JMR (final - IDs)

Ibn al-Nadim

(d. ca. 995) - BLANK was the tenth century bibliophile who compiled the encyclopedic catalogue known as *'Kitāb al-Fihrist'* - This important source of medieval Islāmic culture and scholarship, from his own and various ancient civilizations, preserves many names of authors, book titles and accounts that would otherwise be entirely lost.

Expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem

(135 CE) In 135 CE, Hadrian's army defeated the Jewish armies and Jewish independence was lost. As punishment, Hadrian exiled more Jews, and forbade the Jews from living in their capital.

McMahon-Hussein Correspondence

(1915-16) - was a series of letters exchanged during World War I in which the British government agreed to recognize Arab independence after the war in exchange for the Sharif of Mecca launching the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire - Following the publication of the November 1917 Balfour Declaration, which promised a national home for the Jews in Palestine, and the subsequent leaking of the secret 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement in which Britain and France proposed to split and occupy parts of the territory, the Sharif and other Arab leaders considered the agreements made in the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence had been violated.

Destruction of the (Second) Temple by the Romans

(70 CE) In 66 CE the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire. Four years later, in 70 CE, Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and the Second Temple.

Abraham Geiger

(Germany, 1810-74) - was a German rabbi and scholar, considered the founding father of Reform Judaism. Emphasizing Judaism's constant development along history and universalist traits, Geiger sought to reformulate received forms and design what he regarded as a religion compliant with modern times.

Ignaz Goldziher

(Hungary, 1850-1921) - was a Hungarian scholar of Islam. Along with the German Theodor Nöldeke and the Dutch Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, he is considered the founder of modern Islamic studies in Europe. - His eminence in the sphere of scholarship was due primarily to his careful investigation of pre-Islamic and Islamic law, tradition, religion and poetry, in connection with which he published a large number of treatises, review articles and essays contributed to the collections of the Hungarian Academy. Most of his scholarly works are still considered relevant.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

(May 1916) - was a secret 1916 agreement between the United Kingdom and France,[1] to which the Russian Empire assented. The agreement defined their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control in Southwestern Asia. - The deal, exposed to the public in Izvestia and Pravda on 23 November 1917 and in the British Guardian on November 26, 1917, is still mentioned when considering the region and its present-day conflicts Further negotiation was expected to determine international administration in the "brown area" (an area including Jerusalem, similar to and smaller than Mandate Palestine The agreement effectively divided the Ottoman Arab provinces outside the Arabian peninsula into areas of British and French control and influence,[9] and led later to the subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire following Ottoman defeat in 1918.

Fatimids

*(969-1171)—Muslim dynasty that ruled Egypt, most shi'ites. Being in North Africa, grow from Bergours. Cairo becomes center of the empire and conquer most of North Africa and extend into Arabian Peninsula. In general, tolerant of minorities.* - was an Ismaili Shia Islamic caliphate that spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. The dynasty of Arab origin ruled across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre (political, cultural, religious) of the caliphate. - The Fatimids claimed descent from Fatimah, the daughter of Islamic prophet Muhammad - The Fatimid caliphate was distinguished by the central role of Berbers in its initial establishment and in helping its development, especially on the military and political levels - After the initial conquests, the caliphate often allowed a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam - During the late eleventh and twelfth centuries the Fatimid caliphate declined rapidly, and in 1171 Saladin invaded its territory. He founded the Ayyubid dynasty and incorporated the Fatimid state into the Abbasid Caliphate

Feminist interpretation of Bible and Qurʾan

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Nakba

- "day of catastrophe" - is generally commemorated on 15 May, the day after the Gregorian calendar date for Israeli Independence Day - For the Palestinians it is an annual day of commemoration of the displacement that preceded and followed the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948

Sephardi

- "the Jews of Spain" - are a Jewish ethnic division whose ethnogenesis and emergence as a distinct community of Jews coalesced during the early Middle Ages on the Iberian Peninsula. - They established communities throughout areas of modern Spain and Portugal, where they traditionally resided, evolving what would become their distinctive characteristics and diasporic identity, which they took with them in their exile from Iberia beginning in the late 15th century - Their millennial residence as an open and organised Jewish community in Iberia began to decline with the Reconquista and was brought to an end starting with the Alhambra Decree by Spain's Catholic Monarchs in 1492, which resulted in a combination of internal and external migrations, mass conversions and executions.

Kaʿba

- ("The Cube") is a building at the center of Islam's most important mosque, that is Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (located in the Hejazi city of MECCA, Saudi Arabia) - considered by Muslims to be the "house of god" - Muslims are expected to face the Ka'ba when in prayer - every Muslims must preform the Hajj (Greater Pilgrimage) at least one in their lifetime

Denaturalization Law

- (Iraq, 1950) - The amendment authorized revocation of citizenship to any Jew who willingly left the country. The new measure mimicked similar legislation in Nazi Germany. Upon exit, Jewish assets were frozen but were still available to the emigrants for use within Iraq. - An estimated 130,000 Jews lived in the Iraq of 1949, half in Baghdad. The Baghdad Chamber of Commerce listed 2,430 member companies; a third were Jewish. In fact, a third of the chamber's board and almost all its employees were Jewish. Law 5, known as the Law for the Control and Administration of Property of Jews Who Have Forfeited Nationality, permanently seized all the assets of Jews who had been denaturalized by the previous law and any others that would be pressured to leave the country. From 1951 to 1952, approximately 120,000 desperate Jews were airlifted from Iraq to Israel in Operation Ezra and Nehemiah. The speed and heartlessness of the exodus was part of a calculated Iraqi government plan to flood the fledgling Israeli state with destitute Jews. The idea was to crack Israel's already strained infrastructure - Thousands immediately registered to leave. Household by household, Jewish families finally—almost unanimously—realized that their precious 2,600-year existence in Iraq was over. In wave after wave, groups of refugees left the country via the overland route. Soon, large overcrowded refugee camps sprang up in Iran to accommodate the exodus.

