Islamic Art - Exam Pieces: Sultanate-Late Mughals

*Material/Tech:* Ink, opaque watercolor on paper (25.3x15.1 cm) *Content:* - Conquest of Babur & reaction to/documentation of flora/fauna (India's nature = diff from central Asia) - Nilgai = blue bulls - Placed in imaginative landscapes (prob wouldn't see large stones in India like in Persian paintings) *Purpose:* documentation (Mughal Dynasty interest) - (?) Observation of nature; render from life/accurately depict animals *Context:* - Reign of Akbar = Founder of Mughal Dynasty, conqueror of ME Asia - descended w army into S Asia (India) - History was illustrated during reign of Akbar *New tech/invention:* - Persian painting style influencing Mughal *Comparison:*

*2 Blue Bulls (Nilgai) & 2 Hog Deer (Illustrated manuscript of the Babur Nama).* Northern India. Designer: Kanha (active c. 1560-1600), Painter: Mansur (active c. 1585-1625). Early Mughal Painting. c. 1589.

*Material/Tech:* Engraving (27.4x20.2 cm) - Large areas of dark/bright highlights = high contrast (Theatrical lighting effect = drama/3D aspect) *Content:* Xtian subject = birth of Virgin Mary - Xtian iconography, viewed Jesus as a great prophet = imp of Mary -> Mary bathed & visited by angels *Purpose:* Xtian iconography *Context:* *Convention:* *Comparison:*

*After Cornelis Cort (Flemish, c 1533-78), The Birth of the Virgin.* Engraving after a composition by Federico Zuccaro. Early Mughal Painting. 1581.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor & gold on paper (36.3x24.2 cm) - Spacial recession -> see back into space *Content:* - Formal elements: composition, line, space, patterns, fig - figs in foreground; M: 2 men; B: arch; recession into background - Greater naturalism in color - Greenery, ground, hills [brown, green]; trees = highly naturalistic/diff sizes - Rocky forms *Purpose:* - Not part of a manuscript -> not particular narrative that goes w it (as far as we know) *Context:* From time of Akbar - Attribution: artist names/managers of workshops -> Not from a single-hand = more than 1 artists; prob had 1 head designer (specialists would add to work) *Convention:* *New tech/invention:* - Observation of nature {European art influence} *Comparison:* Nurshivan listens to owls [Safavids] - Men chopping olive trees - Nurshivana on horse - Landscape - Spacial recession -> see back into space {{Def influence [Safavid/Persian -> Mughals]}} - [Safavid/Mughal/Ilkhanids]

*2 Men Fighting.* Northern India (Mughal School). Attra. Mukunda (active late 16c) Early Mughal Painting. c. 1585-1590.

*Material/Tech:* Ink, opaque watercolor, gold on cotton/paper (68.5x52 cm) - Blending: soft rock (soft shadow) [not found in Persian/Mughal painting] -> there are many patterns *Content:* - Iskandar (not Alex the Great, just a person) -> shipwreck -> baby (Darab) miraculously survives & is found by Iskandar - Organic rocks - Arch: suggest Islamic arch (onion-shaped domes, pyramid-like superstructure = traditional style of Indian arch before advent of Islam) *Purpose:* *Context:* - Hamzanama proj started (1558) - 15 yrs to complete - Hamza = Prophet Muhammad's uncle -> his adventures - Stories take place around the birth of Islam *Convention:* *Comparison:* - Recall: Ilkhanids (landscape paintings) - Transmitted from Persian influence (Mongols) - Recall: Mongols -> Safavids -> Mughals

*Attr. Keshava Das (active ca. 1560-90) Iskandar finds the infant Darab (Illustrated Hamza Nama series).* Northern India (Mughal school). Early Mughal Painting. c 1570.

*Material/Tech:* Lower story (white) = plaster material that covers common stone (basalt) - Dome = white marble *Content:* - Onion-shaped dome - Minarets - Char-bargh (4-garden) *Purpose:* Attempt @ grandeur w greater economy *Context:* - More S India (when Mughals moved capital: N India -> central India) - Produced under budgetary constraint = signals end of "Gold Age" of Mughal arch *Convention:* *Comparison:* Closely mirror Taj (but on much smaller scale = more economical)

