Leadership

four general factors that explain the shift toward more women leaders

women themselves have changed leadership roles have changed organizational practices have changed culture has changed

○ Purpose

§ More & more organizations want to have a transcendent purpose □ It makes coming to work better □ That's the way to get better talent § When motive gets unmoored from the purpose motive, bad things happen § Companies that are flourishing are animated by purpose

○ Autonomy

§ The desire to be self directed § Self direction is better for engagement

○ Mastery

§ The urge to get better at stuff § Challenge, mastery, & making a contribution is why people do what they do

What do the best leaders have in common?

• A high degree of emotional intelligence

The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us

• As long as the task involved used only mechanical skill - bonuses worked as expected. Higher the pay, the better their performance. • The task called for rudimentary cognitive skill - larger reward led to poorer performance. • For simple straightforward tasks, the carrot works • When a task gets more complicated, it required some conceptual, creative thinking, the carrot kind of motivators don't work. • If you don't pay people enough, people won't be motivated. Pay people enough to take the issue of money off the table. • Once paid enough, there are three factors that lead to better performance & personal satisfaction: Autonomy Mastery Purpose

Outcome valences APPLICATIONS

• Distribute rewards that employees value. • Individualize rewards. • Minimize the presence of countervalent outcomes.

Are women more EI than men?

• EI is a range of abilities • Women tend to be better on average at: ○ Empathy ○ Social Skills • Men tend to be better on average at: ○ Self-confidence ○ Managing distressing emotions • As people build their EI skills, they pick up strengths in areas they need

What cultures have the highest EI?

• EI is universal but looks different in different situations

The Pygmalion Effect: The Power of the Manager's Expectations

• Every supervisor has expectations of the people who report to him or her. • Supervisors communicate these expectations consciously or unconsciously whenever they communicate in any manner with an employee. • People pick up on or consciously or unconsciously read and experience these expectations from their supervisor. • People perform in ways that are consistent with the expectations they have picked up on from the supervisor. enables staff to excel in response to the manager's message that they are capable of success and expected to succeed. can also undermine staff performance when the subtle communication from the manager tells them the opposite.

What is EI?

• How well we handle ourselves, our relationships, and the four domains. ○ Self-awareness ○ Self-management ○ Empathy ○ Skilled relationship

P-to-O expectancy APPLICATIONS

• Measure job performance accurately. • Clearly explain the outcomes that will result from successful performance. • Describe how the employee's rewards were based on past performance. • Provide examples of other employees whose good performance has resulted in higher rewards.

How to Encourage Powerful Self-Expectations in Your Employees

• Provide opportunities for an employee to experience increasingly challenging assignments. • Enable the employee to participate in potentially successful projects that bring continuous improvement to the workplace. • Provide one-to-one coaching with the employee. This coaching should emphasize improving what the employee does well rather than focusing on the employee's weaknesses. • Provide developmental opportunities that reflect what the employee is interested in learning. • Assign a successful senior employee to play a developmental mentoring role with the employee. • Hold frequent, positive verbal interactions with the employee and communicate consistently your firm belief in the employee's ability to perform the job. Keep feedback positive and developmental where possible. • Make sure the employee is receiving consistent messages from other supervisory personnel. How you speak to others about the employees who report to you powerfully molds their opinions of what a particular employee can contribute and do. • Project your sincere commitment to the employee's success and ongoing development. You need to frequently tell the employee of your confidence about these matters.

E-to-P expectancy APPLICATIONS

• Select people with the required skills and knowledge. • Provide required training and clarify job requirements. • Provide sufficient time and resources. • Assign simpler or fewer tasks until employees can master them. • Provide examples of similar employees who have successfully performed the task. • Provide coaching to employees who lack self-confidence.

reasons they don't always follow your instructions

• They disagree with you. • They think something else is more important. • They don't understand what you want. • They find circumstances have changed • They dislike being bossed around. • People may have a view of authority that differs from yours. • people may not comply because they're confused.

filling in the relationship gap:

• You should make a concerted effort to meet one- on-one with all the key people you plan to persuade. • Another option is to involve like-minded coworkers who already have strong relationships with your audience.

The Galatea Effect: The Power of Self-Expectations

"self-fulfilling prophecy." the individual's opinion about her ability and her self-expectations about her performance largely determine her performance. If an employee thinks she can succeed, she will likely succeed. Consequently, any actions the supervisor can take that increase the employee's feelings of positive self-worth will help the employee's performance improve.

Goal setting potentially improves employee performance in two ways:

(1) by amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort and (2) by giving employees clearer role perceptions so their effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work performance.

How to Develop Strong Enterprise Leaders

*Early in their careers, give potential leaders experience on cross- functional projects and then responsibility for them *When their leadership promise becomes evident, give high potentials A position on a senior management team *Sometime just before their first enterprise promotion, send rising stars To a substantial executive program that addresses such capabilities as organizational design, business process improvement, and transition management, and allows them to build external networks *At the time of their first enterprise-level promotion, place new enterprise leaders in units that are Small, distinct, and thriving

Leadership Myths

*Good Leadership Is All Common Sense - Effective leadership must be something more than just common sense. *Leaders Are Born, Not Made - many cognitive abilities and personality traits are at least partly innate. Thus natural talents or characteristics may offer certain advantages or disadvantages to a leader. *The Only School You Learn Leadership from Is the School of Hard Knocks - it is better to ask what kind of study will help students learn to discern critical lessons about leadership from their own experience.

Here are the four most common mistakes people make in persuasion:

1. They attempt to make their case with an up-front, hard sell. 2. They resist compromise. 3. They think the secret of persuasion lies in presenting great arguments. 4. They assume persuasion is a one-shot effort.

Integrating Your Life by Staying Grounded

Authentic leaders have a steady and confident presence. They do not show up as one person one day and another person the next. Integration takes discipline, particularly during stressful times when it is easy to become reactive and slip back into bad habits. Besides spending time with their families and close friends, authentic leaders get physical exercise, engage in spiritual practices, do community service, and return to the places where they grew up. All are essential to their effectiveness as leaders, enabling them to sustain their authenticity.

