body. Examples include: •tinea pedis (athlete's foot): a fungal infection of the feet spread by direct contact with contaminated floors and towels' •tinea cruris (jock itch): a fungal infection in the groin that usually infects men •tinea corporis (ringworm): a ring-shaped fungus found on the smooth skin of the legs, arms, and body •tinea unguium: a fungal infection of the fingernails or toenails

autonomic

involuntary or unconscious

cardiac arrhythmia

irregular heartbeat

Digestion

is a partnership of the digestive system that breaks down the food we eat and the cardiovascular system that transports these nutrients around the body in the blood. A necessary life function because humans are not able to survive without the nutrients received from food.

diagnosis

is an identification of the syndrome, which is determined by collecting a history of the patient's signs and symptoms and running medical tests to obtain measurable data that will confirm the suspected disease. As data is collected, the doctor can come up with a treatment plan and eventually a prognosis, or a prediction of the likely outcome of this disease.

The chain of infection

is the events that lead to the infection of the human body First: there has to be a source of infection. Next: the pathogen will be transported to the body. It is important to recognize that something as simple as washing your hands can break the chain and stop infection from ever happening.

the brain

is the largest and most complex part of the nervous system.

Science

is the study of the natural world

internal environment

is unstable, it allows for illness and aging.

Urinary system

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

gross

large muscle movements

frontal lobe

largely responsible for biologically separating humans from animals. helps control emotions and is the center of creativity. It coordinates the movement of body parts, and a large portion of it is dedicated to the mouth and hands. Our ability to use advanced tools and language are uniquely human characteristics.

The skin

largest organ of the body, weighing about 20 pounds and covering 20.83 square feet on an adult-sized body. There are three layers of skin : •epidermis •dermis •hypodermis

Teams

led by a head investigator, a medical doctor. Other members of the team include other doctors, nurses, social workers, medical students, and other health professionals. These trials are completed in hospitals, universities, doctors' offices, and clinics. These studies are funded by pharmaceutical companies, academic medical groups, government agencies, and other organizations.

bowed legs

legs that curve outward at the knee

Structure of Smooth Muscle

made of spindle-shaped cells, each containing one centrally located nucleus. organized into sheets of closely connected fibers that make up the walls of hollow organs in the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. made up of two types of sheets, longitudinal and circular, set at right angles to each other. Longitudinal sheets- smooth muscle fibers run parallel to the length of the organ. When this sheet contracts, the organ dilates (becomes wider) and shortens. Circular sheet- has fibers that run around the circumference of the organ. When this layer contracts, the inside space of the organ constricts and elongates. These layers alternate between contracting and relaxing, allowing substances in hollow organs to mix and be squeezed through the organ's pathway. This movement is called peristalsis, which moves food through the digestive tract. Peristalsis also helps the contents of the rectum and bladder to exit the body. Smooth muscle contraction is also responsible for constriction of tissue. For example, the lungs constrict when a person experiences an asthma attack, or the stomach constricts when someone has stomach cramps. Smooth muscle is made of nerve fibers called varicosities which are a part of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is the part of the nervous system responsible for controlling unconscious bodily functions. The varicosities release neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that pass messages along nerves. Smooth muscle does not contain striations. Unlike other types of muscles, smooth muscle does not have a specific pattern of myofilaments. Both myosin and actin are types of proteins. Filaments- are threadlike fibers. Myofilaments- are made with myosin heads and actin filaments The sarcolemma, or outer covering, of smooth muscle contains multiple pouch-like folds called caveolae. The caveolae hold extracellular fluid (fluid outside the cell) with high levels of calcium. When these folds open, the fast influx of calcium triggers the contraction of the smooth muscle.

Skull

made up of 22 cranium and facial bones. The cranium protects and holds the brain, while the facial bones hold the eyes in the correct position and allow the facial muscles to move. The bones of the skull are joined together by sutures, which are interlocked, immovable joints. The only movable joint found in the skull is the mandible, or jawbone.

internal structure

make cuts, or incisions, along a plane

differentiate

make or become different in the process of growth or development

post office

makes sure you get your mail

reticular layer

makes up 80% of the thickness of the dermis layer. It is made of dense, fibrous connective tissue. In between the dermis and the hypodermis are the blood vessels that support the dermis. This region is called the cutaneous plexus. Collagen fibers in this region give the dermis strength, preventing jabs and scrapes from penetrating the dermis and keeping the skin hydrated.