*Bibi ka Maqbara. Aurangabad.* Mughal Arch. Built in 1679 as mausoleum for Aurengzeb's wife, Rabia ud-Daurani.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper (38.8x28.8 cm) - Birds-eye view look into palace - Static quality - Depictions of faces = emphasized -> They're diff *Content:* - Ppl present at birth: seated, playing drums - Red sandstone (= common arch) -> Contrasts white marble (TL) - Rich gold garment worn by empress *Purpose:* Interest in documentation of historical event during Jahangir reign - Wealth suggestion: arch detail (tile/carpet on floor) *Context:* - Jahangir reign - Illustrated manuscript not put together -> but was planned to be created *Convention:* *Comparison:* Rejoicing at the birth of Prince Salim. - R: reign of Akbar -> More dynamic

*Birth of a Prince (possibly illustrated manuscript of the Jahangir Nama).* Northern India (Mughal School). Attra. Bishandas (active c. 1590-1650) Later Mughal Painting. c. 1620.

*Material/Tech:* palm leaf= bleached, processed [Long, narrow, slender format] - Water-based medium on palm *Content:* - Hierarchical scale (central = larger/more imp) - areas (often in square shape) accepting paint & inscribe w txt - Use of bright, primary colors - Use of outlines - Miniature style - Highly animated figs *Purpose:* *Context:* *Convention:* Common for indigenous style of painting in S Asia *Comparison:*

*Buddha attended by 2 smaller Buddhas.* PreIslamic Indian Painting. c. 12c.

*Material/Tech:* jade {E Asia, China, association} - nephrite v hard to carve {use abrasion} -> corundum = mineral-oxide w crystalline texture attached to wire to saw/wear away jade; can use diamond chips - blending of forms: Indian, E Asia, W European *Content:* - Bottom of cup (where many sculpted features are) - Flower rosette foot = delicate base/stand/bottom - Spiral/curved - imagery: gourd -> tapers to handle (wild goat) *Purpose:* luxury obj *Context:* - Jahan = Mughal ruler - Mughal's claimed power form descendants (Timur/Timurids) -> lineage to Mongos = orig from E Asia/utilization of art from E Asia *Convention:* Acanthus/flowers = common in W art *Comparison:*

*Cup of Shah Jahan, bottom of cup.* Jade. Mughal Dynasty: Luxury obj. Jahan. c 1657.

*Material/Tech:* added gold & semi-precious stones to jade surface *Content:* animal imagery, handles = horses *Purpose:* circulated among royalty/hierarchy as gifts (v expensive) *Context:* jade = imported from Central Asia/China *Convention:* Mughal empire = carving of gems is v imp *Comparison:*

*Daggers and Jade handles.* Jade, steel, precious stones. Mughal Dynasty: Luxury obj. 17c.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper (35x20 cm) - Subtle division -> horiz tiers - Composition prioritizes: - Emphasis: portrait is clear/not obstructions despite crowd {imp to show attendance} - Halo of Jahangir - power/piety (convention) *Content:* - Focus: portraits of specific ppl (Mughal convention = profile) - Darbar (audience in presence of emperor -> Large throng of ppl - T: royalty (Jahangir w minsters & fam); M: crowd: B: black rail (elephant, horse, few ppl *Purpose:* Documentation = imp, esp during Jahangir's reign *Context:* - Jahangir -> supposed to engage w audience but facing to the side *Convention:* Mughal = profile *Comparison:*

*Darbar of Jahangir (Illustrated manuscript of the Jahangir Nama).* Northern India (Mughal School). Attr. Manohar (active c. 1580-1630).Mughal Painting. c. 1620.

*Material/Tech:* - Construction: red sandstone (convention of N India) - Sometimes have white marble addition - Geometrical, floral/florette motifs *Content:* - 2 story - Roof has pavilions (on 4 corners) -> usually purely decorative - Balcony of upper-story -> supported by series of brackets - Center of lower most lvl: pillar {Brackets arranged radially = circular platform on top (accessible from upper story) -> emperor sat on top, ppl down below} - Brackets (support projecting members on vert walls) that emperors sits upon are similar to exterior brackets - Non-animal forms {Have animalistic shape - derived from animal imagery tradition (abstracted for context)} {Not a rel edifice = not necessary to remove animal imagery} *Purpose:* Private audience hall - emperor would meet various members of public *Context:* - Imp/traditional sym = center of universe (axis muni = central axis of world/universe) - Emperor = center of cosmos = has divine right to rule - Notion that Akbur is pious ruler *Convention:* N India material = red sandstone *Comparison:* 1560s traditional funerary arch -> has horse forms

*Divan-I Khass (Audience Hall) at Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar's capital.* Mughal Arch: Reign of Akbar. c. 16c.