Accelerating the Team's Development

Building on their assessment and reshaping work, leaders need to energize team members with some early wins.

Connect, Compare, And Contrast

Charismatic speakers help listeners understand, relate to, and remember a message. A powerful way to do this is by using metaphors, similes, and analogies. Contrasts are a key CLT because they combine reason and passion; they clarify your position by pitting it against the opposite, often to dramatic effect.

Problem solver to agenda setter

Define the problems the organization should focus on, and spot issues that don't fall neatly into any one function but are still important. To work out which problems his team should focus on-that is, to set the agenda-he had to learn to navigate a far more uncertain and ambiguous environment than he was used to. He also needed to learn to communicate priorities in ways his organization could respond to.

Four-drive theory includes four fundamental drives

Drive to acquire. Drive to bond Drive to comprehend Drive to defend

The Role of the Direct Manager

Employees' perceptions of their immediate managers matter just as much. People recognize that a multitude of organizational factors, some outside their supervisor's control, influence their motivation, but they are discriminating when it comes to evaluating that supervisor's ability to keep them motivated. Employees in our study attributed as much importance to their boss's meeting their four drives as to the organization's policies. Realistic about what managers cannot do, but also about what managers should be able to do in meeting all the basic needs of their subordinates.

Strategic Networking

Establishing connections to people with the purpose of finding and securing employment in a specific career. leverage: the ability to marshal information, support, and resources from one sector of a network to achieve results in another. use indirect influence, convincing one person in the network to get someone else, who is not in the network, to take a needed action. create networks favorable to their business goals

Supporting cast member to lead role

Exhibit the right behaviors as a role model for the organization and learn to communicate with and inspire large groups of people both directly and, increasingly, indirectly. At the enterprise level, their influence is magnified, as everyone looks to them for vision, inspiration, and cues about the "right" behaviors and attitudes. For good or ill, the personal styles and quirks of senior leaders are infectious, whether they are observed directly by employees or indirectly transmitted from their reports to the level below and on down through the organization.

Applying THE PRINCIPLE OF Authority:

Expose your expertise; don't assume it's self-evident. a. It's important to signal to others what makes you a credible, knowledgeable authority before you make your influence attempt

Show Integrity, Authority, And Passion

Expressions of moral conviction and statements that reflect the sentiments of the group-even when the sentiments are negative-establish your credibility by revealing the quality of your character to your listeners and making them identify and align themselves with you. Another CLT, which helps charismatic leaders demonstrate passion-and inspire it in their followers-is setting high goals Passion cannot emerge unless the leader truly believes that the vision and strategic goal can be reached. The three nonverbal cues-expressions of voice, body, and face—are also key to charisma.

Effective persuasion involves four distinct and essential steps

First, effective persuaders establish credibility. Second, they frame their goals in a way that identifies common ground with those they intend to persuade. Third, they reinforce their positions using vivid language and compelling evidence. And fourth, they connect emotionally with their audience.

In general, if your area of weakness is on the expertise side, you have several options:.

First, you can learn more about the complexities of your position through either formal or informal education and through conversations with knowledgeable individuals. • Another alternative is to hire someone to bolster your expertise. You can also utilize other outside sources of information to support your position, such as respected business or trade periodicals, books, independently produced reports, and lectures by experts. • Finally, you may launch pilot projects to demonstrate on a small scale your expertise and the value of your ideas.

for a manager who wants to persuade a subordinate to follow some particular course of action:

Get it in writing. By doing so, you'll have greatly increased the odds that he'll fulfill the commitment because, as a rule, people live up to what they have written down. written statements become even more powerful when they're made public. Most people wish to appear consistent to others. Commitments should be publicly made and visibly posted.

Applying THE PRINCIPLE OF Reciprocity:

Give what you want to receive. a. People are likely to say yes to those that they owe b. Be the first to give c. Make sure the gift is personalized and unexpected

What are the drivers of employee engagement

Goal setting, employee involvement, organizational justice, organizational comprehension (knowing what's going on in the company), employee development opportunities, sufficient resources, and an appealing company vision are some of the more commonly mentioned influences.

Connect emotionally

Good persuaders are aware of the primacy of emotions and are responsive to them in two important ways. First, they show their own emotional commitment to the position they are advocating. effective persuaders have a strong and accurate sense of their audience's emotional state, and they adjust the tone of their arguments accordingly. The important point to remember is that you must match your emotions to your audience's.

Applying THE PRINCIPLE OF Scarcity:

Highlight unique benefits and exclusive information. a. When perceived as scare, people want it more b. You have to identify the benefits, what's unique, and what they stand to lose

Re-allocate your time.

If an aspiring leader has not yet mastered the art of delegation, he or she will find many reasons not to spend time networking. Participating in formal and informal meetings with people in other units takes time away from functional responsibilities and internal team affairs. Between the obvious payoff of a task accomplished and the ambiguous, often delayed rewards of networking, naïve managers repeatedly choose the former. The less they practice networking, the less efficient at it they become, and the vicious cycle continues.

Are we becoming more EI?

Indicators of emotions out of control don't look that great.

Analyst to integrator

Integrate the collective knowledge of cross-functional teams and make appropriate trade-offs to solve complex organizational problems. The primary responsibility of functional leaders is to recruit, develop, and manage people who focus in analytical depth on specific business activities. An enterprise leader's job is to manage and integrate the collective knowledge of those functional teams to solve important organizational problems. The skills required have less to do with analysis and more to do with understanding how to make trade-offs and explain the rationale for those decisions.

Why Learning to Manage is so Hard

It can't be taught in a classroom. Beginning managers often fail in their new role, at least initially, because they come to it with misconceptions or myths about what it means to be a boss. These myths, because they are simplistic and incomplete, lead new managers to neglect key leadership responsibilities.