Al-Qumisi

- *y. 946* - was one of the most prominent early scholars of *Karaite Judaism*. He flourished at the end of the ninth or at the beginning of the tenth century Daniel later immigrated to Jerusalem, and founded the order of the *"Mourners of Zion."* He may have built the oldest Karaite Synagogue, which is located in Jerusalem. Espousing proto-Zionist views, he urged his fellow Karaites to return to Israel, and called those who opposed doing so "fools who draw the Lord's wrath" in his Epistle to the Diaspora.

Ibn Khaldun

- 1332-1406) - was an Arab historiographer and historian.[8] He is claimed as a forerunner of the modern disciplines of historiography, sociology, economics, and demography - He is best known for his book, the Muqaddimah or Prolegomena ("Introduction"). The book influenced 17th-century Ottoman historians like Kâtip Çelebi, Ahmed Cevdet Pasha and Mustafa Naima who used the theories in the book to analyze the growth and decline of the Ottoman Empire

Mi'rāj

- 2nd part of Muhammad's night journey Muhammad ascended into heaven with the angel Gabriel and met a different prophet at each of the seven levels of heaven; first Adam, then John the Baptist and Jesus, then Joseph, then Idris, then Aaron, then Moses, and lastly Abraham. After Muhammad meets with Abraham, he continues on to meet God without Gabriel. - God tells Muhammad that his people must pray 50 times a day, but as Muhammad descends back to Earth, he meets Moses who tells Muhammad to go back to God and ask for fewer prayers because 50 is too many. Muhammad goes between Moses and God nine times, until the prayers are reduced to the five daily prayers, which God will reward tenfold

Battle of the Trench / Confederates

- 627 AD - was a 30-day-long siege of Yathrib (now Medina) by Arab and Jewish tribes. The strength of the confederate armies is estimated around 10,000 men with six hundred horses and some camels, while the Medinan defenders numbered 3,000 - The largely outnumbered defenders of Medina, mainly Muslims led by Islamic prophet Muhammad, dug a trench on the suggestion of *Salman Farsi*, which together with Medina's natural fortifications, rendered the confederate cavalry (consisting of horses and camels) useless, locking the two sides in a stalemate - Hoping to make several attacks at once, the confederates persuaded the Muslim-allied Medinan Jews, Banu Qurayza, to attack the city from the south. However, Muhammad's diplomacy derailed the negotiations, and broke up the confederacy against him. -The siege was a "battle of wits", in which the Muslims tactically overcame their opponents while suffering very few casualties. Efforts to defeat the Muslims failed, and Islam became influential in the region. As a consequence, the Muslim army besieged the area of the Banu Qurayza tribe, leading to their surrender and enslavement or execution.

Mustʿarib

- Arabic speaking Jew who lived in the Middle East and North Africa

Exilarch

- Arabic: "head of exile" - was the leader of the Diaspora Jewish community in Babylon following the deportation of King Jeconiah and his court into Babylonian exile after the first fall of Jerusalem in 597 BCE and augmented after the further deportations following the destruction of the kingdom of Judah in 587 BCE

Hijra

- Hegira refers to the migration of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib (later renamed by him to Medina) in *622 CE.* - In June 622, after being warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly left his home in Mecca to emigrate to Yathrib, 320 km (200 mi) north of Mecca, along with his companion Abu Bakr - This event, which traditionally marks the beginning of the Islamic era, is known in Arabic as the Hijra-literally, "departure."

Aysha Hidayatullah

- Her research interests include feminist exegesis of the Qur'an; representations of women in early Islamic history; constructions of femininity and masculinity in the Islamic tradition; feminist methodologies in the study of Islam; racial imaginaries of U.S. Islam; popular discourses on Muslim women in the U.S.; and the pedagogy of Islamic studies. Her first book, Feminist Edges of the Qur'an (Oxford University Press), examines and critically responds to the emerging body of Muslim feminist scholarship on the Qur'an in the United States. She serves as Co-Chair for the Islam, Gender, Women Group of the American Academy of Religion

Judah

- In the Old Testament Judah is the fourth of the twelve sons of Jacob by Leah, and the ancestor of the tribe of Judah - His tribe eventually formed the Kingdom of Judah in the south of Israel. King David and Jesus were among the descendants of him and his wife Tamar. - An iron age kingdom with Jerusalem as the capital. It was sparsely populated until prospering under Assyrian rule in the 7th century.

Millet

- In the Ottoman Empire, a millet was a separate court of law pertaining to "personal law" under which a confessional community (a group abiding by the laws of Muslim Sharia, Christian Canon law, or Jewish Halakha) was allowed to rule itself under its own laws. - non-Muslims were simply given a significant degree of autonomy within their own community, without an overarching structure for the 'millet' as a whole

Ashkenazi

- Jews of Eastern Europe (Germany, Hungary, Poland) - are a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced as a distinct community in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium - The traditional diaspora language of Ashkenazi Jews is Yiddish (a Germanic language which incorporates several dialects), with Hebrew used only as a sacred language until relatively recently.