*Material/Tech:* - Lavish: gold; painted enamel (red, green); precious stones, pearls - High-edged table form; 4 legs *Content:* *Purpose:* Stool for resting feet *Context:* - Mughal had 9 diff thrones used for diff occasions/contexts - This is the only Mughal throne in existence *Convention:* *Comparison:*

*Gold throne w red and green enamel, precious stones, and pearls.* Mughal Dynasty: Luxury obj. 18-19c.

*Material/Tech:* - Presence of low platform on which building stands (1m high) -> building (6.5m high) - Red sandstone, white marble - Large complex: tomb, family members of Mughal *Content:* - Decorative features: Garden, pools of water, highly organized - Many pavilions on roof top (Mughal art convention) - Their remains are buried underneath Earth in a more modest burial room *Purpose:* Many relatives would be buried here - All complexes utilize cenotaph (false tomb/crypt/coffin) *Context:* *Convention:* Mughal = pavilions on top *Comparison:* Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah, Mughal Empire. Agra (1622-1628).

*Humayun's tomb, Delhi.* Mughal Arch: Built by Akbar.

*Material/Tech:* Ink, opaque watercolor on paper (9.5x13.3 cm). - Painting not quite as sensitive/intimate as drawing - Bright colors/cushions, dress *Content:* - Inayat Khan = member of Jahangir's court *Purpose:* Documentation (mentioned in Jahangir memoirs) - Interest: observation of nature - Emperor fascinated by wasting away of Khan *Context:* - Addicted to wine & opium = wasting away -> went to emperor to take leave & die w fam -> emperor asked Khan to stay to have portrait done -> Court painter came in to render Khan [life drawing] *Convention:* profile *Comparison:*

*Inayat Khan Dying (completed painting).* Northern India (Mughal School). Later Mughal Painting. 1619.

*Material/Tech:* Ink, opaque watercolor on paper (9.5 x 13.3 cm) - Drawing - Sensitive portrait: insight of Mughal artist - Artist attempted to portray portrait as realistic as possible - Rendering = Put down line on hat -> have changed/modified areas of portrait (documentation) *Content:* - Inayat Khan = member of Jahangir's court *Purpose:* Documentation (mentioned in Jahangir memoirs) - Interest: observation of nature - Emperor fascinated by wasting away of Khan *Context:* - Addicted to wine & opium = wasting away -> went to emperor to take leave & die w fam -> emperor asked Khan to stay to have portrait done -> Court painter came in to render Khan [life drawing] *Convention:* profile *New tech/invention:* *Comparison:*

*Inayat Khan Dying.* Northern India (Mughal School). Attr. Balchand (active c. 1600-40). Later Mughal Painting. 1619.

*Material/Tech:* *Content:* "Allah, there isno God but He. The living, the self-subsisting eternal. No slumber can size him nor sleep. His are all things in the heavens and on Earth. Who is there who can intercede in his presence, except as he permitted He knoweth what appeareth to his creatures as before or after or behind them nor shall they encompass all of His knowledge, except He willeth. His throne doth extend over the heavens and on Earth, and he feeleth no fatigue in guarding and preserving them for He is the most high, the supreme." - Throne Verse *Purpose:* prob attached to clothing (v rich/Mughal court) *Context:* - Resonates w member of Mughal court = occupies throne on Earth *Convention:* *Comparison:*

*Inscribed emerald: Throne verse from Quran, Sura 2:255.* Mughal Dynasty: Luxury obj. 17c.

*Material/Tech:* *Content:* material shaped into shell *Purpose:* luxury obj *Context:* *Convention:* *Comparison:*

*Jade wine cup.* Mughal Dynasty: Luxury obj.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper (28.7x20.5 cm) *Content:* - Profile depiction of head; interest in plumage, feather color, texture - Quickly rendered stand - No effort in the background *Purpose:* Observation of nature; attn to detail by artist demonstrating skill *Context:* *Convention:* head profile *Comparison:*

*Portrait of a Falcon.* Northern India (Mughal School). Mansur (active c. 1585-16265). Later Mughal Painting. c. 1619.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper (18.9x27 cm) *Content:* - Little background - Ground plane suggestion: flowers/shadowing *Purpose:* - Focus: zebra stripes - the body (render it accurately) *Context:* *Convention:* - Rendered in profile *Comparison:*

*Portrait of a Zebra.* Northern India (Mughal School). Attr. Mansur (active c. 1585-16265). Later Mughal Painting. c. 1621.