Drive to bond

It explains why our self-concept is partly defined by associations with social groups motivates people to cooperate and, consequently, is essential for organizations and societies

out-group

Leaders have considerably more influence with in-group followers than with these followers

how people become authentic leaders

Learning from Your Life Story Knowing Your Authentic Self Practicing Your Values and Principles Balancing Your Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivations Building Your Support Team Integrating Your Life by Staying Grounded Empowering People to Lead

Applying THE PRINCIPLE OF Consistency:

Make their commitments active, public, and voluntary. a. Voluntary, active, and public commitments b. Commitments in writing

A New Manager's Misconceptions

Managers wield significant authority Authority flows from the manager's position Managers must control their direct reports Managers must focus on forging good individual relationships Managers must ensure that things run smoothly

How to leverage the elements from each domain of networking into the others to seek out personal contacts who can be objective, strategic counselors

Mind your mind-set. Work from the outside in. Re-allocate your time. Ask and you shall receive. Stick to it.

New Managers Defining characteristic of the new role myth & reality:

Myth - Authority Reality - Interdependency

New Managers Desired outcome myth & reality:

Myth - Control Reality - Commitment

New Managers Source of power myth & reality:

Myth - Formal authority Reality - "Everything but"

New Managers Key challenge myth & reality:

Myth - Keeping the operation in working order Reality - Making changes that will make the team perform better

New Managers Managerial focus myth & reality:

Myth - Managing one-on-one Reality - Leading the team

ways to try to reduce the inequity tension

One action is to reduce our inputs so the outcome-input ratio is similar to the higher-paid coworker A second action is to increase our outcomes A third behavioral response is to increase the comparison other's inputs. A fourth action is to reduce the comparison other's outcomes A fifth action is perceptual rather than behavioral. It involves changing our beliefs about the situation A sixth action to reduce the inequity tension is to change the comparison other we might leave the field.

Why would larger pay ranges undermine rather than enhance employee and organizational performance?

One reason is that pay differences produce status differences, which can undermine cooperation among employees. A second reason is that large pay differences might increase (rather than decrease) feelings of injustice lower-paid employees often believe higher-paid employees are overpaid, which reduces the lower-paid workers' motivation and performance.

THE PRINCIPLE OF Consistency:

People align with their clear commitments. Looking for and asking for commitments that can be made

Drive to comprehend

People are inherently curious and need to make sense of their environment and themselves. They are motivated to discover answers to unknown as well as conflicting ideas. To some degree, is related to self-actualization

THE PRINCIPLE OF Authority:

People defer to experts. People will follow credible, knowledgeable, experts

THE PRINCIPLE OF Social Proof:

People follow the lead of similar others. People will look to the actions of others to determine their own

THE PRINCIPLE OF Liking:

People like those who like them.

THE PRINCIPLE OF Reciprocity:

People repay in kind. obligation to give when you receive

THE PRINCIPLE OF Scarcity:

People want more of what they can have less of.

four types of consequences, called the contingencies of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement Punishment Extinction negative reinforcement

Reshaping the Team

Post-assessment, the next task is to reshape the team within the constraints of the organization's culture, the leader's mandate, and the available talent. Leaders can promote these behaviors by focusing on four factors: the team's composition, its alignment with a shared vision, its operating model, and its integration of new rules and expectations.

one-on-one meetings

Prepare. Review available personnel history, performance data, and appraisals. Familiarize yourself with each person's skills so that you can assess how he functions on the team and with his own unit or group. Observe how team members interact. Create an interview template. Ask people the same questions, and see how their insights vary. Look for verbal and nonverbal clues. Notice what people say and don't say. Summarize and share what you learn. After you've interviewed everyone, discuss your findings with the team. This will demonstrate that you are coming up to speed quickly.

Warrior to diplomat

Proactively shape the environment in which the business operates by influencing key external constituencies, including the government, NGOs, the media, and investors. Effective corporate diplomats use the tools of diplomacy-negotiation, persuasion, conflict management, and alliance building-to shape the external business environment to support their strategic objectives. In the process they often find themselves collaborating with people with whom they compete aggressively in the market every day.

Engage and Distill

Rhetorical questions might seem hackneyed, but charismatic leaders use them all the time to encourage engagement. Three-part lists are another old trick of effective persuasion because they distill any message into key takeaways. Why three? Because most people can remember three things

Can Emotional Intelligence Be Learned?

Scientific inquiry strongly suggests that there is a genetic component to emotional intelligence. Psychological and develop- mental research indicates that nurture plays a role as well. How much of each perhaps will never be known, but research and practice clearly demonstrate that the answer is yes.

Tactician to strategist

Shift fluidly between the details and the larger picture, perceive important patterns in complex environments, and anticipate and influence the reactions of key external players. By cultivating three skills: level shifting, pattern recognition, and mental simulation.

the personal styles of superb leaders

Some leaders are subdued and analytical others shout their manifestos from the mountaintops different situations call for different types of leadership.

Work from the outside in.

Some successful managers find common ground from the outside in-by, for instance, transposing a personal interest into the strategic domain. Other managers build outside-inside connections by using their functional interests or expertise.

Seven Seismic Shifts

Specialist to generalist Analyst to integrator Tactician to strategist Bricklayer to architect Problem solver to agenda setter Warrior to diplomat Supporting cast member to lead role

SMARTER

Specific Measurable Achievable Relevant Time-framed Exciting Reviewed

Ask and you shall receive.

The best networkers do exactly the opposite: They take every opportunity to give to, and receive from, the network, whether they need help or not. A good way to begin is to make a simple request or take the initiative to connect two people who would benefit from meeting each other. Doing something-anything- gets the ball rolling and builds confidence that one does, in fact, have something to contribute.

Mind your mind-set.

The best solution we've seen to this trap is a good role model. Many times, what appears to be unpalatable or unproductive behavior takes on a new light when a person you respect does it well and ethically. Networking effectively and ethically, like any other tacit skill, is a matter of judgment and intuition. We learn by observing and getting feedback from those for whom it's second nature.