Skeletal muscle tissue

makes up about 40% of the body's mass and is the active tissue of the muscular system. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and contract and relax to allow movement. ex: Daily motions of walking, running, picking up a pencil, or carrying a backpack all require the use of skeletal muscles.

insulation

material used to prevent loss of heat

antiepileptic

medicine used in the treatment of seizure disorders

bisphosphonates

medicines that slow or stop the natural process that dissolves bone tissues

adduct

movement toward the midline

eukaryote

multicellular organism that has a nucleus and organelles

umbilical

navel, belly button

cervical

neck

neurons

nerve cells that transmit electrical signals

Benign tumors

non-life threatening lumps that grow at a slow rate and move healthy cells away from the location.

rhythmic

occurring regularly

Paget's Disease

occurs when excessive bone deposit and resorption occurs. This condition is often discovered by accident when x-rays are being taken for another condition. On the x-ray, radiologists observe a newly formed bone called a Pagetic bone. A Pagetic bone contains a higher ratio of spongy bone than compact bone. There is also a reduction in mineralization, which causes spotty weakening of the bones. As the disease progresses, osteoclasts are no longer working, but osteoblasts continue to function and form irregular bone thickening. This fills marrow cavities with Pagetic bone. usually occurs in the spine, pelvis, femur, and skull. This condition occurs mostly after age 40. About 3% of elderly people have this disease. The cause of Paget's disease is unknown, but it is believed to come from a virus. Treatment includes calcitonin, a hormone that lowers blood calcium levels, from an inhaler and the administration of bisphosphonates, which have shown success in stopping the bone from breaking down

Homeostasis Imbalance

occurs when the body's internal environment is no longer completing the processes necessary to keep it stable. A disease can cause a disturbance in the homeostasis of the body An imbalance can also occur when the negative feedback mechanisms are not functioning properly. If these mechanisms are overwhelmed, they cannot stop the stimulus and return the system to homeostasis. Instead, positive feedback mechanisms take over and increase the stimulus and the response. ex- Failure of negative feedback mechanisms is heart failure. Instead of stopping the stimulus that is affecting the heart, a positive feedback occurs, increasing the stress on the heart, and ultimately causing the organ to fail. Homeostasis imbalance include dehydration, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, gout, and diabetes.

Prognosis/Severity

of a cancer is determined by the amount of metastasis that has occurred.

somatic

of or relating to the body, especially as distinct from the mind

posterior body landmarks

on the rear or backside of the body.

osteoid

organic component of bone

important precaution

prevent the transmission of pathogens carried in blood is to protect the body from needle sticks and other sharps-related injuries. Viruses like hepatitis and HIV can be transmitted easily when a sharp object or needle is not disposed of properly. Again, the easiest and most effective precaution that can break the chain of infection is washing your hands. This one simple step can protect you from infectious disease.

rejection

process where the recipient's immune system attacks the transplanted organ or tissue

temporal lobe

processes auditory signals and smells.

dendrite

projection on a neuron that brings messages toward the cell body

axon

projection on a neuron that creates nerve impulses and sends messages away from the cell body

Ligaments

provide support and stop any extreme movement of the spinal column

precautions

provide the best level of protection for healthcare providers as well as patients. First: hand hygiene, or keeping the hands clean. Effective hand hygiene includes handwashing with soap and water or using alcohol-based products like hand sanitizer. Next: next level of defense would be personal protective equipment, which are barriers that block mucous membranes, airways, skin, and clothing from contact with infectious agents.

Skin

provides a layer of protection from the invasion of harmful organisms. If there is an opening in the skin that allows germs to enter the body, the second line of defense is the immune system.