*Material/Tech:* Gold, opaque watercolor on paper *Content:* - Jahangir = CL, in white - Khurram seated criss-cross - Fig CR (brown) sufi dervish [Muslim holy man] holding scale - L Other side of scale (w gold coins) figs lifting coins - Front: fine cloth; implements (daggers) = presents for Jahangir - ceremony (took place from time-to-time) - New Year's Day even -> commemorates 16th bday of Khurram - Jahangir's son (Khurram) placed on scale being balanced to gold - Floor covered in carpet: fig painted on carpet = European carpet - Background: shelf -> porcelain pots (China) {Shows wealth (gold - imported - luxury items) of Mughal empire} - Label on lapel/collar of garments = inscriptions (IDs who is in scene) - Halo around Jahangir & Khurram = piety of rulers *Purpose:* documentation - painted much later (+20 years) than event it depicts *Context:* - Khurram = future Shah Jahan = heir to Mughal throne - customary for son to give presents to dad on son's bday - Amt of gold provided by Mughal emperor -> gold distributed to charity/poor *Convention:* - Differential in facial feature = attempt in accurate portraiture - Increasingly imp aspect of historical acct (commemorates event/ppl's portraits employed) *Comparison:*

*Jahangir Weighs Khurram against Gold on His Birthday in 1607.* Album painting intended for a history. Later Mughal Painting. 1628 or 1629.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper. *Content:* - Hourglass throne (time-keeping device = sands of time flow/run out - 2 angel-like creatures writing on hourglass - Around Jahangir (4 figs): (1) Muslim holy man (dervish) (2) Ottoman Sultan (3) European monarch (4) artist holding up painting he created = Depiction of artist/main designer? - European carpet on ground plan = Mughal wealth {classical Greco-Roman figs on carpet = revived during Italian Renaissance} - T: 2 cupid figs flying - Gold halo around Jahangir; crescent moon = Islam = Jahangir is pious Muslim - Some inscriptions: on hourglass {"May he live 1k years" (glass) - wishful thinking}, in margine {"Though outwardly Shahs stand before him, he fixes his gazes on dervishes"} *Purpose:* Focus = Jahangir is pious; Other monarchs standing by -> emphasizes Jahangir's piety (not paying attn to monarchs < pious Muslim holy man) *Context:* -Neither monarch actually visited Mughal court, or was there an hourglass throne - Europeans/Ottomans sent embassies to Mughals w gifts (like portraits, paintings w King James) *Convention:* *New tech/invention:* European influence: carpet, cupids *Comparison:* Portrait of King James of England - European fig - King James of England by European artist (John Decrist) -> close correlation: hat worn, dress, manner

*Jahangir on an Hourglass Throne.* Northern India (Mughal School). Later Mughal Painting.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor on paper (18x23.2 cm) - sheet of paper [based on format] - Separated registers *Content:* - Divided into smaller vignette like mini paintings assembled into larger sheet of paper - Krishna (blue) -> continuous narrative *Purpose:* *Context:* *Convention:* - areas (often in square shape) accepting paint & inscribe w txt - Use of bright, primary colors - Use of outlines - Miniature style - Highly animated figs *Comparison:*

*Krishna roams w his companions (Illustrated manuscript of the Bhagavata Purana).* Northern or Central India. PreIslamic Indian Painting. 1st half of 16c.

*Material/Tech:* Ink & opaque watercolor on paper (40.5x28.7 cm) - Not highly colorful - v light areas of hues *Content:* - Majnun = emaciated fig (sharp shoulders/knees) -> attracted by his charisma = animals approach him - Monkey marveling while holding hand of Majnun - Wilderness setting (jungle) *Purpose:* - Not from manuscript -> shown individually as single work - Shows drawing ability of artist > color *Context:* - Majnun = resonates w Indian culture (renunciation of tradition, asceticism) - Majnun in wilderness = popular Persian story w Indian twist/interpretation •Traditional story of Islamic cult, from Persian tradition ascetic - Spends life re: spiritual concerns (itinerant) - Resonates Sufism practices (Holy Seers) - Ppl who attempt to align themselves w God (no austerities); wandering mystique *Convention:* Majnun -> appropriate for region of SE India *Comparison:* Majnun Eavesdrops on Layla's Camp. Haft Awrang. 1556-65. - Majnun & Layla -> Layla's dad didn't want Layla to marry Majnun (tragic love story) -> lives through Sufi symbolism {Longing of Majnun for Layla = longing of soul for God}

*Majnun in the wilderness.* Norhern India (Mughal School). Attr. Miskin (active c. 1580-1610). Early Mughal Painting. c. 1600.