The reward system

The drive to acquire Sharply differentiate good performers from average and poor performers Tie rewards clearly to performance Pay as well as your competitors

Job design

The drive to comprehend jobs that are meaningful, interesting, and challenging. Design jobs that have distinct and important roles in the organization Design jobs that are meaningful and foster a sense of contribution to the organization

Balancing Your Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivations

The key is to find a balance between your desires for external validation and the intrinsic motivations that provide fulfillment in your work. Intrinsic motivations are congruent with your values and are more fulfilling than extrinsic motivations.

Culture.

The most effective way to fulfill the drive to bond - Foster mutual reliance and friendship among coworkers Value collaboration and teamwork Encourage sharing of best practices

Composition

The most obvious way to reshape a team is to replace underperformers and anyone whose capabilities are not a good match for the situation. But this can be difficult culturally and politically, and in many cases, it's simply not possible— leaders must work with the people they inherit. You might wait for normal turnover to create space for the types of people you want. You can also watch for positions in other areas of the organization that might suit people who are valuable but not a good match for your team. Another option is to groom high potentials to take on new responsibilities, provided you have enough time and other resources. If not, you may instead choose to alter individuals' roles to better match their capabilities.

Reviewed Goals

The motivational value of goal setting depends on employees receiving feedback about reaching those goals

The Organizational Levers of Motivation

The reward system Culture Job design Performance-management and resource-allocation processes

the most effective leaders are alike in one crucial way

They all have a high degree of what has come to be known as emotional intelligence. It's not that IQ and technical skills are irrelevant. They do matter, but mainly as "threshold capabilities"; that is, they are the entry-level requirements for executive positions.

people are guided by four basic emotional needs, or drives

They are the drives to acquire (obtain scarce goods, including intangibles such as social status); bond (form connections with individuals and groups); comprehend (satisfy our curiosity and master the world around us); and defend (protect against external threats and promote justice). These drives underlie everything we do.

Misconception: Managers wield significant authority

They assume the position will give them more authority and, with that, more freedom and autonomy to do what they think is best for the organization. Unless they identify and build effective relationships with the key people the team depends upon, the team will lack the resources necessary to do its job.

Empowering People to Lead

They not only inspire those around them, they empower those individuals to step up and lead. By creating a virtuous circle in which the results reinforce the effectiveness of their leadership, authentic leaders are able to sustain those results through good times and bad. Their success enables them to attract talented people and align employees' activities with shared goals, as they empower others on their team to lead by taking on greater challenges.

a key factor determining an employee's level of engagement with the work.

They want a personal, human connection, an emotional link. They want you to care about them as individuals. They want you to encourage their growth and development.

The Leader

This element examines primarily what the leader brings as an individual to the leadership equation. This can include unique personal history, interests, character traits, and motivation. Effectiveness comes from: temperament how he or she achieved leader status experience or history legitimacy

Integration

This involves establishing ground rules and processes to feed and sustain desired behaviors and serving as a role model for your team members. Revisiting and reinforcing behavioral expectations should be standard practice any time there is a change in team membership or mission. It's also valuable to schedule a regular (quarterly or semiannual) review of how the team is functioning and whether the principles are being upheld.

Drive to defend

This is the drive to protect ourselves physically, psychologically, and socially. Probably the first drive to develop, it creates a fight-or-flight response in the face of threat to our physical safety, our possessions, our self-concept, our values, and the well-being of others.

Drive to acquire

This is the drive to seek out, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences also motivates competition

E-to-P expectancy

This is the individual's perception that his or her effort will result in a particular level of performance To increase the employee's belief that she or he is capable of performing the job successfully expectancies are learned, so behavior modeling and supportive feedback typically strengthen the individual's belief that he or she is able to perform the task.

P-to-O expectancy

This is the perceived probability that a specific behavior or performance level will lead to a particular outcome To increase the employee's belief that his or her good performance will result in certain (valued) outcomes to improve expectancies are to measure employee performance accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those with higher job performance.

Maslow's needs hierarchy theory

This model condenses the long list of previously studied drives into five basic categories called primary needs. Organized categories into a hierarchy that, from lowest to highest, are physiological (need for food, air, water, shelter, etc.), safety (need for security and stability), belongingness/love (need for interaction with and affection from others), esteem (need for self-esteem and social esteem/status), and self-actualization (need for self-fulfillment, realization of one's potential). the desire to know and the desire for aesthetic beauty as two innate drives that do not fit within the hierarchy

Personal Networking

Through professional associations, alumni groups, clubs, and personal interest communities, managers gain new perspectives that allow them to advance in their careers. external, made up of discretionary links to people with whom we have something in common.

Applying THE PRINCIPLE OF Liking:

Uncover real similarities and offer genuine praise. If you want to influence people, win friends. a. 3 important factors i. People who are similar to us ii. People who pay us compliments iii. People who cooperate with us b. Implement these factors before you do business

Bricklayer to architect

Understand how to analyze and design organizational systems so that strategy, structure, operating models, and skill bases fit together effectively and efficiently, and harness this understanding to make needed organizational changes. To be effective organizational architects, they need to think in terms of systems. They must understand how the key elements of the organization fit together and not naively believe that they can alter one element without thinking through the implications for all the others. Enterprise leaders need to know the principles of organizational change and change management, including the mechanics of organizational design, business process improvement, and transition management.

Specialist to generalist

Understand the mental models, tools, and terms used in key business functions and develop templates for evaluating the leaders of those functions. Enterprise leaders must be able to (1) make decisions that are good for the business as a whole and (2) evaluate the talent on their teams. Leaders must be able to speak the language of all the functions and translate for them when necessary. And critically, leaders must know the right questions to ask and the right metrics for evaluating and recruiting people to manage areas in which they them- selves are not experts. By investing directly in creating standardized evaluation schemes for each function, companies can ensure that new enterprise leaders get the lay of the land faster.

Applying THE PRINCIPLE OF Social Proof:

Use peer power whenever it's available. a. Point to what others are already doing

The drive to comprehend

We want very much to make sense of the world around us, to produce theories and accounts - scientific, religious, and cultural - that make events comprehensible and suggest reasonable actions and responses. We are frustrated when things seem senseless, and we are invigorated, typically, by the challenge of working out answers.

