Italian 120 Midterm #1

Transubstantiation/communion

bread is seen by Catholics as the flesh of Jesus, anyone who wants to be Christian can participate in communion and become one with Christ. Protestants think eating bread and therefore Jesus is unchristian. Contact between humans and God can be small (i.e. through a piece of bread). Transformation of forms in substance, question of religious sacrament. Consume bread and wine representing Christ allow for communal with Christian tradition and the divine Protestants believe bread and wine are symbols, not literally flesh and blood Church response: closing of ranks, cementing ideas as they existed before (counter reformation, transubstantiation becomes of huge importance) Bread represents means by which people access God. Beliefs about bread indicate religion; association with cannibalism based on religious conflicts, able to root out heresy Inquisition on Italian peninsula: Catholicism is dominant. Beliefs against communion could cause anger, excommunication, and death penalty (mostly reserved for leadership)

Influence of printing press

makes books more likely to survive; many more books printed at the time bc of available technology Before hand copies were necessary, type of material that was used to create something that would foreshadow a book was not necessarily as durable or was so durable that it would be reused Circulation of text is much more broad Looking at a time where technology has made a shift

Ancient Roman market

vibrant consumer society; can shop for what you want, not just what you need Large in size, included visitors from around the world, vendors, and (if applicable) people who bring vendors their goods; vendors work at market for living within context of urban area with 1 mil+ citizens Brings together people employed in food business Jobs emerged that were associated with production and consumption of food; colors relationship bc of presence of professional environment Market is a mixed gender space; women expected to be the primary provider of food within household for lower classes (higher classes--women don't have to cook) Lower income=higher likelihood of mixing in public sphere bc don't have people to do jobs for them

Cena Trimalchio clip

Ancient Rome dinner party, special meal satirizing wealthy Host was a slave and now very wealthy Entertainment embedded in meal (host main entertainment) People lie down in horseshoe shape Trimalchio travels to Sicily and back without stepping off his property Brings out old beard, says he was fully grown at 14 (sexual prowess) Ostentatiousness backed by food, wine espoused for age, live pig with sausage already in it Pronounced makeup and dress similar to that you would generally see when dressing for nice occasion but taken to an extreme Guests' discomfort in the clip odd because generally host must make people feel welcome

Unification throughout Italian history

Ancient period: no unified religion, but unified political system via Empire Middle Ages: unified via Christianity, not Empire Renaissance: court culture (prince has people surrounding him, territory closely bound together) becomes common, Reformation nuances Christianity (Catholic and Protestant) Religion influences meanings attached to food

Ancient v. modern wine making

Ancient: grape juice and sugar combined, fermented with yeast that eats sugar and creates alcohol that gets left behind Today: need fermentation facility to hold/capture juice, allow fermentation, need land suited to grape growth, carry grapes through process of growing, maturation, picking, pressing Smaller scale production of wine and difference in the way liquid could be transported and served indicate different relationship to the product Danger of unfiltered water sometimes led to use of wine as a substitute People primarily drank wine because they liked the taste Associated with status, sophistication, distinction, community boundaries Some intellectual pursuit behind wine: ability to know wine contingent on experience with it Most wine not meant to last a super long time Italian wine begins to gain reputation of quality in the Middle Ages

Apicius: De re coquinaria (1st C AD)

Apicius: collection of Greek monographs on various branches of cookery and included different authors. Makes it more complete bc included many opinions which are considered worth saving, represents what others want us to know about the time period Recipes included instructions for preserving seafood, "minced" dishes, spiced wine, lobster/crab croquettes, brain sausage, endives and lettuces. Incomplete, shown via lack of books on bread and dessert Harmless salad: expected to already know how to make a salad, dressing is what's special; called harmless bc its healthy (somehow more value beyond eating) Brain sausage: more labor, tools, instruction; expectation of pre-knowledge via lack of measurement specificity or the way someone would use tools to make a dish gave instructions, came in a format that is familiar. Emperor wanted the collection to come together; gave food a new value; said it is a part of Imperial culture