Umma

- is an Arabic word meaning "community" - In the Quran the ummah typically refers to a single group that shares common religious beliefs, specifically those that are the objects of a divine plan of salvation

Seville

- Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from Northern Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. - It was the *capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate*, the Almoravid dynasty first and after the Almohad dynasty from the 8th to 13th centuries.

Battle of Badr

- The Battle of Badr, fought in 624 CE, in the Hejaz region of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia), was a key battle in the early days of Islam and a turning point in Muhammad's struggle with his opponents among the Quraish - The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory attributable to divine intervention, or by secular sources to the strategic genius of Muhammad. It is one of the few battles specifically mentioned in the Quran. All knowledge of the battle at Badr comes from traditional Islamic accounts, both hadiths and biographies of Muhammad, recorded in written form some time after the battle. - Prior to the battle, the Muslims and the Meccans had fought several smaller skirmishes in late 623 and early 624. Badr, however, was the first large-scale engagement between the two forces. - The Muslim victory also signaled to the other tribes that a new power had arisen in Arabia and strengthened Muhammad's position as leader of the often fractious community in Medina *During this battle, they also fought against Banu Qaynuga (Jewish Tribe). After his victory, Muhammad allows the Pagans to leave with their possessions.*

Ikhwān al-Safāʾ

- The Epistles of BLANK or "Brethren of Purity", as their name is commonly translated, are the authors of one of the most complete Medieval encyclopedias of sciences - is a compendium of all the sciences known in the tenth century and the first complete exposition of the Ismaili philosophical system. The Shiites sought to prove that the imams—divinely appointed successors of Muhammad in the line of ʿAlī—are alone entitled to rule the Muslim community, and that their authority should be seen in the context of a cosmic mission

Almohads

- They succeeded in overthrowing the ruling Almoravid dynasty governing Morocco by 1147, when al-Gumi (r. 1130-1163) conquered Marrakesh and declared himself Caliph. They then extended their power over all of the Maghreb by 1159. - Al-Andalus soon followed, and all of Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172 - increasingly intolerant of non-Muslims

Hadith

- a collection of traditions containing sayings of the prophet Muhammad that, with accounts of his daily practice (the Sunna), constitute the major source of guidance for Muslims apart from the Koran - in Islam denotes the words, actions, and the silent approval, of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. - It might be defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and obedience. - The development of Hadith is a vital element during the first three centuries of Islamic history, and its study provides a broad index to the mind and ethos of Islam.

Judaeo-Arabic

- a continuum of specifically Jewish varieties of Arabic formerly spoken by Arab Jews - Saadia Gaon is considered to be the founder - Many significant Jewish works, including a number of religious writings by Saadia Gaon, Maimonides and Judah Halevi, were originally written in Judeo-Arabic as this was the primary vernacular language of their authors. - allowed for the spread of "Arab Jews"

Mizraḥi (sg.); Mizraḥim (pl.)

- are Jews descended from local Jewish communities of the Middle East from biblical times into the modern era. They include descendants of Babylonian Jews and Mountain Jews from modern Iraq, Syria, Bahrain, Kuwait, Dagestan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Uzbekistan, the Caucasus, Kurdistan, Afghanistan, India and Pakistan.

Sira

- basically Muhammad's biography - are the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad from which, in addition to the Quran and trustable Hadiths, most historical information about his life and the early period of Islam is derived.

Sayed Kashua

- is an Israeli Arab author and journalist born in Tira, Israel, known for his books and humorous columns in the Hebrew language - His Haaretz column of July 4, titled "Why Sayed Kashua is Leaving Jerusalem and Never Coming Back: Everything people had told him since he was a teenager is coming true. Jewish-Arab co-existence has failed."

Judah Halevi

- born in Spain, 1075 - wrote the Kurazi - Divided into five parts ("ma'amarim" - articles), it takes the form of a dialogue between a rabbi and a pagan. The pagan is then mythologized as the king of the Khazars who has invited the rabbi to instruct him in the tenets of Judaism - was a Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher. - Halevi is considered one of the greatest Hebrew poets His *Songs of Zion*, giving expression to the poets yearning for the land of Israel, are still used in synagogues during the Ninth of Av service to introduce a note of consolation after the recital of the dirges on this day of mourning for the destruction of the Temple and for other calamities of the Jewish past - died on the way or upon his arrival to Jerusalem

ʿAṣabiyya

- central concept in Ibn Khaldun's work in the 14th c. - translated as "social cohesion", "group solidarity", or "tribalism" - This social cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups; it can be intensified and enlarged by a religious ideology. - Ibn Khaldun's analysis looks at how this cohesion carries groups to power but contains within itself the seeds - psychological, sociological, economic, political - of the group's downfall, to be replaced by a new group, dynasty or empire bound by a stronger (or at least younger and more vigorous) cohesion

Fihrist

- compiled by Al-Nadīm, a tenth century bibliophile - important source of medieval Islāmic culture and scholarship, from his own and various ancient civilizations, preserves many names of authors, book titles and accounts that would otherwise be entirely lost "a catalogue of the books of all peoples, Arab and foreign, existing in the language of the Arabs, as well as their scripts, dealing with various sciences, with accounts of those who composed them and the categories of their authors, together with their relationships, their times of birth, length of life, and times of death, the localities of their cities, their virtues and faults, from the beginning of the formation of science to this our own time" - Al-Nadīm

Responsa

- comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by legal scholars in response to questions addressed to them. - Responsa play a particularly important role in Jewish law. The questions forwarded are usually practical, and often concerned with new contingencies for which no provision has been made in the codes of law, and the responsa thus supplement the codes. They therefore function as a source of law, almost as legal precedent, in that they are consulted by later decisors in their rulings; they are also, in turn, incorporated into subsequent codes. - basically legal process and precedent for Jewish law

Isra

- first part of Muhammad's Night Journey in *621 CE* - In the Isra', Muhammad traveled on the steed Buraq to "the farthest mosque". - Traditionally, later Muslims identified the mosque as a location in the physical world, the *Al-Aqsa* Mosque in Jerusalem. - At the mosque, Muhammad led other prophets in prayer. He then ascended to the heavens in the Mi'raj, speaking to God afterwards.