Steps to Leading the Team You Inherit

What's Wrong - First, leaders must assess the human capital and group dynamics they have inherited, to get a clear picture of the current state. What's Needed - Next, they must reshape the team according to what's needed—looking with fresh eyes at its membership, sense of purpose and direction, operating model, and behavioral patterns. What's Effective- Finally, they can accelerate team development and improve performance by identifying opportunities for early wins and making plans to secure them.

Stick to it.

When first efforts do not bring quick rewards, some may simply conclude that networking isn't among their talents. But networking is not a talent; nor does it require a gregarious, extroverted personality. It is a skill, one that takes practice. We have seen over and over again that people who work at networking can learn not only how to do it well but also how to enjoy it. And they tend to be more successful in their careers than those who fail to leverage external ties or insist on defining their jobs narrowly.

inequity tension

When people believe they are under- or overrewarded, they experience negative emotions

Alignment

You will also need to ensure that everyone has a clear sense of purpose and direction. The team must agree on answers to four basic questions: What will we accomplish? You spell this out in your mission, goals, and key metrics. Why should we do it? Here is where your vision statement and incentives come into play. How will we do it? This includes defining the team's strategy in relation to the organization's, as well as sorting out the plans and activities needed for execution. Who will do what? People's roles and responsibilities must support all of the above.

Discovering your authentic leadership requires

a commitment to developing yourself.

The Followers

a critical part of the leadership equation Leadership is a social influence process shared among all members of a group. Leadership is not restricted to the influence exerted by someone in a particular position or role; different types: One of them ranges from independent, critical thinking at one end to dependent, uncritical thinking on the other end.

Need for affiliation (nAff)

a desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation. People with strong nAff try to project a favorable image of themselves. They tend to actively support others and try to smooth out workplace conflicts. they tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources and making other decisions that potentially generate conflict.

organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)

a good theory should rely exclusively on behavior and the environment and ignore nonobservable cognitions and emotions attempts to change behavior (B) by managing its antecedents (A) and consequences (C)

Truly effective leaders are distinguished by

a high degree of emotional intelligence, which includes self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill.

the in-group

a high degree of mutual influence and attraction between the leader and a few subordinates. distinguished by their high degree of loyalty, commitment, and trust felt toward the leader

Signs of motivation

a passion for the work itself-such people seek out creative challenges, love to learn, and take great pride in a job well done. They also display an unflagging energy to do things better. They are forever raising the performance bar, and they like to keep score. want a way of tracking progress-their own, their team's, and their company's. a drive to surpass goals and an interest in keeping score can be contagious. Leaders with these traits can often build a team of managers around them with the same traits.

Authentic leaders demonstrate

a passion for their purpose, practice their values consistently, and lead with their hearts as well as their heads. They establish long-term, meaningful relationships and have the self-discipline to get results. They know who they are. their leadership emerged from their life stories.

Motivation

a passion to work for reasons that go beyond money or status a propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence refers to the forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior one of the four essential drivers of individual behavior and performance

strengths-based coaching

a positive organizational behavior approach to coaching and feedback that focuses on building and leveraging the employee's strengths rather than trying to correct his or her weaknesses

equity theory

a theory explaining how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources

Social cognitive theory

a theory that explains how learning and motivation occur by observing and modeling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior

McClelland three "learned" needs

achievement, affiliation, and power

Emotional intelligence increases with

age. There is an old-fashioned word for the phenomenon: maturity.

training programs increased achievement motivation by

altering participants' self-concept and reinforcing their achievement experiences.

employee engagement

an individual's emotional and cognitive (logical) motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related goals. It is an emotional involvement in, commitment to, and satisfaction with the work. includes a high level of absorption in the work—the experience of focusing intensely on the task with limited awareness of events beyond that work.

the six Persuasion principles and their applications can be discussed separately for the sake of clarity, they should be

applied in combination to compound their impact. the rules of ethics apply to the science of social influence just as they do to any other technology. The deceptive or coercive use of the principles of social influence is ethically wrong and pragmatically wrongheaded. Yet the same principles, if applied appropriately, can steer decisions correctly.

People experience self-actualization by

applying their skills and knowledge, observing how their talents achieve meaningful results, and experiencing personal growth through learning. These are the conditions for intrinsic motivation,

Pragmatist followers

are rarely committed to their group's work goals, but they have learned not to make waves

Learning meetings

are scheduled on an as-needed basis, often after crises or in response to emerging issues. They can also focus on team building.

Conformist followers

are the "yes people" of organizations.

The drive to defend.

basic fight-or-flight response common to most animals. In humans, it manifests itself not just as aggressive or defensive behavior, but also as a quest to create institutions that promote justice, that have clear goals and intentions, and that allow people to express their ideas and opinions. Leads to feelings of security and confidence; not fulfilling it produces strong negative emotions like fear and resentment.

Women, in this view, are depicted as leaders who, when compared to men, are

better listeners, more empathic, less analytical, more people oriented, and less aggressive in pursuit of goals

Learning Behavior Consequences

by observing or hearing about what happened to other people, not just by directly experiencing the consequences

the most effective leaders layer

charismatic leadership on top of transactional and instrumental leadership to achieve their goals Nine of them are verbal: metaphors, similes, and analogies; stories and anecdotes; contrasts; rhetorical questions; three-part lists; expressions of moral conviction; reflections of the group's sentiments; the setting of high goals; and conveying confidence that they can be achieved. Three tactics are nonverbal: animated voice, facial expressions, and gestures.

self-regulation is important for

competitive reasons. People who have mastered their emotions are able to roll with changes. it enhances integrity, which is not only a personal virtue but also an organizational strength.

Strategic meetings

concern the biggest decisions that need to be made—about business models, vision, strategy, organizational configurations, and so on. Though they tend to be relatively infrequent, they require time for in-depth discussion.