CT scan

provides high-resolution, cross-sectional views of the body. Gives a 3D view of internal organs as well as tissue structure, as compared to the one-dimensional view of an x-ray. Are useful in determining exact size, location, and shape of a tumor in the body. They carry an added risk of a high level of exposure to radiation.

recoil

rebound or spring back through force of elasticity

immune system

responds to the pathogen by sending specialized cells to attack or destroy the foreign substance in the body.

Lysosomes

responsible for cleaning up waste from the cell. They contain chemicals that clean up all the waste from other organelles. Along with cleaning up waste, they assure the health of the cell by getting rid of bacteria through the cell membrane.

energy plant

responsible for producing electricity for the city.

longitudinal

running lengthwise rather than across

observational studies

scientists create a research design and observe groups of participants as they continue their normal healthcare routine. These participants are not part of any research groups and may or may not receive special treatments.

corneal abrasions

scraping of the corneal surface

Disorders of Peripheral Nervous System

several disorders that affect the peripheral nerves. Peripheral nerves are involved in sensory, motor, and autonomic function. Symptoms of peripheral neuropathy vary from person to person. Some symptoms reported include muscle weakness, numbness, tingling, paralysis, pain, difficulty controlling blood pressure, abnormal sweating, and digestive abnormalities. Types of peripheral neuropathy can be grouped into three categories: •trauma •systemic disease •infection or autoimmune Trauma includes mechanical injury to nerves, such as falls or car accidents. In a trauma, nerves are severed, crushed, or bruised. This category is the most common cause of peripheral neuropathy. The systemic disease category includes peripheral neuropathy caused by other factors such as kidney disease, hormonal imbalance, alcoholism, chronic stress, chronic inflammation, diabetes, toxins, and tumors. The most common cause of peripheral neuropathy from systemic disease is diabetes. Infections that cause peripheral neuropathy include shingles, Epstein-Barr virus, herpes, HIV, Lyme disease, and polio. As previously discussed, Guillain-Barré syndrome is an acute form of peripheral neuropathy. Diagnosis of peripheral neuropathy depends on the symptoms and whether another condition is causing the neuropathy. A CT scan, MRI, electromyogram, or a biopsy could be used to confirm a diagnosis. Treatment of neuropathy depends on the underlying syndrome causing the neuropathy. Medication and therapy would then be chosen to treat those symptoms.

membrane

sheet like structure acting as a boundary, lining, or partition in an organism

crural

shin

deltoid

shoulder

Effects of automatic nervous systems on organs chart

shows how each division affects vital organs: Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -digestive system -decreases activity of the system; constricts the digestive sphincter -increases peristalsis and secretions of the glands; relaxes sphincter Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -liver -releases glucose -no effect Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -lungs -dilates bronchioles -constricts bronchioles Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -urinary bladder/urethra -constricts sphincters -relaxes sphincters Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -kidneys -decreases urine output -no effect Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -heart -increases rate and force of heartbeat -decreases, slows, and steadies heart rate Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -blood vessels -constricts blood vessels and skin; increases blood pressure -no effect on most blood vessels Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -glands (salivary, lacrimal) -inhibits; causes dry mouth and dry eyes -stimulates; increased production of saliva and tears Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -iris of the eye -dilates pupils -constricts pupils Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -ciliary muscle of the eye -decreases bulging of the lens; prepares for distant vision -increase bulging of lens for close vision Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -adrenal medulla -secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine -no effect Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -sweat glands of skin -stimulates to produce perspiration -no effect Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -arrector pili muscles -produces goosebumps -no effect Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -penis -ejaculation -vasodilation erection Target Organ or System Sympathetic Effect Parasympathetic Effect: -cellular metabolism -increases metabolic rate; increases blood sugar levels; stimulates fat breakdown -no effect While these divisions have opposite effects, they work together to continuously make adjustments and maintain homeostasis in the body.

