LACT Midterm

Today's edition of the New York Times ran a long article on the terrorist bombing in Israel. Therefore, probably the Los Angeles Times, which covers international news about as well as the New York Times, also has an article on that bombing.

Inductive, strong.

Jim Searcy, a religious prophet who now lives in Cypress, claims that the Prince of Wales is the Antichrist. Therefore, we must conclude that the Prince of Wales is up to no good.

Inductive, weak.

Which of the following is a necessary condition for making a call on a smartphone?

Turning the phone on.

Valerie Nelson's last three novels sold well over a million copies each. She's now finished a new novel, and it has gotten better reviews than the earlier ones. Hence, her new novel should sell over a million copies, too.

Inductive, strong.

Henry and Carl, who are neighbors, are about the same age, and they both have heart conditions. Henry takes Digitoxin for his heart, and it relieves his symptoms. Therefore, it would be a good idea for Carl to take the same medicine for his heart.

Inductive, weak.

If a deductive argument has a false conclusion then we know the argument is:

Unsound.

Which of the following sentences is a statement?

You failed the last test.

An argument that proceeds from our knowledge of an effect to a claim about the cause is:

An inductive argument.

An argument that proceeds from our knowledge of the past to a claim about the future is:

An inductive argument.

All algae photosynthesize their own food, as plants do. Algae are also widely distributed in bodies of fresh water and in oceans. Because they are so numerous and because they capture energy from sunlight in the food they make, algae are an important source of food for other organisms.

Argument; conclusion: Algae are an important source of food for other organisms.

Anything can be measured. If a thing can be observed in any way at all, it lends itself to some type of measurement method. No matter how "fuzzy" the measurement is, it's still a measurement if it tells you more than you knew before. And challenges posed by those things most likely to be seen as immeasurable are, virtually always, met by relatively simple measurement methods.

Argument; conclusion: Anything can be measured.

Developing an AIDS vaccine is not impossible, as some skeptics claim. Research suggests that the human immune system is better at fighting HIV than was originally thought. Most of those infected suppress the virus for years without developing AIDS. A small number never contract the virus despite repeated exposures. If we can figure out the mechanism that accounts for this, we'll have clues about how to engineer a vaccine.

Argument; conclusion: Developing an AIDS vaccine ... skeptics claim.

The rate at which a light bulb uses energy (converts electrical energy to light and heat) is usually printed on it—for example, "100 watts." A watt is a unit of power, which describes the rate of energy use. A power of 1 watt means that 1 joule of energy is being used each second. Hence, for every second that you leave a 100-watt light bulb turned on, you will have to pay the utility company for 100 joules of energy.

Argument; conclusion: For every second ... 100 joules of energy.

High school health clinics across the nation should be permitted to dispense Norplant, the new birth control medication. Teenage pregnancy today is at an all time high, and Norplant is 99 percent effective in preventing pregnancy. Furthermore, a single dose ensures protection for a full five years.

Argument; conclusion: High school health clinics across the nation ... medication.

If you go to foreign films, if you go to documentaries, if you go to independent films, if you go to good films, you will become a better person because you will understand human nature better. Movies record human nature in a better way than any other art form. That's for sure.

Argument; conclusion: If you go to foreign films ... a better person.

Water is a highly reactive substance, quite different both physically and chemically from most other liquids. Indeed, life as we know it would be impossible if water did not have the properties it does. The first living systems presumably arose in the aqueous environment of shallow seas. It is therefore not surprising that the living organisms of the present are intimately adapted at the molecular level to the special properties of water.

Argument; conclusion: It is not surprising ... properties of water.

Finance as we know it today grew out of and lies between economics and accounting. Economists developed the notion that an asset's value is based on the future cash flow the asset will provide. Accountants provided the information about the likely size of those cash flows. So, people who work in finance require knowledge of both economics and accounting.

Argument; conclusion: People who work in finance ... accounting.

Scientists may be on the verge of creating life in a test tube. Recently, scientists have used computers to synthesize a highly complex loop of DNA. When this loop was inserted into an empty bacterial cell, the cell began to self-replicate. And self-replication is an essential feature of life.