*Material/Tech:* Ink, opaque watercolor on paper (32x23.2 cm) - Horiz format -> indiv modules/registers - Framing device, colorful paint (bright - red background) - Indian style (pre-advent Islam) [sultanate style influenced by Indian painting]: (1) outline =face, clothing (2)Flat colors (3)framing *Content:* - Txt by Indian poet (writing in Persian = imp lang - courtly/literary lang in Islamic world) - C: Musa is questioned by Great Man re: communion w God - Musa = Moses *Purpose:* *Context:* *Convention:* *Invention/new tech:* - Paper had been imported by this time -> India: paper mills/workshops *Comparison:* Palm leaf = framing device, red background, primary colors - Recall: Khamsa manuscript - diff than one looked at before [diff author]

*Musa and the Great Man (Illustrated manuscript of the Khamsa of Amir Khusrau Dihlavi).* Northern or Central India. Sultanate Painting. 15c.

*Material/Tech:* *Content:* - Variety of buildings: palaces (residency of minsters), treasuries/meeting halls; administrative buildings - TR: Divan-I Khass (audience hall) *Purpose:* *Context:* - Monumental undertaking of Akbar - Akbar wanted to move capital to new site (Fatehpur Sikri = outside of Agra, not too far away from where Taj Mahal would be built) *Convention:* *Comparison:*

*Plan of Fatehpur Sikri palace complex.* Mughal Arch: Reign of Akbar. Late 16c.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper *Content:* - Standing upon Earth; towering above it -> lamb/lion = rel biblical imagery - R: Jahangir standing on lion (royalty/Mughal Empire) - L: Shah Abbas standing on lamb - Embrace -> peace but suggest hierarchy [Jahanger is greater = dominate position/on lion] - Lion is lying on top of W Asia (where Safavids are located), creating a border/pushing lamb to side into Medit. = Dominance of Mughals > Safavids - Flat - Jahangir's face centered on halo/sun = pious Muslim - Crescent moon = symbol of Islam -> Jahangir = pious ruler - Heads w wings (seraphim) - not typical of Islamic art {taken from European rel manuscripts} *Purpose:* - Embrace b/w 2 Muslim rulers = peace; shows his greatness/dominance of the Mughal empire > Safavids *Context:* - Shah Abbas of Safavid dynasty never met Jahangir - Symbolic embrace/environment: fantasy, allegorical - Map: (17c) Europeans = good cartographers (mapping world -> globe based on map created by them that Jahangir prob received) - Jahangir = "World Conqueror" *Convention:* - Jahangir reign/Mughal design = blend of Persian, Safavid, Indian (observation of nature) style - Influence: European art *New tech/invention:* - Diff type of portrait -> not a documentation; imaginative portrait *Comparison:*

*Portrait of Jahangir w Shah Abbas of Persia.* Northern India (Mughal School). Later Mughal Painting. c. 1620.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper (10.4x4.9 cm) - Focus: light/shadow (muted) = Shawl, cloth, face wrinkles -> undulations, drapery folds rendered sensitively [no intense contrast] *Content:* - Imam = religious leader *Purpose:* salvaged part of painting (?) *Context:* *Convention:* - Full-body portrait: face in profile & feet, body slightly turned to viewer (front torso) {Mughal convention} *New tech/invention:* Unusual format - maybe part of a larger work & cut down due to degradation *Comparison:*

*Portrait of an imam.* Northern India (Mughal School). Attr. Abul Hasan (active c. 1600-30). Later Mughal Painting. c. 1620.

*Material/Tech:* H=238 ft - mainly red sandstone; T: white marble (modern reconstruction) - 5 cylindrical stories stacked -> tapers as it rises = exaggerates largeness/grandness - ea stage has balcony (internal stairway to top) - spolia -> Hindu/Jane pieces were dissembled to create bands *Content:* unnecessarily so tall - bands of inscriptions: Koranic - T: white marble *Purpose:* victory monument = might/presence of Islam - minar = call to prayer (5x a day) *Context:* built by Qutb ud din Aibak *Convention:* *Comparison:* Minaret of Jam (Afghanistan). Built by Mohammad of Gur (Ghurids), 1190. H=60m. {minaret is much greater than mosque size}

*Qutb Minar, Delhi.* (part of the Quwwat ul Islam Mosque Complex). Qutb ud din Aibak. Sultanate Arch. 1199-1220.