Karaites

- is a Jewish religious movement characterized by the recognition of the Tanakh alone as its supreme authority in Halakha (Jewish religious law) and theology. It is distinct from mainstream Rabbinic Judaism, which considers the Oral Torah, as codified in the Talmud and subsequent works, to be authoritative interpretations of the Torah. Karaites maintain that all of the divine commandments handed down to Moses by God were recorded in the written Torah without additional Oral Law or explanation. As a result, Karaite Jews do not accept as binding the written collections of the oral tradition in the Midrash or Talmud.

Alliance Israelite Universelle (AIU)

- is a Paris-based international Jewish organization founded in 1860 by the French statesman Adolphe Crémieux to safeguard the human rights of Jews around the world. - The organization promotes the ideals of Jewish self-defense and self-sufficiency through education and professional development. - It is noted for establishing French-language schools for Jewish children throughout the Mediterranean in the 19th and early 20th century.

Arab Nationalism

- is a nationalist ideology that asserts the Arabs are a nation and promotes the unity of Arab people, celebrating the glories of Arab civilization, the language and literature of the Arabs, calling for rejuvenation and political union in the Arab world - One of the primary goals of Arab nationalism is the end of Western influence in the Arab world, seen as a "nemesis" of Arab strength, and the removal of those Arab governments considered to be dependent upon Western power

Geniza

- is a storage area in a Jewish synagogue or cemetery designated for the temporary storage of worn-out Hebrew-language books and papers on religious topics prior to proper cemetery burial

Hakham

- is a term in Judaism, meaning a wise or skillful man; it often refers to someone who is a great Torah scholar. The word is generally used to designate a cultured and learned person

Arab Jew

- is a term referring to Jews living in the Arab World

Majlis

- is an Arabic term meaning "a place of sitting", used in the context of "council", to describe various types of special gatherings among common interest groups be it administrative, social or religious in countries with linguistic or cultural connections to Islamic countries - The Majlis can refer to a legislature as well and is used in the name of legislative councils or assemblies in some of the states where Islamic culture dominates

Law of Return (Israel, 1950)

- is an Israeli law, passed on 5 July 1950, which gives Jews the right to come and live in Israel and to gain Israeli citizenship. - In 1970, the right of entry and settlement was extended to people with one Jewish grandparent and a person who is married to a Jew - In the Law of Return, the State of Israel put into practice the Zionist movement's "credo" which called for the establishment of Israel as a Jewish state.

Kuzari

- is one of the most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Judah Halevi, completed around 1140. It is regarded as one the most important apologetic works of Jewish philosophy. -Divided into five parts ("ma'amarim" - articles), it takes the form of a dialogue between a rabbi and a pagan. The pagan is then mythologized as the king of the Khazars who has invited the rabbi to instruct him in the tenets of Judaism Halevi asserts that no comparison is possible between Jewish culture, which in his view is based upon religious truth, and Greek culture, which is based upon science only. He holds that the wisdom of Greek philosophers lacked that divine support with which the Israelite prophets were endowed - Halevi now attempts to demonstrate the superiority of his religion, Judaism The preservation of the Israelites in Egypt and in the wilderness, the delivery to them of the Law on Mount Sinai, and their later history are to him so many evident proofs of their superiority. He impresses upon the king the fact that the favor of God can be won only by accomplishing the precepts in their totality, and that those precepts are binding only on the adherents of Judaism.

Tafsīr

- is the Arabic word for exegesis, usually of the Qur'an. -exegesis is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text, particularly a religious text - A Qur'anic tafsir attempts at providing elucidation, explanation, interpretation, or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of God's will

Hakham Basha

- is the Turkish name for the Chief Rabbi of the nation's Jewish community. In the time of the Ottoman Empire it was also used for the chief rabbi of a particular region of the empire, such as Syria or Iraq, though the Hakham Bashi of Constantinople was considered overall head of the Jews of the Empire

Zionism

- is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel - Modern Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a national revival movement, both in reaction to newer waves of antisemitism and as an imitative response to other exclusionary nationalist movements - Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the desired state in Palestine, then an area controlled by the Ottoman Empire

Sura

- is the term for a chapter of the Quran. - There are 114 Surahs in the Quran, each divided into verses

Ben Ezra Synagogue

- located in Old Cairo, Egypt - This was the synagogue whose geniza or store room was found in the 19th century to contain a treasure of abandoned Hebrew, Aramaic and Judeo-Arabic secular and sacred manuscripts. The collection, known as the Cairo Geniza, was brought to Cambridge, England at the instigation of Solomon Schechter and is now divided between several academic libraries

Sahaba

- meaning "the companions", refers to the companions, disciples, scribes and family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad - The testimony of the companions, as it was passed down through trusted chains of narrators (isnads), was the basis of the developing Islamic tradition. From the traditions (hadith) of the life of Muhammad and his companions are drawn the Muslim way of life (sunnah), the code of conduct (sharia) it requires, and the jurisprudence (fiqh) by which Muslim communities should be regulated

Judith Plaskow

- professor on Jewish feminism - Her scholarly interests focus on contemporary religious thought with a specialization in feminist theology. - the first book of Jewish feminist theology, Plaskow wrote that the Torah, and Jews' conception of their own history, have been written by and in the language of a male patriarchy in a manner that sanctions the marginalization of women, and must be reclaimed by redefining its content to include material on women's experiences.