parallel

side by side and having the same distance continuously between them

Herpes

simplex virus is a common viral infection of the skin that causes an outbreak of fluid-filled sores. Herpes can lay dormant in the layers of the skin. Dormant means the symptoms will not appear for some time even though the virus is present. Herpes may appear when the body is fighting a different disease or is under stress. The herpes virus is responsible for the development of the following conditions: •cold sores: fluid-filled blisters found near the mouth •chickenpox: highly contagious childhood disease of itchy sores all over the body •shingles: painful lesions that develop in adulthood from the dormant chickenpox virus •warts: increased amounts of keratin cells in the skin; common warts are often found on children's hands, while plantar warts mostly grow on feet •genital warts: blisters found on the genitals that are sexually transmitted

prokaryote

single-celled organism that does not have a nucleus or organelles

integumentary system

skin, hair, nails

fine

small muscle movements

neuroglia

small supporting cells that surround neurons

Cell

smallest unit of life

RAS

sorts through the constant influx of sensory input and decides which ones to ignore and which ones to act on. ex-It is the RAS that enables you to say, block out multiple conversations around you while reading a magazine in a doctor's office and yet instantly come to attention when the nurse calls your name.

fontanelles

spaces between the bones of the skull of an infant or fetus

organelle

specialized structure within a cell

Stage II cancer

spread to close by tissues.

Stage IV

spread to distant organs. Staging also uses a T, N, M classification system that looks at the tumor thickness, number of lymph nodes involved, and tumor metastasis.

cell theory

states that all living things are made of cells, that all cells come from other cells, and that cells are the basic units of life.

Anterior body landmarks

structures on the front of the body

Pathology

study of disease

Neurotechnology

technology that is used for the enhancement, alteration, or scanning of the nervous system. This biotechnology branches from commonly used technology like MRI and CT scans to drugs and technology still being tested in research. Pharmaceuticals are the most common neurotechnology used to maintain stable brain chemistry. Drugs act as chemical regulators in the brains of people who cannot act under normal physiological conditions. MRI and CT scans are commonly used technology that is beneficial for viewing brain activity. These machines produce images used in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological diseases. An electroencephalogram (EEG) is commonly used to detect electrical activity in the brain. When performing an EEG, small, flat metal discs called electrodes are attached to the scalp. The brain cells communicate with electrical impulses that are recorded by the electrodes. The activity of the brain shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording. Doctors analyze the lines to identify if there are any abnormal patterns. EEG is the main test used to diagnose epilepsy, a seizure disorder, but it is also used in diagnosing other brain disorders. Nerve transfer is a surgical technique that is used when there is an injury to a nerve that results in complete loss of muscle function or sensation. In a nerve transfer, the surgeon takes a nerve with a less important role and transfers it to the location of the injured nerve. The surgeon will use local functioning nerves of the new location to plug in the new nerve segment. This connection now supplies the function to the transferred section of nerve. ex: if a breathing nerve is used to replace a nerve that moves the elbow, the brain will use the sensory signals of the local nerves to adjust the transferred nerve to the new location. Deep brain stimulation is a surgical procedure used to treat a variety of disabling neurological symptoms. Deep brain stimulation occurs with an electrode being inserted into the skull and being implanted in the brain within the targeted brain area. The extension, an insulated wire, is passed under the skin of the head, neck, and shoulder and connected to a neurostimulator. The neurostimulator is a battery pack implanted under the skin near the collarbone. Electrical impulses are sent from the neurostimulator along the extension to the electrode placed on the brain. The impulses interfere with and block electrical signals. This treatment is often used to combat the symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Currently, the procedure is only used in Parkinson's disease patients whose symptoms cannot be controlled with medicine.

irritability

the ability of cells to receive and respond to a stimulus

acute vision

the ability to distinguish details and shapes of objects

Homostasis

the ability to maintain stable internal conditions within the body regardless of the continuous changes that are occurring in the world around it. The body is performing a balancing act to keep internal conditions within a healthy range for survival. In order for the process of homeostasis to continue, there has to be communication between the body systems.