Lasagne 13th century

Associated with certain cuisine, culture, place, people

Banquet

Attended by higher class Diverse foods from different places (jellyfish and eggs, flamingo boiled with dates, fricassee of roses with pastry, hot African sweet wine cakes with honey) All these foods considered "good" and worth eating

Examples of ancient celebrity chefs

Bartolomeo Scappi, Cesare Evitascandolo, Cristoforo Messisbugo; all three had portraits which show that they are important and have some sort of social status--considered worthy of creating

The Humors

Blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile; exist in foods and in ourselves Perfect balance of these things seen as essential to maintaining a healthy body, dependent on eating foods capable of correcting any systemic imbalance

Ballerini: L'arte Coquinaria (1465)

Historical cookbook written by Maestro Martino. First in Europe deemed worthy of mass production. His gastronomic approach stood in stark contrast to Renaissance practices where eating/feasting was primarily a political function. Cornerstone of culinary edifice written by Platina (his mentor, wrote foreword) Before: weren't detailed specifications in culinary manuals. Food writers primarily wrote for themselves, didn't want to divulge professional secrets. Martino de Rossi: earliest signature in history of Italian cooking Il Platino: places dishes into broader cultural/scientific context; explains products' use and where to find them Was a professional chef, definitely existed and wrote down his own recipes A famous intellectual takes his recipes and folds it into his own book, making it even more famous First time we see a cookbook that has a title and an author (two things we look for in a book) Has separate sections that are dedicated to different things: meat preparations, soups Book having an author may give it more credibility; can be associated with a person Martino was a chef for a cardinal and many rich, powerful people at the time--may be able to consider one of the first "celebrity chefs"

Middle Ages meat consumption

Consumption became pronounced during time period. Social differences reflected by kinds of animals consumed. Marked preferences for fresh meats cooked immediately after slaughter. People began to favor local fish found in rivers, lakes, and marshes

Terence Scully: Medieval Dining

Cooks had to substitute appropriate ingredients on lean/fasting days. Ex: prohibition of dairy leads to creation of "fake butter" from almond milk and rosewater. Late medieval cook's standard repertoire included joints, sops, sauces, pottages, jellies, custards, porridge, cakes, biscuits, pies Food we consider appropriate to eat at certain points in the meal based on medieval beliefs about stomach functions. Most easily digested foods (salad) consumed first

Reformation and Christianity

Cornerstone of Christendom (communion) ripped apart People unhappy about Church, Luther becomes famous for opposition (95 theses), create their own religious space and decide they would no longer follow the Roman Catholic Church. Indulgences and communion are the two main points of contention.

Biblical wedding painting

Couple noticed that all the wine ran out, Jesus turns water into wine. Depiction of feast, symbolic and spiritual representation pointing to story with more meaning than immediate representation

How do we study a culture through its cuisine?

Difficult to study because it is not constant; fleeting bc it cant last forever. Food is subjective (people have different tastes). Have varying definitions of different types of food or even what food is, leading to different images, definitions to come to mind when asking "What is pizza?" Ancient times: most of society lives subsistence lifestyle, relies a lot on the state for support (ex. food)

Affluent people and food

Don't rely on state; difference between not having what you like and survival for lower classes

Italy definitions

European country without clear boundaries What makes it a place is a coherent set of conditions that pushes a group of people to behave in a certain way, have a set of values Perhaps more profoundly European than the things existing around it Young country with old cities: politically new but has existed culturally at least as far back as Ancient Rome 20 Italian regions Influences food based on ingredients available, agriculture

Why people drank wine

Idea that people drank wine not water because of cleanliness is not entirely true: water (drinking water) was clean (Ancient Rome infrastructure), dont have record of people drinking water because it wasn't special (not worth writing down)

Garden of Eden

Eve gives into temptation by eating apple, brings sin to Earth for all humans. Original sin associated with food, food avoidance is essential to Christianity (and most faiths) Earthly body vs. divine soul idea during Middle Ages: could cause people not to care about what they eat because body is temporary, could fuel belief that body and soul are connected (interactions with body impact the soul). Heavy emphasis on interconnectivity, choices re: body directly influence soul during Middle Ages