Managers can use similarities to

create bonds with a recent hire, the head of another department, or even a new boss. Informal conversations during the workday create an ideal opportunity to discover at least one common area of enjoyment

Frame for common ground

describing their positions in terms that illuminate their ad- vantages. It is a process of identifying shared benefits. the best persuaders we have encountered closely study the issues that matter to their colleagues. They use conversations, meetings, and other forms of dialogue to collect essential information. They are good at listening.

positive reinforcement should follow

desired behaviors

Assessing the Team

determine whether you have the right people doing the right things in the right ways to propel the organization forward. Your assessments will be faster and more accurate if you explicitly state your criteria. To conduct an effective assessment, you'll hold a mix of one-on-one and team meetings, supplementing with input from key stakeholders such as customers, suppliers, and colleagues outside the team. You'll also look at team members' individual track records and performance evaluations.

leaders and managers are basically

different kinds of people. They complement each other, and both are vital to organizational success there is also an area of overlap.

Operational Networking

direct reports and superiors but also peers within an operational unit, other internal players with the power to block or support a project, and key outsiders such as suppliers, distributors, and customers. The purpose of this type of networking is to ensure coordination and cooperation among people who have to know and trust one another in order to accomplish their immediate tasks.

Passive followers

display none of the characteristics of the exemplary follower (discussed next). They rely on the leader to do all the thinking. Furthermore, their work lacks enthusiasm. Lacking initiative and a sense of responsibility, passive followers require constant direction.

effective persuaders use dialogue to

earn more about their audience's opinions, concerns, and perspectives. During the process, dialogue continues to be a form of learning, but it is also the beginning of the negotiation stage. You invite people to discuss, even debate, the merits of your position, and then to offer honest feedback and suggest alternative solutions.

Social Skill Hallmarks

effectiveness in leading change persuasiveness expertise in building and leading teams Gift for collaboration

an individual's effort level depends on three factors:

effort-to-performance (E-to-P) expectancy, performance-to-outcome (P-to-O) expectancy, and outcome valences.

the higher the rank of a person considered to be a star performer, the more

emotional intelligence capabilities showed up as the reason for his or her effectiveness

four-drive theory

emotions are the source of human motivation and that these emotions are generated through four innate and universal drives. These drives are hardwired in our brains and exist in all human beings. They are also independent of one another; there is no hierarchy of drives. Three drives are proactive—they are regularly activated by our perceptions to seek fulfillment. Only one drive (defend) is reactive— it is triggered by threat.

Employee engagement predicts

employee and work unit performance causes the company outcomes more than vice versa Actively disengaged employees tend to be disruptive at work, not just disconnected from work

variable ratio schedule

employee behavior is reinforced after a variable number of times the best schedule for motivating people

interactive leadership

encouraged participation and shared power and information, but went far beyond what is commonly thought of as participative management. Their leadership self-descriptions reflected an approach based on enhancing others' self-worth and believing that the best performance results when people are excited about their work and feel good about themselves.

Consequences

events following a particular behavior that influence its future occurrence also include no outcome at all find a new message with potentially useful information

Antecedents

events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a particular action will produce specific consequences a cue signaling that if you look at your phone messages (behavior)

Extrinsic motivators may reduce

existing intrinsic motivation to some extent and under some conditions, but the effect is often minimal. When employees are engaged in intrinsically motivating work, employers should be careful about the potential unintended effect of undermining that motivation with performance bonuses and other sources of extrinsic motivation

Empathy Hallmarks

expertise in building and retaining talent cross-cultural sensitivity service to clients and customers □ Ability to read between the lines □ Skill with group dynamics □ Why leaders need empathy ® Teamwork ® Global business ® Talent management □ Leaders need to understand team members and help them collaborate

Procedural justice

fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources.

Nonsocial sources provide

feedback without someone communicating that information

Misconception: Managers must focus on forging good individual relationships.

focusing on one-on-one relationships with members of the team can undermine the process. personal credibility require new managers to build trust, influence, and mutual expectations with a wide array of people. This is often achieved by establishing productive personal relationships.

positive organizational behavior

focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-being

People trust you when you are

genuine and authentic, not a replica of someone else.

needs

goal-directed forces that people experience. They are the motivational forces of emotions channeled toward particular goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances. the emotions we eventually become consciously aware of.

Achievable goals

goals that are sufficiently but not overly challenging

Establish credibility

grows out of two sources: expertise and relationships. People are considered to have high levels of expertise if they have a history of sound judgment or have proven themselves knowledgeable and well informed about their proposals. On the relationship side, they have demonstrated - overtime-that they can be trusted to listen and to work in the best interests of others. They have also consistently shown strong emotional character and integrity;

Alienated followers

habitually point out all the negative aspects of the organization to others.

drives (also called primary needs)

hardwired characteristics of the brain that attempt to keep us in balance by correcting deficiencies. produce emotions that energize us to act on our environment the starting point of motivation because they generate emotions, which put people in a state of readiness to act on their environment

How Drives Influence Motivation and Behavior

he four drives determine which emotions are tagged to incoming stimuli. It states that our social norms, past experience, and personal values direct the motivational force of our emotions to decisions and behavior that potentially reduce that tension. In other words, this "mental skill set" develops behavioral intentions that are acceptable to society, consistent with our own moral compass, and have a high probability of achieving the goal of fulfilling those felt needs

schedules of reinforcement

he frequency and timing of these reinforcers

Performance-management and resource-allocation processes

help to meet people's drive to defend. Increase the transparency of all processes Emphasize their fairness Build trust by being just and transparent in granting rewards, assignments, and other forms of recognition

influence is often best exerted

horizontally rather than vertically.

OB Mod and social cognitive theory explain

how people learn probabilities of successful performance (E-to-P expectancies) as well as probabilities of various outcomes from that performance (P-to-O expectancies)

Self-Regulation

human beings set goals and engage in other forms of intentional, purposive action

Operating model

identify your real constraints on how the work gets done and then ask yourself how the team could operate within them more efficiently and productively. In addition, consider whether it makes sense to create sub teams (formal or informal) to improve collaboration among interdependent members. Also think about whether certain activities require more frequent attention than others. When rethinking meeting frequency and agendas, it helps to understand the three types of meetings that leadership teams typically have—strategic, operational, and learning—so that you can allocate an appropriate amount of time to each.