Argument; conclusion: Scientists may be on the verge ... life in a test tube.

Some over-the-counter medicines should not be given to very young children. For example, cold medicines contain decongestants and antihistamines. These substances raise blood pressure and heart rate. If an overdose should occur in a young child, the result can be fatal.

Argument; conclusion: Some over-the-counter medicines ... very young children.

Liquids and solids expand only slightly when heated, whereas gases expand appreciably when heated. If the gas is not free to expand, its pressure rises when heated. Certain substances may melt, burn, boil, or explode, depending on their composition and structure. Thus, the thermal behavior of a substance is closely related to its structure.

Argument; conclusion: The thermal behavior of a substance ... its structure.

Good intentions aside, there are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation. Hydrofluosilic acid, the industrial waste product used in municipal water systems, is contaminated with arsenic, lead, and other heavy metals. There are significant increases in lead levels in children who drink fluoridated water. A 2015 Harvard study found a fivefold to sevenfold increase in bone cancer in exposed young men. Sadly, the youngest children are the most susceptible.

Argument; conclusion: There are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation.

To focus on the performance of the stock market is to zero in on an economic indicator that can do well even as the country does poorly. In 2006, for instance, the Dow Jones industrial average hit highs. According to the just released census data, however, median earnings fell one percent, and millions more Americans entered the ranks of the uninsured. Indeed, from 2000 to 2007 the S&P 500 gained more than 500 points. Meanwhile, the median household income fell by more than $900.

Argument; conclusion: To focus on the performance ... the country does poorly.

Scientists have recently shown that heaps of intact DNA from the extinct wooly mammoth are retrievable from the animals' fur. A great deal of that fur is readily available in natural history museums. Such amounts of DNA make it possible to piece together the entire mammoth genome. Hence, we can expect to see mammoth clones in the not too distant future.

Argument; conclusion: We can expect to see ... in the not too distant future.

Whistleblowing is a morally ambiguous activity on a complex concatenation of grounds: It necessarily involves a betrayal of trust on behalf of a public interest which itself is on some occasions morally ambiguous. It indicts otherwise morally competent individuals and organizations concerned with being perceived as legitimate. Sometimes it arouses public opinion, a frequently contaminated process. Natalie Dandekar, "Can Whistleblowing Be Fully Legitimated?"

Argument; conclusion: Whistleblowing is a morally ambiguous activity.

Your sofa may be poisoning you. Its foam padding probably contains flame retardant chemicals called polybrominated diphenyl ethers. These chemicals have been linked to memory loss and brain damage. Also they may cause cancer and damage the liver.

Argument; conclusion: Your sofa may be poisoning you.

Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a dog?

Being a collie.

Which of the following are all deductive arguments?

Categorical syllogisms, arguments from definition, disjunctive syllogisms.

Any argument in which the conclusion actually follows with strict necessity from the premises is:

Deductive and valid.

Given that 2x - 1 = 13. It follows that x = 6.

Deductive, invalid.

If football is a rough sport, then football injuries abound. It is the case that football injuries abound. Thus, it follows that football is a rough sport.

Deductive, invalid.

If organic food contains pesticides, then consumers are misled. Organic food does not contain pesticides. Therefore, consumers are not misled.

Deductive, invalid.

If prisoners are discharged without any skills, then they will return to a life of crime. If prisoners are unable to get jobs, then they will return to a life of crime. Thus, if prisoners are discharged without any skills, then they will be unable to get jobs.

Deductive, invalid.

If the Zika virus is harmless, then it will not be eradicated. The Zika virus is not harmless. Therefore, it will be eradicated.

Deductive, invalid.

Laura is the sister of either Rachel or Sandy, and Sandy is the sister of Beth. Therefore, it follows necessarily that Laura is the sister of Beth.

Deductive, invalid.

Sandra is older than Florence, and Florence is younger than Carl. Therefore, it necessarily follows that Sandra is older than Carl.

Deductive, invalid.