Sunna

- the "way of life/path" or "daily practice" - actions of the prophet to be followed - The Quran (the holy book of Islam) and the sunnah make up the two primary sources of Islamic theology and law. The sunnah is also defined as "a path, a way, a manner of life"; "all the traditions and practices" of the Islamic prophet that "have become models to be followed" by Muslims.

Diaspora

- the dispersion of Jews among the Gentiles after the Babylonian Exile; or the aggregate of Jews or Jewish communities scattered "in exile" outside Palestine or present-day Israel. - Although the term refers to the physical dispersal of Jews throughout the world, it also carries religious, philosophical, political, and eschatological connotations, inasmuch as the Jews perceive a special relationship between the land of Israel and themselves.

Qibla

- translates to "direction" - is the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Ṣalāṫ (prayer) - It is fixed as the direction of the Kaaba in the Hejazi city of Mecca. Most mosques contain a wall niche that indicates the Qiblah, which is known as a miḥrâb

Umar b. al-Khattab

- was one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliphs in history. He was a senior companion of the Prophet Muhammad. *He succeeded Abu Bakr (632-634) as the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate in 634* - created the Pact of Umar - In general, the pact contains a list of rights and restrictions on non-Muslims (dhimmis). By abiding to them, non-Muslims are granted security of their persons, their families, and their possessions (but generally accepted 2nd citizenship to Muslims) - Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling the Sasanian Empire and more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire.[7] His attacks against the Sasanian Empire resulted in the conquest of Persia in less than two years (642-644). According to Jewish tradition, Umar set aside the Christian ban on Jews and allowed them into Jerusalem and to worship

Talmud

- translates to "study" - is the generic term for the documents that comment and expand upon the Mishnah ("repeating"), the first work of rabbinic law, published around the year 200 CE by Rabbi Judah the Patriarch in the land of Israel. - is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law and theology. (the "guide for the daily life of Jews") - The Talmud has two components; *the Mishnah* (c. year 200 CE), a written compendium of Rabbinic Judaism's Oral Torah; and *the Gemara* (circa year 500), an elucidation of the Mishnah and related Tannaitic writings that often ventures onto other subjects and expounds broadly on the Hebrew Bible. The Talmud (Hebrew for "study") is one of the central works of the Jewish people. It is the record of rabbinic teachings that spans a period of about six hundred years, beginning in the first century C.E. and continuing through the sixth and seventh centuries C.E. The rabbinic teachings of the Talmud explain in great detail how the commandments of the Torah are to be carried out. For example, the Torah teaches us that one is prohibited from working on the Sabbath. But what does that really mean? There is no detailed definition in the Torah of "work." The talmuidc tractate called Shabbat therefore devotes an entire chapter to the meaning of work and the various categories of prohibited work.

Baghdad

- under the Abbasids - Baghdad became a centre of science, culture, philosophy and invention during the Golden Age of Islam - collections of Muslims and non-Arabs

Hasdai b. Shaprut (915-70)

- was a Jewish scholar, physician, diplomat, and patron of science. - died about 970 at Córdoba, Andalusia - *Hasdai marks the beginning of the florescence of Andalusian Jewish culture, and the rise of poetry and of the study of Hebrew grammar among the Spanish Jews* - further development of Jewish culture - built off the Jews of Baghdad

Abdallah b. Salam

- was a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and was a rabbi before converting to Islam. He participated in the conquest of Syria and Palestine, but died in Medina - great example of the power, influence, and truth of the prophet Muhammad

Cremieux Decree (1870)

- was a law that granted French citizenship to the majority of the Jewish population in French Algeria (around 35,000), signed by the Government of National Defense on 24 October 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War. - The decree allowed for native Jews to automatically become French citizens while Muslim Arabs and Berbers were excluded and remained under the second-class indigenous status outlined in the Code de l'Indigénat. They could, on paper, request French citizenship, but requests were very seldom accepted. *That set the scene for deteriorating relations between the Muslim and Jewish communities and proved fateful in the Algerian War of Independence, after which the vast majority of the French Jews of Algeria emigrated to France.*

Maimonides

- was a medieval Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars of the Middle Ages - he was posthumously acknowledged as among the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in Jewish history, and his copious work comprises a cornerstone of Jewish scholarship. - His fourteen-volume Mishneh Torah still carries significant canonical authority as a codification of Talmudic law

Samuel b. Naghrela (993-1005)

- was a medieval Spanish Talmudic scholar, grammarian, philologist, soldier, merchant, politician, and an influential poet who lived in Iberia at the time of the Moorish rule - He was perhaps the most politically influential Jew in Muslim Spain Some sources say that he held office as a viziership of state for over three decades until his death in 1056. Because Jews were not permitted to hold public office in Islamic nations as an agreement made in the Pact of Umar, that Samuel Nagid, a Jew or dhimmi, should hold such a high public office was rare His unique position as the viziership made him the highest ranking Jewish courtier in all of Spain. Recognizing this, in the year of 1027, he took on the title of nagid, or Prince.[3] The peculiar fact regarding his position as the top general in the Granada army was that he was a Jew. That a Jew would command the Muslim army, having them under his authority, was an astonishing feat As a Jew, Samuel ha-Nagid actively sought to spread Jewish culture and values and dutifully performed public servic