Waste disposal

Fewer packaging items make for easier waste disposal, almost all waste is organic Disposing of an animal carcass is hard (smells, rots) Bodies of water often used for waste

Columbian Exchange

Food brought from Europe to Americas: peaches, pears, citrus, sugar, coffee, olives, bananas, bees, onions, grains, livestock, disease, turnips, grapes Food brought from Americas to Europe: Turkeys, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, avocado, pepper, squash, pineapple, cacao beans, cassava, potato, tomato, beans, corn, vanilla Some foods more successful in new place

Ken Albala: Setting the Stage, Setting the Table

Food choice factors variable based on person, place, and time. Can reveal values, health, power. Changes individual from someone average to having distinction. Difficult to discern eating habits of the past Banquet demonstrates central drive to woo, dominate, and challenge. State banquet=propaganda, display wealth and power, stability, order

Our perspective on "healthfulness" of food

Foods that are less manipulated considered healthy, prep can influence healthfulness (ex. frying) What we view to be healthy influenced by advertising, associations with longevity, parental advice Often find evidence regarding healthfulness of food that fits our own interests Healthfulness and ideas behind it aren't linear

Why do we care about Italy?

Formal country for 150 years, long history and identity (longer than most European countries) Located in SC Europe, jutting out into Mediterranean. Borders France, Austria, Slovenia. Close to N. Africa, Grecian Islands, looks equally to near East of Mediterranean and West (Spain and Morocco area) Crossroads between Europe, Asia, Africa Political influence beginning in Roman Republic; center for ideas spreading out into the rest of the world. Cemented at O BCE/CE; heart of political reality is the Roman Republic turning into Roman Empire at this time Medieval period: 400-1400CE Renaissance: 1400-1600CE--Flourishing of culture beginning at Italian Peninsula and spreading throughout Europe; "rebirth" following medieval period

Romans and women

Greek Decanon: women not allowed inside, Rome permitted women under certain conditions Romans inherit dining practices from Greeks Permitting women in spaces dependent on public/private distinction: what's appropriate depends on if others are witnessing it, women more often confined to private space in Ancient Rome

Authenticity re: New York article

Group in NY define Italian food's authenticity in restaurants, many not Italian and can join group because 2+ people vouch for taste Someone in external position defining what is Italian could be offensive, subjective to define authenticity as an outsider Search for authenticity is self defeating practice that erodes authenticity by systems of taxonomy that we use to put them in place

Time it takes to cook

Has significantly decreased; household appliances were once much larger and time consuming to use/make effective. Shift in technology changes how people interact, likelihood of having and valuing certain relationships

Italy as a cultural center

Important because it was flourishing economically in Renaissance, leading to culture growing and expressing itself in a broader sense

Italian cookbooks

Increased circulation of Italian cookbooks (thousands of cookbooks today) indicates that the food is designed to be accessible to all kinds of people, creating an entire cuisine and all the things that come with it (tools used, etc) Italian cookbooks started as nebulous collections of food that were sort of like recipes, but not really, slowly became more coherent and came through channel of specific ideas about culture, now we have popular books: people who became famous because they cooked for the powerful but now their recipes can be used by many via cookbooks Recipes can be used anywhere that the book can go--in the case of the Renaissance, this means the book can now go anywhere Can now communicate to other people what it means to eat Italian; Renaissance is a tipping point, where things come together

Court of Frederick II

Instigator and patron to production of the earliest known cookbook in Europe

Late Middle Ages ruling system (1100-1350)

Italy had small cities with appointed officials managing specific territories Pope wields power in Italy Rural vs. urban, monarchy v. republic, empire v. city state, hyper local ethnic identity v. broad religious identity