*Material/Tech:* Diff colored carved stone - corbel arch: horiz stacked tiers [striated features] - spolia - pillars prob taken from Hindu temple - images removed *Content:* "Might of Islam" - Hypostyle w choir section = prayer hall - (a) courtyard - looking toward prayer hall - grand facade of entryway -> prayer hall - Pishtak: gateway for one to enter into the prayer hall (rounded) - intricate deep stone carving (geometric, floral, vines, Arabic calligraphy) {tech previously used for images of gods/goddesses} - cloister (ceiling/platform = all idff shapes, sizes, colors) -> images (Hindu gods/creaturse) removed from pillars *Purpose:* mosque *Context:* Enlarged over centuries -> shown (central area) *Convention:* - SE convention = corbeling {outside SE Asia = arches are v diff} *Comparison:* Cordoba arcades - uses voussoirs (triangle-shaped stones to form arches) - recall: muqarnas = decorative corbel {can be supportive element}

*Quwwat ul Islam Mosque.* Delhi. Sultanate Arch. Begun 1191.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor & gold on paper (26.8x14 cm) - Simpler composition: Persian painting style blended w Indian sub matter - Rocky formation: Persian convention (Iranian tradition: Ilkhanids & early transmission from E Asia) *Content:* - ML: fig w crown (blueish) -> fired arrow at beast (Maharaksa) - BL: Rama's bro (Laksmana) *Purpose:* *Context:* - Ramayana = 1 of 2 great Indian epic [other: Mahar Baruta]; tells story of King Rama (avatar of Vishnu) *Convention:* *Comparison:*

*Ramayana. Rama Slays Maharaksa w a Fiery Arrow.* Early Mughal Painting. Mughal Dynasty. c. 1597-1605

*Material/Tech:* Ink, opaque watercolor, gold on paper (27.5x25 cm) - Lots of movement: things being handed, the announcement, musicians playing - Broken composition = tiers [lower, mid, top] *Content:* - Outer fortification; an inner one w gateways; inside arch; pavilion - see into room [woman given birth] - B: fig in blue throwing coins - Indian society practice -> man w white cloth = beggars, Hindu renunciation coming for alms (pale blue) - Seen in Persian arch = slender geometric, rhombus forms/planes (razor-thin effect) -> to denote walls - TR: landscape = naturalistic color (river, greenery in far distance) *Purpose:* - Documentation: Akbar writing memoirs -> illustrated manuscript *Context:* - Prince Salim -> becomes Jahangir = emperor later *Convention:* *Comparison:*

*Rejoicing at the birth of Prince Salim (Illustrated manuscript of the Akbar Nama)* Designer: Keshava Das (active c. 1560-1590). Painter: Dharm Das (active late 16c). Early Mughal Painting. c. 1590.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper (19.1x20.5 cm) - Much more Persian style - most of page & naturalistic colors re: Persian painting - flat rendering; More static depiction of body (little attn to physiology/movement) - Weird landscape = cave; large, hilly mountain-like projections *Content:* - Rustam (L, brown-suited fig) performing several deeds/labors -> = killing white demon [disembowling] who cries out - R fig (watching labor take place), horse, tree -> Man in front of all 3 but feet don't reach ground [tree underneath feet] -> incoherent space b/w stacking of figs - Horse (in landscape, behind cave) -> has legs protruding in cave *Purpose:* *Context:* - Figs not as indicative of India (pre-advent Islam) - Rustam = hero (like Hercules/Pericles) -> Often depicted w animal skin (lion) -> head cap - Artist prob not skilled in Persian painting = provincial style compared to those in Safavid capital *Convention:* *Invention/New tech:* - Imported Persian style (colors/framing = Indian style) - Diff style - no separation of diff scenes (no registers) = unified landscape w figs *Comparison:* (1)Shah Nama = Persian Epic (Persia history, pre-advent of Islam); v pop in Greater Persia - (2) Safavids - (3)Persian art: Ilkhanids - E Asia influence; strange organic rocky forms -> transmitted to Timurid art -> Safavid -> Sultanate art from India

*Rustam slays the white demon (Illustrated manuscript of the Shah Nama of Firdausi).* Northern or Central India. Sultanate Painting. Late 15c.

*Material/Tech:* Ink, opaque watercolor, gold on cotton/paper - Cotton blended on paper - Cloud-like blended rocks *Content:* - More religious themes - Nijhad converts 2 enemies - 2 divided armies split *Purpose:* Witnessing of event (documentation) *Context:* - Pointing w finger @ mouth = gesture of surprise *Convention:* *Comparison:*

*Sa'id-i-Farrukh-Nijahd Combats an Elephant and Converts 2 Brothers (Illustrated Hamza Nama series).* Northern India (Mughal School). Early Mughal Painting. c. 1590.