Balfour Declaration (November 1917)

- was a public statement issued by the British government during World War I announcing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a minority Jewish population - The opening words of the declaration represented the first public expression of support for Zionism by a major political power. The term "national home" had no precedent in international law, and was intentionally vague as to whether a Jewish state was contemplated. - The intended boundaries of Palestine were not specified, and the British government later confirmed that the words "in Palestine" meant that the Jewish national home was not intended to cover all of Palestine. -The second half of the declaration was added to satisfy opponents of the policy, who had claimed that it would otherwise prejudice the position of the local population of Palestine and encourage antisemitism worldwide by "stamping the Jews as strangers in their native lands". - The declaration called for safeguarding the civil and religious rights for the Palestinian Arabs, who composed the vast majority of the local population, and also the rights of the Jewish communities in other countries outside of Palestine.

Ottoman

- was a state that controlled much of southeastern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered a fifth column for the rival Safavid empire. Selim was also responsible for an unprecedented and rapid expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Middle East, especially through his conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. With these conquests, Selim further solidified the Ottoman claim for being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the 14th century starting with Murad I

Almoravids (1090-1147)

- was an imperial Berber Muslim dynasty centered in Morocco.[1][2] It established an empire in the 11th century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus - The Almoravids were crucial in preventing the fall of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively defeated a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086 - However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived. The Almoravids fell—at the height of their power—when they failed to stop the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 by the Almohad Caliphate, who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus

Banu Qaynuqa (allied with Banu Khazraj)

- was one of the three main Jewish tribes living in the 7th century of Medina, now in Saudi Arabia - Following Muhammad's arrival in 622, He proceeded to set about the establishment of a pact, known as the *Constitution of Medina*, between the Muslims, the Ansar, and the various Jewish tribes of Yathrab to regulate the matters of governance of the city, as well as the extent and nature of inter-community relations. - *The Banu Qaynuqa were a Jewish tribe expelled by the Islamic prophet Muhammad for breaking the treaty known as the Constitution of Medina*, by pinning the clothes of a Muslim woman such that when she tried to move, her clothes tore and she was stripped naked. A Muslim killed a Jew in retaliation, and the Jews in turn killed the Muslim man. This escalated to a chain of revenge killings, and enmity grew between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa, leading to the siege of their fortress. The tribe eventually surrendered to Muhammad, who initially wanted to capture the men of Banu Qaynuqa but ultimately yielded to Abdullah ibn Ubayy's insistence and agreed to expel the Qaynuqa.

al-Hakim

- was the sixth Fatimid caliph (985-1021)—also known as the "Mad Caliph". His mother was Christians and was originally tolerant of Jews and Christians. IN 1011, document called Baghdad Manifesto was released and stated that al-Hakim was too generous to Jews and Christians and is not true lineage of Ali of Fatimid. In response, al-Hakim declares that Easter celebration is prohibited as well as wine for all. IN 1012, reverses not-tolerant policies. "irrationally given to killing those around him on a whim, and the ideal supreme ruler, divinely ordained and chosen, whose every action was just and righteous, were to persist, the one among his enemies and those who rebelled against him, and the other in the hearts of true believers, who, while perhaps perplexed by events, nonetheless remained avidly loyal to him to the end."

Quraysh

- were a mercantile Arab tribe that historically inhabited and controlled Mecca and its Ka'aba. - The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. - The Quraysh staunchly opposed Muhammad until converting to Islam en masse in 630 CE. - Afterward, leadership of the Muslim community traditionally passed to a member of the Quraysh as was the case with the Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid caliphs.

Sürgün

- with regard to Jews, sürgün designates the Ottoman population-transfer policy whereby large numbers of people were forced to relocate for strategic purposes.

Examination of the Three Faiths

- written by Ibn Kammunah - challenged the legitimacy of Islam where he reasoned that incompatibility of sharia with the principles of justice undercuts Muhammad's claims of being a perfect man and stated that people convert to Islam from ulterior motives ""That is why, to this day we never see anyone converting to Islam unless in terror, or in quest of power, or to avoid heavy taxation, or to escape humiliation, or if taken prisoner, or because of infatuation with a Muslim woman, or for some similar reason." - challenged the perfection of Muhammad - The publication of the book caused rioting in Baghdad

Muqaddima

- written by Ibn Khaldun in 1377 - which records an early view of universal history. Some modern thinkers view it as the first work dealing with the philosophy of history Ibn Khaldun wrote the work in 1377 as the introduction chapter and the first book of his planned work of world history, the Kitābu l-ʻibar, but already in his lifetime it became regarded as an independent work on its own. - criticized the bias nature of history writing "All records, by their very nature, are liable to error..." His historical method (similar to the scientific method) also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history, leading to his development of historiography.

Qurʾān (Koran)

-is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God - Muslims believe that the Quran was verbally revealed by God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609 CE, when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death

Battle of Uhud

-y. 625 was a battle between the early Muslims and their Quraish Meccan enemies in the northwest of the Arabian peninsula. Many Muslims were killed and the battle was considered a setback for the Muslims. - When the battle looked to be only one step away from a decisive Muslim victory, a serious mistake was committed by a part of the Muslim army, which altered the outcome of the battle. A breach of Muhammad's orders by the Muslim archers, who left their assigned posts to despoil the Meccan camp, allowed a surprise attack from the Meccan cavalry, led by Meccan war veteran Khalid ibn al-Walid, which brought chaos to the Muslim ranks. - Although they had been close to routing the Meccans a second time, their breach of Muhammad's orders in favor of collecting Meccan spoils reaped severe consequences. The two armies would meet again in AD 627 at the Battle of the Trench.