Italian climate/geography

Italy's climate same as cultures that come before it, so people live similarly Coasts: fish, olives, grapes: some foods always present bc of geography and climate Warmer climate make food preservation difficult. Alcohol present because of pleasure and practicality (food consumable for longer). Wine is "go to" liquid bc its drinkable for a long time. Use salt for preservation

Average citizen's diet

Little diversity, manipulation, and protein; more accessible food eaten (millet, chickpeas, cheese, dried fruit). Easier to transport/preserve Plain flavor profile (no spices)

Vespucci: Letter to Pietro de Medici (1503)

Lots of things from Colombian Exchange (potatoes, corn) which became staples of European diet don't come to his attention Says natives eat their own families and enemies, they are curious that Europeans don't. Met a man who ate 300 bodies. Portrays cannibalism to be prized and common in indigenous culture. Insinuates superiority (civilized vs. uncivilized). Shows inherent cultural differences. Argues that communion is not only not cannibalism but real cannibalism is practiced in other parts of the world. Contrast with grotesqueness of overeating (eating too much at this time means someone can't eat). Pushes European issues onto another "blank slate" population

Giovanni Villani on Food Storage and Famine (1329-30, 1347-8)

Many food storages in 14th Century: Villani witnessed shortages, held city government office and was a Florentine chronicler 1328: held office charged with confronting famine that devastated most of the peninsula Romans protested that King Robert didn't give them grain form the Kingdom of Naples, overthrew Senators Price of wheat (1 stao) increased from 17 to 42 soldi in 2 years. Florence lost over 70k gold florins to sustain the people. Bread was sold daily in 3 or 4 deposits in 6 city districts. Continuous rain in April, May, June 1346 ruining growing season April 1347: 94k people needed to utilize public welfare program to ensure they were fed (not including people who didn't want "communal bread," religious orders of merchants, or poor that lived on Alms)

Martino cookbook audience

Maybe directed towards people who are staff within an upper middle class aristocratic home, can use culinary art and becoming a better cook to gain some sort of social mobility as Marrtino did; now possible to make a vocation and life out of specialty around food

Fast and Feast: The Historical Background

Medieval times: most important food practices were fasting and Eucharist. Acknowledge sinfulness by renouncing food, pay tribute to God's power Catherine of Siena: died 1380 CE. Impacted others through her fasting. 1/1380: gave up water for a month. Died in April emaciated, wracked by stomach pains. Saw suffering as service and hunger as Greed

Associations with literacy during Renaissance

Must know Latin to be considered literate

Why do we care about food?

Need it to survive, provides general sense of comfort, drawn to it, essential in a way almost nothing else is. Way of sharing/demonstrating care for others, constructing communal bonds, helps create memories (sensorial experience) Difference between raw and cooked food is a marker of civilization; humans more intellectually capable and thoughtful than other beings. Reflects/cements culture, shows attention/engagement to world; able to manipulate it rather than passively accept it (vital facet of humanity) Creates positive and negative boundaries between culture Symbolic value (ex. apple pie is distinctly American)

Impacts of lack of food

No food leads to anger, death; without community government can't lead. Vested interest in providing food to people to promote a stable government, effective governor relied upon for food and provides food, leading to citizens feeling a sense of loyalty to government Rationing of bread/grain makes food more available. Ability to provision is instrumental in Roman government's rise as a stable power Urban center: can activate network of preserving, storing, distributing, and making food

Food identification/new foods

Often relates to some familiarity Something exciting about new things: wealthy would likely want/afford/enjoy something new (value because of exclusivity) Aesthetic value: look good, bright/colorful, superior substitution that before was expensive/rare. Potatoes fill similar role to wheat: caloric, inexpensive, durable Foods become commonality based on taste, ease of use/prep, caloric content, affordability, portability

Ancient Rome culture and infrastructure

Plumbing/running water in homes generally don't exist Ancient Rome: slavery is common and nonspecific (slaves come from a variety of places) Wealthy rely on human labor for services/resources Clean water reliant on human labor and government building aqueducts; centrality of state necessary for plumbing Distances are contained bc primary transportation is walking, state provides roads which makes transport easier. State dictates who accesses what (where roads are)