Measurable Goals

includes how much (quantity), how well (quality), and at what cost the goal was achieved.

Individual differences

including self-concept, social norms, and past experience— influence the motivation process in a second way. They regulate a person's motivated decisions and behavior

the best persuaders not only listen to others but also

incorporate their perspectives into a shared solution.

authority isn't very effective for

influencing people and getting results.

multisource (360-degree) feedback

information about an employee's performance collected from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers

Feedback

information that lets us know whether we have achieved the goal or are properly directing our effort toward it—is a critical partner with goal setting It should be specific, relevant, timely, credible, sufficiently frequent

Operational meetings

involve reviewing forecasts and measures of short-term performance, and adjusting activities and plans in light of those results. These are usually shorter and more frequent than strategic meetings.

The drive to bond

is associated with strong positive emotions like love and caring and, when not, with negative ones like loneliness and anomie.

gift giving in the rule of reciprocity.

it confers a genuine first-mover advantage on any manager who is trying to foster positive attitudes and productive personal relationships in the office: Managers can elicit the desired behavior from coworkers and employees by displaying it first.

What constitutes effective persuasion?

it involves phases of discovery, preparation, and dialogue. Getting ready to persuade colleagues can take weeks or months of planning as you learn about your audience and the position you intend to argue. Before they even start to talk, effective persuaders have considered their positions from every angle.

Behavior is intrinsically motivated when

it is anchored in the innate drives for competence and autonomy. People feel competent when applying their skills and observing positive, meaningful outcomes from those talents. People feel autonomous when their motivation is self-initiated rather than controlled from an external source

Limitation with expectancy theory

it mainly explains extrinsic motivation; the model's features do not fit easily with intrinsic motivation. Another concern is that the theory ignores emotions as a source of motivation. The valence element of expectancy theory captures some of this emotional process, but only peripherally. A third issue is that expectancy theory outlines how expectancies (probability of outcomes) affect motivation, but it doesn't explain how employees develop these expectancies.

Practical Implications of Four-Drive Theory

jobs and workplaces should provide a balanced opportunity to fulfill the four drives.42 There are really two recommendations here. The first is that the best workplaces help employees fulfill all four drives. The second recommendation is that fulfillment of the four drives must be kept in balance; that is, organizations should avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive. The reason for this advice is that the four drives counterbalance each other

competence

knowing how to do the right thing

interactional framework

leadership as a function of three elements—the leader, the followers, and the situation. a particular leadership scenario can be examined using each level of analysis separately. we can understand the process even better if we also examine the interactions among the three elements, or lenses leadership is the result of a complex set of interactions among the leader, the followers, and the situation

The Situation

leadership often makes sense only in the context of how the leader and followers interact in a particular situation

three most relevant to employee motivation

learning behavior consequences behavior modeling self-regulation

Misconception: Authority flows from the manager's position

mistakenly believe their power is based on the formal authority that comes with their now lofty - well, relatively speaking-position in the hierarchy. Authority emerges only as the manager establishes credibility with subordinates, peers, and superiors. They need to demonstrate their character, competence, and influence

identifying individuals with the "right stuff" to be leaders is

more art than science

executives should also remember that exclusive information is

more persuasive than widely available data. The persuasive power of exclusivity can be harnessed by any manager who comes into possession of information that's not broadly available and that supports an idea or initiative he or she would like the organization to adopt.

intrinsic motivation

motivation controlled by the individual and experienced from the activity itself occurs when people seek need fulfillment from doing the activity itself, not as a means to some other outcome.

Time-framed Goals

need a due date. They should specify when the objective should be completed or when it will be assessed for comparison against a standard.

Four-drive theory is based on a deep foundation of

neuroscientific, psychological, sociological, and anthropological research. The theory explains why needs vary from one person to the next, but avoids the assumption that everyone has the same needs hierarchy. It is holistic (it relates to all drives, not just one or two) and humanistic (it acknowledges the role of human thought and social influences, not just instinct).

Feedback can originate from

nonsocial or social sources

Punishment

occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior occurring.

extrinsic motivation

occurs when people are motivated to receive something that is beyond their personal control for instrumental reasons. In other words, they direct their effort toward a reward controlled by others that indirectly fulfills a need (bonus, award, happy boss) are controlled by others and are not need fulfillment in themselves

Positive reinforcement

occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior.

negative reinforcement

occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. It is usually the removal of punishment

Extinction consequence

occurs when the target behavior decreases because no consequence follows it.

Expectancy theory

offers more detail by predicting the goal-directed behavior where employees are most likely to direct their effort. Essentially, the theory states that work effort is directed toward performance that people believe has the overall highest probability of achieving the desired outcomes. This is the fundamental economic model of deciding which choice offers the highest expected payoff. aligned more with extrinsic than intrinsic motivation because performance is usually described as instrumental to other outcomes beyond the employee's control.

Three distinct but interdependent forms of networking

operational, personal, and strategic - played a vital role in their transitions.

executives should take pains to ensure that they establish their

own expertise before they attempt to exert influence.

Behavior Modeling

people learn by imitating and practicing their behaviors. Direct sensory experience helps us acquire tacit knowledge and skills increases self-efficacy

equity principle

people should be paid in proportion to their contribution

distributive justice

perceived fairness in the individual's ratio of outcomes to contributions relative to a comparison other's ratio of outcomes to contributions

procedural justice

perceived fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources

Exemplary followers

present a consistent picture to both leaders and coworkers of being independent, innovative, and willing to stand up to superiors.

Social Skills

proficiency in managing relationships and building networks an ability to find common ground and build rapport

Learning from Your Life Story

provides the context for your experiences, and through it, you can find the inspiration to make an impact in the world. In other words, it is your personal narrative that matters, not the mere facts of your life. found their strength through transformative experiences. Those experiences enabled them to understand the deeper purpose of their leadership.

continuous reinforcement

providing positive reinforcement after every occurrence of the desired behavior The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks

People who have a high degree of self- awareness recognize

recognize how their feelings affect them, other people, and their job performance. are able to speak accurately and openly-although not necessarily effusively or confessionally-about their emotions and the impact they have on their work. know-and are comfortable talking about-their limitations and strengths, and they often demonstrate a thirst for constructive criticism. can also be recognized by their self-confidence.