The Pact of Umar

.Treaty attributed to the second caliph, Umar ibn Khattab (d. 644 ), regulating the activities of non-Muslims.

Babylonian Exile

586 BCE *Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, besieged Jerusalem, and the Jews were exiled and only until 539 were they allowed to return to Judah.* Towards 515 BC, the jews who returned began construction of the Second Temple. - the forced detention of Jews in Babylonia following the latter's conquest of the kingdom of Judah - The exile formally ended in 538 BCE, when the Persian conqueror of Babylonia, Cyrus the Great, gave the Jews permission to return to Palestine. - Historians agree that several deportations took place (each the result of uprisings in Palestine), that not all Jews were forced to leave their homeland, that returning Jews left Babylonia at various times, and that some Jews chose to remain in Babylonia - thus constituting the first of numerous Jewish communities living permanently in the Diaspora.

Saadia Gaon

882-942 - was a prominent rabbi, Jewish philosopher, and exegete of the Geonic period who was active in the Abbasid Caliphate. The first important rabbinic figure to write extensively in Arabic, he is considered the founder of Judeo-Arabic literature - in defense of rabbinic Judaism - Saadia's Arabic translation of the Torah is of importance for the history of civilization; itself a product of the Arabization of a large portion of Judaism, it served for centuries as a potent factor in the impregnation of the Jewish spirit with Arabic culture

Caliph - Caliphate

A *caliphate* is a state under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of *caliph*, a person considered a religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim community - Historically, the caliphates were polities based in Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires - During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the *Rashidun Caliphate (632-661), the Umayyad Caliphate(661-750) and the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258)*. In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate, the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517

the "Kingdom of the Ishmaelites"

According to the Book of Genesis, *Ishmaelites* are the descendants of Ishmael, the elder son of Abraham and the descendants of the twelve sons and princes of Ishmael. According to the Book of Genesis, Abraham's first wife was named Sarah and her Egyptian slave was named Hagar. However Sarah could not conceive. According to Genesis 16:3 Sarah (then Sarai) gave her slave Hagar in marriage to Abraham, in order that Abraham might have an heir - Hagar conceived Ishmael from Abraham, and the Ishmaelites descend from him.

Banu al-Nadir and Banu Qurayza (allied with Banu Aws)

Banu Nadir - Jewish tribe of Medina. Contributed significantly to Medinan economy. Entered into a pact with Muhammad known as the Constitution of Medina. Besieged and expelled after the Battle of Uhud in 625 for suspected disloyalty. Chapter 59 in the Quran concerns their expulsion. In 627 , planned siege of Medina with Quraysh against the Muslims. After the Battle of Badr, one of the Banu Nadir's chiefs Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, went to the Quraish in order to lament the loss at Badr and to incite them to take up arms to regain lost honor, noting the statement of Muhammad: "He (Ka'b) has openly assumed enmity to us and speaks evil of us and he has gone over to the polytheists (who were at war with Muslims) and has made them gather against us for fighting".[14] This was in contravention of the Constitution of Medina, of which the tribe led by Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf was a signatory, which prohibited them from "extending any support" to the tribes of Mecca, namely Quraish. - Banu Qurayza - in 627, when the Quraysh and their allies besieged the city in the Battle of the Trench, the Qurayza initially tried to remain neutral but eventually entered into negotiations with the besieging army, violating the pact they had agreed to years earlier.[8] Subsequently, the tribe was charged with treason and besieged by the Muslims commanded by Muhammad.[9][10] The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered and their men were beheaded, except for a handful who converted to Islam.

Bedouin

Bedouin—Bedouin refers to the native people of the Arabian Peninsula qho had a love of oral traditions, poetry, and valued generosity, hospitality, and valor. Their importance is in that they were the major influence of Arabian urban culture and would gather at Ka'ba in Mecca annually (similar to the Islamic religion). They were a large influence on many aspects of the Islamic religion.

Midrash

In Judaism, the BLANK is the genre of rabbinic literature which contains early interpretations and commentaries on the Written Torah and Oral Torah (spoken law and sermons), as well as non-legalistic rabbinic literature (aggadah) and occasionally the Jewish religious laws The purpose of BLANK was to resolve problems in the interpretation of difficult passages of the text of the Hebrew Bible, using Rabbinic principles of hermeneutics and philology to align them with the religious and ethical values of religious teachers.

Isra ʾīliyyāt

In hadith studies, BLANK is the body of narratives originating from Jewish and Christian traditions*, rather than from other well-accepted sources that quote the Islamic prophet Muhammad These narratives are found mainly in works of Qur'anic commentaries and history compilations. They contain information about earlier prophets mentioned in the Bible and the Qur'an, stories about the ancient Israelites, and fables allegedly or actually taken from Jewish sources Muslim scholars generally classify the narratives of the Isra'iliyyat into three categories: 1. Those considered to be true because the revelation to Muhammad confirms them. 2. Those considered to be false because the revelation to Muhammad rejects them. 3. Those not known to be either true or false

Party Kingdoms (taʿifa)

In the history of the Iberian Peninsula, *a ta'ifa* was an independent Muslim-ruled principality, of which a number were formed in Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) after the final collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031. Most of these were emirates, but there was one oligarchy, Seville. - The origins of the taifas must be sought in the administrative division of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, as well in the ethnic division of the elite of this state, divided among Arabs, the more numerous Berbers, Iberian Muslims

Rabbinic

Rabbinic Judaism has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian Talmud. Growing out of Pharisaic Judaism, Rabbinic Judaism is based on the belief that at Mount Sinai, Moses received from God the Written Torah (Pentateuch) in addition to an oral explanation, known as the "Oral Torah," that Moses transmitted to the people.