Bread

Practical because requires water, yeast (naturally occurring), flour; bread staple of pre-established Roman diet; system propagates itself based on pre-established practices

Influence of light on productivity

Premodern times: not having light limits flexibility to get things done; takes longer to do things. People take more time off and put more effort into the things they do

Pizza/social media

Prevalent because of aesthetic and universal appeal; posting could likely garner lots of likes, probably not ostentatious in nature

Diet of middle ages

Protein heavy with few vegetables Meat symbol of wealth; more expensive leading it to have more value (meat expensive bc it consumes more resources, is perishable, needs more preparation) Staples: wine, grapes, olive oil, bread, cheese, seafood, sweeteners (honey, fruit, cooked down onions), garum (umami flavor--people get rich off of garum by making sauce from anchovy juice). People spent about 1/2 of income on bread.

Two primary political moments defining Ancient Roman experience

Roman Republic (500BCE-0)--representative political system; participation mentality contrasted with individual. Roman Empire (0-500CE). Shift from Republic to Empire indicates shift to more elaborate cuisine; reflects more interconnectedness because of association with greater geographic area in Empire (more ingredients), leading to the introduction of new/exotic foods with the Emperor usually first to experience and reap the benefits of change Small groups of wealthy/influential people hold power, everyone relies on the government for food in some way (extra wealth limited to small group of people)

Erdkamp: Food Supply of the Capital

Roman diet consisted of cereals, more varied for people in rural areas; grain not perishable so it could be transported and stored. Annual adult wheat consumption was roughly 200kg. Rome annual consumption was 150k tonnes. Also consumed legumes, olive oil, wine, meat. Grain handed out to hundreds of thousands of people on an exclusive list each month called the "trajan" Urbanites buying power was so low that most money was spent on food. Dominance of cereals led to malnutrition for those who ate little else. Roman Empire able to grow because state had enough money to provide basic foodstuffs. Ships needed to transport food (ex. grain and olive oil from Egypt)

General Rome/Roman Empire info

Rome seen as center of the world, universal marketplace with products from all over. People look to Rome for what to do in all aspects of life, including eating. Roman Empire and Mediterranean were a melting pot of cultures and cuisines, absorbed diversity. Initially considered Germans to be barbaric, culture took over when Germans invaded the empire; began to accept hunting and eating livestock. 11th C: trade routes between Asia and Europe strengthened Italy establishes identity clearly and rapidly between 11th and 12th centuries because country was not a "new invention" Names of dishes refer to specific location, people believe in existence of local specialties 17th C: recipe compilers begin to emphasize geographic locations (spec. Naples) Publication of culinary texts intensified after Italy's unification

Modern period: Italy as a nation-state

Shift in country's identity; time when people look for things that pull them together as a country/culture. Early 1900s: Italy has the most successful fascist experiment in Europe, Moussolini in power 1922-1945. Today: immigration into Italy, heart of immigration crisis; most common touching point for people moving from Africa or Central Asia into Europe. Rapidly changing demographies, more than 100k annual new arrivals (current pop=60 mil) Tourism is a huge economic component of Italian identity and GDP 1850-1950: Lots of people left Italy, create reiterations outside of Italy around the world

American fast food

Shows importance of convenience, speed of life

Europe associations to cannibalism

Socially unacceptable and gross. Transubstantiation seen by protestants to be cannibalism

Food definitions

Something humans consume to sustain daily activity; more value than physiological substance, part of culture Exists in nature but also manipulated by humans Expanded into broader headings like cuisine; reflects people, culture, geography, represents other values Some things we consider food can hurt us (allergies, alcohol)

Roman dining room

Standard: no chairs Upper classes: lounging preferred eating method, often have dedicated dining spaces (some are outdoors) People eat with hands; food must be manageable in size and not too hot No appliances: kitchens must be larger with fire as heat source that must be maintained for a long time. Baking difficult, boiling and roasting more common

Cookbook definition

Step by step instructions for how to make a dish including measurement, ingredients, illustrations

Those who write and buy cookbooks today

Those who have a cookbook with name associated to it, illustration elevate making food to an art in a way that hasn't been seen before--has so many ideas about food that they have filled a book with them Bartolomeo Scappi: has pictures of what kitchen should look like, what instruments should be used for cooking--makes preparation of food much more accessible People today write cookbooks to increase their visibility

What is Italian food?