Some statements about the human condition are commercial failures, since some novels are commercial failures, and some novels are statements about the human condition.

Deductive, invalid.

The emerald is more expensive than the diamond, and the diamond is less expensive than the sapphire. Therefore, it necessarily follows that the emerald is more expensive than the sapphire.

Deductive, invalid.

All aerobic exercises are calorie burners and all calorie burners are weight reducers. Thus, all aerobic exercises are weight reducers.

Deductive, valid.

Either Jennifer Lawrence or Elon Musk is a popular film star. But Jennifer Lawrence is not a film star at all. Therefore, Elon Musk is a popular film star.

Deductive, valid.

Given that x2 + 2x = 15. It follows that x = 3.

Deductive, valid.

Maria is a hypochondriac. Therefore, she always worries about her health.

Deductive, valid.

No supporters of abortion rights are fundamentalist Christians. Therefore, no fundamentalist Christians are supporters of abortion rights.

Deductive, valid.

Since Gina and Tom have the same natural parents, it follows that they are siblings.

Deductive, valid.

Since figure A is a square and the length of one of its sides is exactly one inch, it follows that its area is exactly one square inch.

Deductive, valid.

The 2004 Olympic games were held in either Athens or Salt Lake City. But they were not held in Athens. Therefore, they were held in Salt Lake City.

Deductive, valid.

In an explanation, the statement that describes the event to be explained is called the:

Explanandum.

In the expression "The moon sends forth light because it reflects light from the sun," the statement "The moon sends forth light" is called the:

Explanandum.

In the expression "The twin towers of the World Trade Center no longer exist because they were destroyed by terrorists," the statement "They were destroyed by terrorists" is called the:

Explanans.

Which of the following is a necessary condition for graduating from college?

Fulfilling the course requirements.

Which of the following are all conclusion indicators?

Hence, for this reason, consequently.

Which of the following are all conclusion indicators?

Hence, thus, so.

Which of the following are all deductive arguments?

Hypothetical syllogisms, disjunctive syllogisms, arguments based on mathematics.

Which of the following are all nonarguments?

Illustrations, explanations, pieces of advice.

Judy and her friend Claire both love post impressionist painting, and Judy thought that the Gauguin exhibit at the museum was superb. Therefore, probably Claire would like that exhibit, too.

Inductive, strong.

The Director of the National Park Service stated in an interview that vegetation in the parks is seriously threatened by air pollution. Therefore, it must be the case that park vegetation is indeed threatened by air pollution, just as the Director says.

Inductive, strong.

The engraved plate beneath this painting in the art museum says "Monet." Therefore, the painting must be the work of Monet.

Inductive, strong.

The highway sign says that the risk of forest fires in this area is extremely high right now. Therefore, we must conclude that the risk of forest fires is indeed high right now.

Inductive, strong.

The print at the bottom of this full box of Cheerios says NET WT 15 OZ. Therefore, the contents must weigh about 15 ounces.

Inductive, strong.

The tag on this new sports coat says that the price is marked down to $49.95. Therefore, the current price must be $49.95.

Inductive, strong.

Silvia is a middle-aged, dark haired Protestant woman who supports right-to-life issues. Shelly is also a middle-aged, dark haired Protestant woman. Therefore, she probably also supports right-to-life issues.

Inductive, weak.

When Jack took his car in for service, the mechanic charged him for lots of work that didn't need to be done. The same thing happened to Niki and Claire. Apparently mechanics these days are just a bunch of crooks.

Inductive, weak.

Yuri Androvich is a blue-eyed Russian artist, and his paintings sell for over $10,000. Peter Roganov is also a blue-eyed Russian, and he just finished art school. Thus, his paintings should sell for over $10,000, too.

Inductive, weak.

After having a part time job for more than a year, I have gotten used to the fact that the government takes money from me every two weeks to put toward Social Security. It isn't fair that I should pay for some old person's rent in Florida. Despite my dislike of the right wing, I find the idea of privatizing appealing. I would much rather keep that money to invest in mutual funds, stocks or my college education.

Nonargument.