*Material/Tech:* palm leaf - Water-based medium on palm *Content/convention:* - areas (often in square shape) accepting paint & inscribe w txt - Use of primary colors - Use of outlines - Miniature style - Highly animated figs - palm leaf = bleached, processed [Long, narrow, slender format] *Purpose:* *Context:* Painting style is also foundational to later painting styles, including Jain art (Hindu) Rajput miniature painting (c. 1400-1800) *Convention:* look above for 12th century paintings on Palm Leaf *Comparison:*

*Series of illustrated Buddhist palm leaves.* Pre-Islamic Indian Painting. c 12c.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper - 2 ways of rendering planes (ground/ceiling) = [linear perspective/flat] -> blend of influences (1) Brackets/canopy - linear POV (2)Tile floor/carpet: pattern rendered flatly - Symmetry - Tiers/registers *Content:* - Rendered: (1) Material = White marble; (2) Pietra dura (special inlay tech); (3) Canopy (square in shape) -> sides converge to single point [single-point perspective] - Darbar = audience in presence of Shah Jahan - C: Shah Jahangir {Still adhering to profile depiction/portraiture (breaking up symmetry) -> looking at fam/ministers} - Figs part of audience; attendants holding fly whists in hads - Railing -> other visitors - L: interesting hats = Europeans {Bearing gifts; establish trade relations w Mughal empire -> relationship leads to downfall of Mughals} *Purpose:* *Context:* - Artists looking @ Persian art, European art (perspective), Indian painting (bright colors, obs nature) *Convention:* - Portraits; side profile *New tech/invention:* single-point (linear) perspective - Typical in European art (esp Renaissance to show 3D space) *Comparison:* Darbar of Jahangir. Attr. Manohar (active c. 1580-1630). Illustrated Manuscript of the Jahangir Nama. - throng of ppl - Asymmetrical (no single line)

*Shah Jahan Darbar.* North India (Mughal Period). Later Mughal Painting. Mid 17c.

*Material/Tech:* - Building (white marble) created initially for wife - inlay of precious/semi-precious stones {pietra dura} - set in char bagh (garden) - No images of animals/humans -> Arabic calligraphy; Koranic verse (reading) *Content:* *Purpose:* mausoleum for Jehangir's wife, Mumtaz (died giving birth to 14th child) - Shah Jehan -> was married @ Taj Mahal (not planned) - Platform/podium (Mughal) - Minarets (not a mosque) - not for call to prayer - Pavilions on top (Mughal) - Onion-shaped dome (Tomb of Humayan; Persian); (visible on exterior) = closed off from rest of complex -> inside = smaller dome -> Larger dome = add beauty/grandeur to outside (no other purpose) - Rectangular entryway (pishtaq) - Arched, vaulted-ceiling (iwan) - Mumtaz/Shah Jehad remains found in small crypt under Taj Mahal - Why cenotaphs? Why is crypt so simply rendered compared to fancy Taj Mahal? - 2 cenotaphs: Mumtaz, Shah Jehan (emperor had it built for wife) *Context:* - Romantic associations w Taj Mahal [like hotels, casino, restaurants] - Recall: Tomb of Humad-ud-Dalah -> common rel features/vocab - Char (4) bagh (garden) - garden divided into 4 ways -> Paradise = garden oasis - Islamic tradition: in death, all is =; everyone dies, is judged by God -> Large, funerary (expensive) monument are considered impious, but Mughals created it anyway - Attempt to reconcile for it: remains are put in a more modest space w lavish funerary arch above {tries to adhere to stricture that burials should be simple} - Romantic notion: Shah Jehan built Taj for wife after her death -> Mythology: Jehan built it for himself & wife -> be together for eternity [not true] - Jehan was interested in building an even greater complex for himself - Taj Mahal (v expensive/extensive labor) -> made Mughals bankrupt - Son deposed father & took control of Mughal empire Son denied father's wish->dad died in captivity->buriedw Mumtaz *Convention:* - Style imported from Persia -> S Asia *Comparison:* Bibi ka Maqbara. Aurangabad. Built 1679 as mausoleum for Aurengzeb's wife, Rabia ud-Daurani.

*Taj Mahal, Agra.* Mughal Arch. Shah Jehan. c 1632-48.