Abbasids

The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. -The Abbasid dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566-653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name - They ruled as caliphs for most of their period from their capital in *Baghdad in modern-day Iraq*, after assuming authority over the Muslim empire from the Umayyads in 750 CE - The Abbasid period was marked by reliance on Persian bureaucrats (notably the Barmakid family) for governing the territories conquered by Arab Muslims as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah - *Baghdad became a centre of science, culture, philosophy and invention during the Golden Age of Islam*

Right of Return

is the political position or principle that Palestinian refugees, both first-generation refugees and their descendants have a right to return, and a right to the property they themselves or their forebears left behind or were forced to leave in what is now Israel and the Palestinian territories

Dhimmi

is a historical term referring to non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection Dhimmis had their rights fully protected in their communities, but as citizens in the Islamic state, had certain restrictions, and it was obligatory for them to pay the jizya tax, which complemented the zakat, or alms, paid by the Muslim subjects

Jizya

is a per capita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states on certain non-Muslim subjects—dhimmis—permanently residing in Muslim lands under Islamic law

People of the Book

is an Islamic term referring to Jews, Christians, and Sabians and sometimes applied to members of other religions such as Zoroastrians.[1] It is also used in Judaism to refer to the Jewish people and by members of some Christian denominations to refer to themselves. Historically, these communities were subject to the dhimma contract in an Islamic state. The Quran uses the term in reference to Jews, Christians and Sabians in a variety of contexts, from religious polemics to passages emphasizing community of faith between those who possess monotheistic scriptures. The term was later extended to other religious communities that fell under Muslim rule, including even polytheistic Indians. Historically, these communities were subject to the dhimma contract in an Islamic state. In Judaism the term "People of the Book" has come to refer to the Jewish people and the Torah

Al-Ṭabarī

died 923, Baghdad, Iraq), Muslim scholar, author of enormous compendiums of early Islamic history and Qurʾānic exegesis, who made a distinct contribution to the consolidation of Sunni thought during the 9th century. He condensed the vast wealth of exegetical and historical erudition of the preceding generations of Muslim scholars and laid the foundations for both Qurʾānic and historical sciences. His major works were the Qurʾān Commentary and the History of Prophets and Kings

Abd al-Rahman III (912-61)

first caliph and greatest ruler of the *Umayyad Arab* Muslim dynasty of Spain. He reigned as hereditary emir ("prince") of Córdoba from October 912 and took the title of caliph in 929. The consolidation of power brought great prosperity to Muslim Spain ʿAbd al-Raḥmān was also a great builder; he renovated and added considerably to the Great Mosque at Córdoba and to the royal palace. *Christian and Jewish communities flourished during ʿAbd al-Raḥmān's tolerant reign.* His fame spread so far beyond his domains that Córdoba by the end of his reign enjoyed almost as much fame as Constantinople in the Mediterranean world. His reign, the second longest of any Muslim caliph, afforded his wise and courageous policies the fullest chance of development.

Rabbanites

has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian Talmud. Growing out of Pharisaic Judaism, Rabbinic Judaism is based on the belief that at Mount Sinai, Moses received from God the Written Torah (Pentateuch) in addition to an oral explanation, known as the "Oral Torah," that Moses transmitted to the people. - Rabbinic Judaism contrasts with the Sadducees, Karaite Judaism and Samaritanism, which do not recognize the oral law as a divine authority nor the Rabbinic procedures used to interpret Jewish scripture.

Ibn Kammūna

was a 13th Century Jewish physician (ophthalmologist), philosopher and critic of Islam who lived in Baghdad. - As a prolific scholar he played an important role in the diffusion of new thought in the Middle East. Much of his legacy, contained in the form of commentaries, correspondence, and treatise still survives today and makes up part of the historical remnants of his time. - wrote examination of the three faiths - supports Judaism

Kaʿb al-Aḥbār

was a 7th-century Yemenite Jew who converted to Islam. He was considered to be the earliest authority on Isra'iliyyat and South Arabian lore. According to Islamic tradition, he accompanied Umar in his trip from Medina to Jerusalem, and afterwards, became a supporter of Uthman. He died in Hims around 652

Cordoba

was a state in Islamic Iberia along with a part of North Africa ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. The state, with the capital in Córdoba, existed from 929 to 1031. The region was formerly dominated by the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba (756-929). The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and culture, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-Andalus architecture. In January 929, *Abd-ar-Rahman III* proclaimed himself caliph of Córdoba, in place of his original title, Emir of Córdoba He was a member of the Umayyad dynasty, which had held the title of Emir of Córdoba since 756. - Córdoba consisted of hundreds of workshops that created goods such as silk. It was a center of culture and learning during the Islamic Golden Age. - Caliph Al Hakam II opened many libraries in addition to the many medical schools and universities which existed at the time, making Córdoba a centre for education. During these centuries it became the center of a society ruled by Muslims, in which all other groups had a second-class status.