Tomatoes indigenous to Americas, only used in Italy for 500 years Cheese, meat, grains present in ancient times Bread constant from ancient period to today, magnetized cultural values to itself because of constant nature, longevity olive oil, wine, and bread=trifecta Olive oil: Italy's lipid of choice, although expensive and not produced in some areas of Italy throughout history. Spaghetti and meatballs cannot be found in Italy; defined as Italian in US but is not Italian at all; vast complex terrain with lots of pitfalls Fusion of cultures, immigration leads to changed perception of cuisine outside and inside its obundaries Experiences define certain things to us relating to a culture or our own memories

Familial aspects of food ("Mom's cooking"), associations with Italian culture and cuisine

Underscores social structuring and norms; expectation that women provide food. Italian culture is highly aestheticized; Italians know how to live well (high standard of living via dressing and eating well, drive nice cars, nice vacations) and food is part of that Italian cuisine is accessible, making it more likely to be sought out, leading it to become reinforced and more widely enjoyed. Attaching social value to food has given it deeper roots; respect brought towards food in terms of time dedicated to eating, products used. Leads to appreciation for ingredients and elevation of simplicity. Aesthetic value shows that food has meaning beyond sustenance

Latin

Unifying roman language which remains strong beyond Empire; facilitates trade, helps standardize measurement systems

Human interaction with God through food

Universality: everyone eats, making it easy for food to serve as a medium to access the superhuman. In the process of sustaining life through eating, people get at something greater (becoming closer to God)

Brown 2012: Reclining and Dining in Ancient Rome

Unlike before, respectable women were invited to dinner parties and drinking became part of the dining experience. Late Republican and early imperial period: guests dined on 3 large beds placed in a U shape in a triclinium (dining room). Status based seating: host family on low couch, high status guests on middle couch, low status guests on high couch

Changes in associations with being a chef

Used to be associated with sweat, injury, long hours, "back of house" job, unreliable staff Now: influence, art, famous, money, influence Ancient books talked about food but did not honor the preparer of the food in any way, did not refer to the chef that was behind the food.

Italian courses

antipasto, primi, secondo, contorno, dulce

Dante (philosopher)

Bread is a symbol for philosophy; everyone can access bread as everyone can access philosophy.

Christianity influence on food

Christianity changes eating practices: certain foods considered sacred have religious connotation Bread: intercessor between God and man, means by which individual communes with God. Food's importance in society increases, now associated with religion Christian calendar designates Friday and some Wednedays as days to fast, common practice in Middle Ages Fasting impacts specific portions of the food market: no animal products on Fridays (evolved into able to eat fish but not meat) gluttony/overindulgence considered sinful; hard to put parameters around this idea (people eat different amounts, etc)

Ginzburg: The Cheese and the Worms (1400s-1500s)

Within context of the Inquisition in Italy Menocchio: peasant miller living in NE Italy. Tries to explain God and creation of the universe as being akin to cheese with worms in it, where God and angels are the worms. Unpleasant and base image, does not align with prevailing doctrine. Implies cheese pre-existed God. Attempt to create more concrete analogy than that put forth by the Catholic church. Cheese is common, when it rots worms are attracted to it. Easily observable process. Leave it out long enough and things happen; don't need special knowledge to understand process Supernatural connotation: not obvious why worms are attracted to the cheese. Wonder in the process is inexplicable the same way that God is wondrous

Why cookbooks are not widespread up until Renaissance

Written records in time period are very expensive; wealthy would not have access to cookbook, likely wouldn't cook for themselves Purpose of cookbooks in this time period therefore is collecting