*Material/Tech:* Ink, opaque watercolor on paper (21.6x17 cm) - Monochrome for most part - Artists choose traits (since Mughals use bright colors = sharp contrast not well-known) -> learn/synthesize influences •Mughals ( Muslim) not against *Content:* - Copy of composition (figs) - Minor effects of shadow/highlight -> Renders drapery *Purpose:* - An exercise for an artist -> Attempting to learn from various painting traditions (W European) *Context:* - European prints often permit wide dissemination -> Xtian subject = birth of Virgin Mary - Xtian iconography, viewed Jesus as a great prophet = imp of Mary -> Mary bathed & visited by angels *Convention:* *Comparison:* The Birth of the Virgin. After Cornelis Cort (Flemish, c. 1533-1578). Engraving after a composition by Federico Zuccaro. 1581. - Large areas of dark/bright highlights = high contrast (Theatrical lighting effect = drama/3D aspect)

*The Birth of the Virgin.* Northern India (Mughal School). Early Mughal Painting. c. 1610.

*Material/Tech:* - tomb: red sandstone - molding, arches, dome = white marble - walls slant = exaggerate perspective/grandness - voussoirs (trinagular pieces to create arch) *Content:* fortification *Purpose:* mausoleum (funerary monument w tomb) *Context:* Tughlaq = military leader - prev no indigenous arch of this type in India -> imported from Persia *Invention:* voussoirs {transmitted tech, not corbeling} *Convention:* - N Indian convention material: red sandstone *Comparison:* Tomb of Saminids, Bukhara (Uzbekistan). Before 943. - brick, no slanting, square internal space, dome, tomb

*Tomb of Ghiyas ud-Din Tughlaq.* Tubhlaqabad, Delhi. Sultanate Arch. 1325.

*Material/Tech:* white Rajasthan marble inlaid w carnelian, jasper, lapiz, onyx, topaz {pietra dura} *Content:* - Base 50m^2, H=1m - Cenotaph (false crypt/tombs) - 4 octagonal towers in corners like minaret - Pavilion-like domes = add grandeur/beauty; use of sacred arch despite not being a mosque - exterior = pavilion-like domes -> add grandeur/beauty to exterior - Pavilion = completely cut-off from lower story - Utilization of sacred arch -> even though its not a mosque *Purpose:* mausoleum - fam members buried underneath *Context:* Itimad-ud-Daulah (Mirza Ghiyas Beg) = father of Nur Jehan; Jehangir's minister of finance - Monument = precursor to Taj Mahal *Convention:* Invention: red sandstone -> white marble {preference} *Comparison:* Like other Islamic tombs = burials in precinct

*Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah* Agra. Mughal Empire: Arch. 1622-28.

*Material/Tech:* Opaque watercolor, gold on paper (41.5x30.8 cm) - More Persian form: stacked buildings (recession into space); flat planes pitched @ angle = depth - Multiple periods of time depicted *Content:* - Krishna (MR): dark blue - Vasudeva (Krishna's dad) = Fig w crown & pink robe - Lamp = at night - Figs slumped over = guards fast asleep - T: floating in sky = Hindu gods overseeing *Purpose:* (non-rel) work of entertainment from Indian tradition - Shows extent Akbar/Mughals were interest in indigenous Indian culture *Context:* - Story: Krishna was born into royalty [father: Vasudeva] - On throne: (uncle) Kansa {received prophecy: someone, prob Krishna, will kill you} -> plans on killing Krishna to prevent prophecy -> Deva flees w Krishna to countryside (leaves guarded palace at night, guards fall asleep = able to escape) -> prophecy is fulfilled = corrupt uncle killed - Akbar was tolerant of other rel -> commissioned translation of rel txt into Persian (Indian Sanskrit Epics) in Mughal court - Epics involve Hindu gods (considered sac(non-rel) work of entertainment from Indian tradition in Hindu tradition) - In India (under Mughal Empire) - traditional forms of Indian painting, common to Hindu manuscript - Krishna: avatar/incarnation of god Vishnu - Vishnu: major god of Hindu pantheon; "Maintainer God"; depicted as black/blue; has 10 avatars; comes to Earth to set things right - Harivamsha = manuscript orig in Sanskrit -> translated: Persian *Convention:* - Traditional manner of non-Mughal painting: (1) Individ registers, pieced together individ works (2)Primary color background: red/orange/blue (3)Space: flat *New tech/invention:* Not typical in Islamic art *Comparison:* Krishna Roams w His Companions.

*Vasudeva removes the Infant (Illustrated manuscript of the Harivamsha).* Northern India (Mughal School). Early Mughal Painting. c. 1590 w later border.