Aristotle focused on clarifying the concept of virtue itself. He argued that it was virtuous to choose the proper amount of emotion and/or action called for in a particular situation and that extremes of emotion and action were vices. In all communities there are some men of practical wisdom who have the capacity to judge wisely. Aristotle argued that they have the capacity to follow the "right rule" whatever the situation.

Nonargument.

Cats can see in the dark because they have a special mirror-like layer of cells behind their retina called the tapetum lucidum. When light passes through the retina, it is reflected back through it by this layer of cells, and this provides additional stimulation to the retina's light receptors.

Nonargument.

Cultural anthropology is the study of all aspects of human behavior. It could reasonably be argued that cultural anthropology began with Aristotle, or even earlier. But for practical purposes, the beginnings of cultural anthropology are found in the nineteenth century. This was the century when Europeans became increasingly aware of what they termed "primitive societies" in Africa and Asia.

Nonargument.

Earth science can be divided into four branches. Geology is the study of rocks, minerals, and forces that wear down the surface and build mountains. Meteorology covers weather, climate, and the atmosphere. Astronomy investigates planets, stars, and other features outside the atmosphere. The study of the oceans is called oceanography.

Nonargument.

Earth's distance from the sun has little to do with the seasons. The seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth on its axis as it revolves around the sun. This tilt causes some parts of the Earth to get slanting rays of sunlight some of the year and vertical rays of sunlight at other times. When a hemisphere of the Earth is tilted toward the sun, it is summer in that hemisphere.

Nonargument.

Earthquakes occur because the surface of the earth is composed of giant rigid plates, and these plates are constantly moving. When one plate rubs against another, the motion of the plates in that area is halted, and strain builds up. Eventually the edge of the plate cannot withstand the increasing strain, and it breaks. The resulting shudder is felt as an earthquake.

Nonargument.

Health can be conceptualized from medical, functional, or psychological perspectives. The medical model defines health as an absence of illness or disease, while the functional model defines health in terms of individuals' ability to perform their assigned roles. The psychological model of health emphasizes physical, psychological, and social well-being in measuring the health of individuals.

Nonargument.

If Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg is correct in her assessment that "people who are well represented at trial do not get the death penalty," then the disparate skills of defense attorneys in capital cases throughout America guarantees that defendants who are legally innocent will continue to be executed and that manifest justice dictates that the death penalty be abolished.

Nonargument.

If carbon dioxide levels have been rising for years, the polar ice caps are melting, the frequency and intensity of hurricanes is increasing, and the acidity of sea water is rising, then climate change is for real, it's not just a delusion of leftist thinking, and the nations of the world must unite to address the threat.

Nonargument.

If growth can no longer be counted on to provide for all the major wants, private and public, of a society, or to sustain all the peripheral members of a society at a level that keeps a lid on mutinous outbreaks, especially in congested urban centers, then some specification of a nation's most serious needs—its social priorities—and some direction as to how goods are to be allocated among society's members are needed.

Nonargument.

If the dietary guidelines promulgated by the Department of Agriculture, which recommend two servings of fruit, three servings of vegetables, and two servings of milk products every day, are to have any real effect, then fundamental cultural changes will have to occur, and people will have to rethink their inherited notions about the purpose of eating—whether we should eat for pleasure or for health—and what is necessary for a meal to be satisfying.

Nonargument.

If the trade in tiger products is banned, tiger reserves are guarded by well equipped staff, communities abutting tiger habitat are given a stake in protecting tigers, and the makers of traditional medicines can be persuaded that tiger parts are not needed, then tiger poaching will be halted, habitat and life sustaining prey will be restored, and the immanent extinction of tigers in the wild will be averted.

Nonargument.

Karl Marx believed that the key to human history was class conflict. According to Marxist theory, the bourgeoisie are locked in inevitable conflict with the proletariat. This bitter struggle can end only when members of the working class unite in revolution and throw off their chains of bondage. The result will be a classless society, one free of exploitation, in which everyone will work according to their abilities and receive according to their needs.

Nonargument.