Efficiency

the ability to produce a desired or intended result

conversion

the act that causes a change in form, character, or function

regeneration

the action or process of being remade

axillary

the armpit

Mitosis

the asexual reproductive process of a cell dividing genetic material to make a copy of itself. The purpose of mitosis is to allow cells to replace themselves in the body as needed to repair and regenerate damaged tissues and also to allow for new growth. divided into four different phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. After telophase, the cell splits into two different cells through the process of cytokinesis. The result of mitosis is two new daughter cells that are identical to the mother cell.

root word

the basic or beginning structure of a medical term Ex: bio is the root word for "life." Therefore, any term using that root word lets you know that it is pertaining to living things. prefixes- before the root word suffixes- after the root word

terminology

the body of terms used with a particular subject or profession

appendicular skeleton

the bones of the limbs and girdles. These bones are connected, or appended, to the axial skeleton. -allows the body to carry out daily movements, like walking, turning pages in a book, throwing a ball, or sending a text message. -This skeleton is divided into four sections: •pectoral girdle •upper limbs •pelvic girdle •lower limbs

sarcolemma

the cell membrane in muscle cells

Melanocytes

the cells responsible for producing melanin and are found in the deepest layer of the epidermis alongside the keratinocytes. As melanin is produced, it is passed into local keratinocytes that eventually move up to the surface layer of the skin. Once they reach the surface, melanocytes serve as a natural pigment that shields the skin from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.

metabolism

the chemical processes that occur within a living organism

context

the circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood and assessed.

Thoracic Cage

the collection of bones responsible for protecting the important organs of the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs, and blood vessels). The cage is made up of the following bones: •thoracic vertebrae: posterior section of the cage •ribs: lateral section •sternum: anterior section help support the shoulder girdles and upper limbs. This region of vertebrae also serves as an attachment point for neck, back, chest, and shoulder muscles.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the communication link between the outside world and the human body. The PNS is made of all the nerves and ganglia found outside of the CNS. The PNS allows the CNS to receive and process information.

hypothermia

the condition of having an abnormally low body temperature

joints

the connection between two bones

density

the degree of compactness of a substance

gestation

the development of a baby in the womb between conception and birth

hypertrophy

the enlargement of an organ or tissue from the increase in cell size

Cytoplasm

the gel-like substance found inside the cell. provides a balanced environment inside the cell for the organelles, or internal structures of the cells, to be able to survive.

myopathy

the general term for muscle disease or disorder There can be many different causes for myopathy including injury, genetics, nervous system disorders, medication, and cellular abnormalities. In general, the symptoms of myopathy include weakness, cramping, stiffness, and muscle spasms; but these symptoms can be different depending on which condition is affecting the body. Treatment of myopathy is determined by the condition and cause of the symptoms that are occurring.

parathyroid

the glands next to the thyroid that secrete parathyroid hormone

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

the government agency responsible for protecting the public health by regulating drugs, biological products, medical devices, food, cosmetics, and products that emit radiation.

immune response

the immune system overreacts to an invasion, causing a hypersensitive, or allergic, reaction which damages the body and impairs normal function.

peristalsis

the involuntary constriction and relaxation of muscle

synapse

the junction between the axon endings of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron

deprivation

the lack of a life necessity

prognosis

the likely outcome of a disease

Virtue

the moral excellence evident in my life as I consistently do what is right. A small flame can cast light across a large area. Likewise, one person's daily decisions affect many others.

prophase

the nucleus disappears; the chromosomes become visible; centrioles move toward the side of the cell; and chromosome spindle fibers form.

cerebral cortex

the outer portion of the brain where conscious thought takes place It it was unfolded it would be 6 square feet Is a large, wrinkly mass that makes up over 60% of the brain. This is where the actions of remembering, problem-solving, concentrating, and decision-making take place. divided into two distinct hemispheres and four lobes based on how different regions of the brain interpret signals.

thorax

the part of the body between the neck and abdomen

trunk

the part of the body where the head and limbs are attached

hypothalamus

the part of the brain that accounts for instinctive behaviors, such as directing the body to respond to potential danger, stress, thirst, hunger, or sexual feelings Sweating when hot and shivering when cold are responses controlled by the hypothalamus.

cerebellum

the part of the lower brain that coordinates balance and bodily movements Whenever you engage in a delicate task, such as moving your fingers on a keyboard or removing a tiny screw with a screwdriver, your cerebellum is making certain your fingers do the will of your conscious mind.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed

puberty

the period during which adolescents become capable of reproduction

ossification

the process of turning into bone or bony tissue

Meiosis

the process that cells undergo for reproduction to occur. one cell splits into four daughter cells. However, in contrast to mitosis, these cells are not identical to the mother because they only have half of the chromosomes. creates sperm and egg cells that are used in sexual reproduction.

Bone Markings

the projections, depressions, and openings of the bones. These different sites allow muscle, ligament, and tendon attachments, make up the joint surfaces, or contain openings for blood vessels and nerves.

keratin

the protein that allows the epidermis to be a protective layer

basal metabolic rate

the rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to keep life-giving systems going, such as breathing

electromyography

the recording of the electrical activity of muscle tissue using electrodes

The Dermis

the second layer of skin. This layer is composed of strong, flexible connective tissue. There are several components that make up the dermis layer, such as nerve fibers, lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, hair follicles, oil glands, sweat glands. *The dermis is divided into two layers: •papillary layer •reticular layer

cranial cavity

the space within the skull, containing the brain.

Scientific Method

the steps a scientist takes to complete a reliable investigation. Steps: Make observations, Ask questions, Create a Hypothesis, Test the Hypothesis, Analyze results, Draw a Conclusion, and Communicate the results.

matrix

the substance between cells or in which structures are embedded

Connotative

the suggested meaning of a word

Biopsies

the surgical removal of the cells so they can be examined

homeostasis

the tendency to correct imbalances and maintain a normal state

meninges

the three membranes that cover the skull and vertebral canal

The Epidermis

the top layer of skin, or the layer that is visible. tissues do not contain any blood vessels or nerve cells. *This layer is made of four different cell types that make up layers of stratified squamous epithelial tissue.

cell cycle

the total life of a eukaryotic cell, is divided into two phases: interphase and mitotic phase

radiology

the use of imaging technology to view internal structures of the body

plasma exchange

therapeutic procedure used to treat a variety of diseases through the bulk removal of plasma

Ultrasounds

they allow medical professionals to view the bodies' activities in real time, like a fetus in the womb or a heart valve that is malfunctioning Also safer because they carry no radiation exposure risk.

communicable disease

they are transmitted either person to person, insect to person, or animal to person. A communicable disease can also be said to be contagious, which means it is easily transmitted from person to person, such as the flu virus.

sarcomeres

tiny contractile units in myofibrils

Bone Marrow

tissue found in the open cavities of all long bones and some flat bones. Bone marrow is highly vascular and contains many blood vessels and cells. The stem cells can change into many different types of cells and are beneficial in the treatment of diseases. Red marrow- From birth until age five, all bone marrow is red marrow. Red marrow contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red marrow is responsible for making red blood cells. Once humans reach adulthood, red marrow is confined to the skull, vertebrae, ribs, clavicles, sternum, and pelvis. The red marrow in the rest of the body is then replaced by fat tissue, or yellow marrow. Yellow marrow- Located in the cavities of long bones and is responsible for storing fats. If there is severe blood loss or excessive fever, yellow marrow can change back to red marrow until the body is back in balance.

catalyze

to cause or accelerate a reaction by acting as a catalyst

mineralize

to convert organic matter into a mineral

fracture

to crack or break

vascularization

to develop blood vessels or other fluid-carrying vessels

constrict

to make narrower

perforate

to pierce and make a hole

anchor

to secure firmly in position

atrophy

to waste away

parietal lobe

top of your head processes inputs from your sense of touch. also maintains an awareness of the location of your body parts at any given moment.