Lead is toxic, but do you know why? Lead is toxic mainly because it preferentially replaces other metals in biochemical reactions. In so doing it interferes with the proteins that regulate blood pressure (which can cause development delays in children and high blood pressure in adults), heme production (which can lead to anemia), and sperm production. Lead also displaces calcium in the reactions that transmit electrical impulses in the brain, which diminishes the ability to think and recall information.

Nonargument.

Photographs taken from space show that Earth is striking in its beauty. Blue oceans cover nearly three-fourths of the surface, broken by the continental land masses and scattered islands. The polar caps are white with snow and ice, and white clouds are scattered above the surface. At night, the glow of artificial lights clearly reveals the presence of an intelligent civilization.

Nonargument.

The countries of the world today are divided into 2 groups. The more-developed countries, typified by countries in North America and Europe, are those in which population growth is under control and the people enjoy a good standard of living. The less-developed countries, typified by countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, are those in which population growth is out of control and the majority of people live in poverty.

Nonargument.

The field of economics is divided into two major branches: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics studies the behavior of individual economic agents and how they interact with each other in markets. Macroeconomics focuses on the overall level of economic activity in a society. It studies such topics as unemployment, inflation, and the rate of economic growth.

Nonargument.

The relationship between two measurable factors can be represented by a graph. If both values increase, they are considered to have a direct relationship. For example, the more you work, the more money you make. If one value increases while the other decreases, they have an inverse relationship. For example, the more you work on your golf swing, the lower your score will be.

Nonargument.

The right to healthcare has become a consumer issue. Historically, the poor either had to be satisfied with a decreased quality of care or to do without healthcare entirely. Today many citizens view equal access to healthcare as everyone's right. An ongoing debate centers on who should pay for this care.

Nonargument.

The three main parts of a neuron are the dendrites, cell body, and axon. The dendrites receive information from other neurons and pass it along to the cell body. The cell body decides whether the information should be passed on to other neurons. If it decides it should, then it does so by means of an electrical impulse that travels down the axon. When the impulse reaches the axon terminals, it triggers chemical communication with other neurons.

Nonargument.

There are two types of pension plan. In a defined contribution plan, a company contributes a specific amount of money, often based on profits, to a fund owned by its employees. In a defined benefit plan, the company promises to make specific lifetime payments to its employees when they retire. The payments depend on each employee's pay at retirement, years of service, and expected lifespan.

Nonargument.

Viruses are acellular entities too small to be seen with a light microscope. They are composed of a nucleic acid and a few proteins. Viruses replicate themselves and display other properties of living organisms only when they have invaded living cells. Indeed, some viruses can be crystallized and stored in a container on a shelf for years, but they retain the capacity to invade cells and cause disease.

Nonargument.

We believe that our company must develop and produce outstanding products that will perform a great service or fill a need for our customers. We believe that our business must be run at an adequate profit. We believe that the services and products we offer must be better than those offered by our competitors. We believe that our business must provide stability of employment and job security for all those who depend on our company for their livelihood.

Nonargument.

A deductive argument always proceeds from:

None of these.

If a deductive argument has a false premise and a false conclusion, then we know:

Nothing, as such about its validity.

If an inductive argument has all true premises and a probably true conclusion, then we know:

Nothing, as such, about the argument's strength.

Which of the following are all arguments?

Syllogisms, predictions, generalizations.

Words like 'due to the fact that' and 'assuming that' suggest that whatever follows is

a premise

As understood by logicians, an argument is

a set of statements, one of which is intended to be supported by the others.

A conclusion of an argument is always

a statement which is supposed to be supported by the other statements in the argument

The premises of an argument

are intended to support the conclusion

Words like 'as a result' and 'therefore' tend to indicate

conclusions

Words like 'it follows that' and 'consequently' tend to indicate

conclusions

Properly speaking, which of the following features of an argument is either valid or invalid?

its form

Words like 'because' and 'since' tend to indicate

premises

An argument is a collection of statements in which

the premises are intended to support the conclusion

Words like 'since' and 'as a result' are significant for us because

they help us identify premises or conclusions