Indirect contact

touching a door handle after the person that has the cold.

superficial

toward or at the body surface

posterior

toward the back

anterior

toward the front

superior

toward the head or UPPER part of a structure or body

Development Anatomy

traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span, from embryonic development to death.

sensory

transmitted or perceived by the senses

Centrioles

tube-shaped structures that are usually found in pairs.

stratified tissue

two or more layers of cells.

voluntary

under the conscious control of the brain

chemotherapy

uses a chemical to kill all abnormal cells.

radiation therapy

uses energy to target cells.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

uses magnetic energy to produce cross-sectional images of the body. I will produce images with better clarity. Problems with MRI include the fact that patients have to remain still in order to get quality pictures, and there can be adverse effects for any patients with metal in their body due to the strength of the magnet used

x-ray

uses x-ray beams to expose a specific area of the body. The resulting picture is varying levels of dark and light, depending on the density of the area of the body that is scanned. Organs that are less dense, like the lungs that are filled with air, show up as dark. Organs that are denser, like bones, appear as light. Because x-rays are a one-dimensional view of the body, positioning is very important in ensuring an image of the specific area needed.

colloid

very small particles of one substance that are mixed evenly with another substance

Ancient Greeks

were uncertain what to make of the 3.5-pound human brain. They believed that the heart, not the brain, was the source of mental thought and emotions. One theory hypothesized that the brain was a "radiator" for cooling the blood. While our knowledge of the brain has greatly increased since ancient times, it remains one of the least-understood parts of the human body.

digestive system and cardiovascular system

work together to breakdown nutrients, absorb them into the bloodstream, and transport those nutrients throughout the body. The respiratory system takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide, while the cardiovascular system collects the carbon dioxide waste to be delivered to the lungs, and takes in oxygen from the lungs to be delivered to cells. The elimination of waste is another process of homeostasis that includes the digestive system, cardiovascular system , lymphatic system, and urinary.

frontal plane

would be useful to view the organs of the chest and abdomen.

carpal

wrist

Neuroglia of the CNS

•Astrocytes- These are the most abundant glial cells of the body as they may have many different roles. Astrocytes are responsible for supporting neurons and connecting them to their nutrient supply lines. Astrocytes form a barrier between capillaries and neurons. They also play a role in the exchange of material between the two. These cells also help control the chemical environment in the brain. •Microglia's- These spiderlike phagocytes remove waste like dead brain cells and bacteria. A phagocyte is a cell that engulfs waste particles, viruses, and bacteria. •Ependymal cells- These are glial cells that line the cavities of the brain and the spinal cord. The cilia of these cells help circulate cerebrospinal fluid (a clear fluid that fills the spaces in the skull) and form a protective layer around the CNS. •Oligodendrocytes- These glial cells wrap around nerve fibers, creating fatty insulation called myelin sheaths.

Neuroglia of the PNS

•Satellite cells- These surround neuron cell bodies in the PNS and have the same function as astrocytes of the CNS. •Schwann cells- These surround all the nerve fibers in the PNS, forming the myelin sheath around the nerve fibers. Their function is similar to the oligodendrocytes of the CNS. Schwann cells also help damaged peripheral nerve fibers regenerate.

five types of connective tissue (hardest to softest)

•bone tissues •cartilage tissues •dense connective tissues •loose connective tissues •blood tissues

The integumentary system

•keeping the body from drying out •providing natural sunscreen •storing fatty tissue that can be used for energy •producing vitamin D •providing sensory input for the brain (sensory is anything that can be perceived by the five senses) •regulating body temperature •skin, hair, and nails

Cells of the Epidermis

•keratinocytes •melanocytes •dendritic cells •tactile cells

Organisms need-

•oxygen •water •nutrients •body temperature •atmospheric pressure

Types of diseases

•pathogenic: infectious disease, is when the body is infected by a pathogen. Pathogens include many different types of viruses, bacteria, fungi, or protozoa. Some common pathogenic diseases are colds and the flu virus. •deficiency: occur when the body is missing an important nutrient. Deficiency diseases include anemia, which is a lack of iron, or scurvy, which comes from a lack of vitamin C. •hereditary: inherited from family through deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). These diseases are also called genetic disorders and include Down syndrome, sickle-cell anemia, and Turner's syndrome. •physiological: is caused by a physical change or malfunction of a tissue or organ. Examples include asthma, which is a disorder of the lungs and alveoli, and hypertension, which comes from clogged arteries.

integumentary system functions

•protection •regulation of temperature •excretion •metabolic functions