To enhance emotional intelligence, organizations must

refocus their training to include the limbic system. They must help people break old behavioral habits and establish new ones. That not only takes much more time than conventional training pro- grams, it also requires an individualized approach.

gamification

reinforcing behavior through online games in which employees earn "badges" and compete for top positions on leader boards.

managers can use praise to

repair one that's damaged or unproductive. Positive remarks about another person's traits, attitude, or performance reliably generates liking in return, as well as willing compliance

organizational behavior modification limitations

reward inflation," in which the reinforcer is eventually considered an entitlement. the variable ratio schedule of reinforcement tends to create a lottery-style reward system, which might be viewed as too erratic for formal rewards and is unpopular to people who dislike gambling radical view that behavior is learned only through personal interaction with the environment

a company can best improve overall motivational scores by

satisfying all four drives in concert. The whole is more than the sum of its parts; a poor showing on one drive substantially diminishes the impact of high scores on the other three.

The drive to acquire

scarce goods that bolster our sense of well-being. We experience delight when this drive is fulfilled, discontentment when it is thwarted.

Misconception: The boss is supposed to have all the answers

seeking help is a sure sign that a new manager is a "promotion mistake." When a new manager can develop a good relationship with his boss, it can make all the difference in the world

known as a growth need

self-actualization because it continues to develop even when temporarily satiated

Knowing Your Authentic Self

self-awareness requires the courage and honesty to open up and examine their experiences. As they do so, leaders become more humane and willing to be vulnerable.

Self-Awareness Hallmarks

self-confidence realistic self-assessment self-deprecating sense of humor

the decision-making process in complex contexts must change from

sense, categorize, and respond to probe, sense, and respond. In other words, making good decisions is about both what decisions one makes and understanding the role of the situation in affecting how one makes decisions.

Men tended to describe themselves in

somewhat transactional terms, viewing leadership as an exchange with subordinates for services rendered. They influenced others primarily through their organizational position and authority.

Relevant goals

specific to the individual's job and within his or her control.

Specific goals

state what needs to be accomplished, how it should be accomplished, and where, when, and with whom it should be accomplished

Motivation Hallmarks

strong drive to achieve optimism, even in the face of failure organizational commitment □ Passion for the work □ Desire to raise the bar

Exciting Goals

tend to be more effective when employees are committed to them, not just compliant

The main problem with needs hierarchy models is

that people have different needs hierarchies. People have different hierarchies of values, so they also have parallel differences in their needs hierarchies

building an engaged workforce calls on

the MARS model, building affective commitment, motivation practices, organizational-level communication, and leadership

distance diminishes

the ability of formal authority to create compliance.

Mental simulation

the ability to anticipate how outside parties (competitors, regulators, the media, key members of the public) will respond to what you do, to predict their actions and reactions in order to define the best course to take.

What Is Charisma?

the ability to communicate a clear, visionary, and inspirational message that captivates and motivates an audience. to persuade others, you must use powerful and reasoned rhetoric, establish personal and moral credibility, and then rouse followers' emotions and passions.

Self- regulation

the ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods the propensity to suspend judgment-to think before acting

influence

the ability to deliver and execute the right thing

Pattern recognition

the ability to discern important causal relationships and other significant patterns in a complex business and its environment-that is, to separate the signal from the noise.

Level shifting

the ability to move fluidly among levels of analysis-to know when to focus on the details, when to focus on the big picture, and how the two relate.

Self- awareness

the ability to recognize and understand your moods, emotions, and drives, as well as their effect on others

Empathy

the ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people skill in treating people according to their emotional reactions

Outcome valences

the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels toward an outcome. It ranges from negative to positive. To increase the employee's expected satisfaction with outcomes resulting from desired performance a reward varies from one person to the next because they have different needs. One solution is to individualize rewards by allowing employees to choose the rewards of greatest value to them. When this isn't possible, companies should ensure that everyone values the reward

heroic theory

the assumption that leadership is a general personal trait expressed independently of the situation in which the leadership is manifested

self-efficacy

the belief that you have the ability, role clarity, and resources to get the job done

Misconception: Managers must ensure that things run smoothly

the complexity of maintaining the status quo can absorb all of a junior manager's time and energy. need to generate changes, both within and outside their areas of responsibility, to ensure that their teams can succeed. They need to work to change the context in which their teams operate, ignoring their lack of formal authority.

Empathy is important as a component of leadership for:

the increasing use of teams - A team's leader must be able to sense and understand the viewpoints of everyone around the table. the rapid pace of globalization - Cross-cultural dialogue can easily lead to miscues and misunderstandings. the growing need to retain talent - When good people leave, they take the company's knowledge with them.

character

the intention to do the right thing

glass cliff

the intriguing finding that female candidates for an executive position are more likely to be hired than equally qualified male candidates when an organization's performance is declining

Organizational success today requires

the involvement of everyone at all levels. Less authority-driven organizations are more likely to elicit and take full advantage of the talent and experience of their people.

Maslow proposed that the strongest source of motivation is

the lowest unsatisfied need. As the person satisfies a lower-level need, the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes the strongest motivator and remains so even if never satisfied. The exception to this need fulfillment process is self-actualization.

Provide evidence

the most effective persuaders use language in a particular way. They supplement numerical data with examples, stories, metaphors, and analogies to make their positions come alive.

Leadership is

the process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing a goal. a complex phenomenon involving the leader, the followers, and the situation.

goal setting

the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives.

Leadership involves both

the rational and emotional sides of human experience. It includes actions and influences based on reason and logic as well as those based on inspiration and passion. It also involves touching others' feelings; emotions play an important role in leadership too.

outcome-input ratio

the value of the outcomes you receive divided by the value of the inputs you provide in the exchange relationship

people can develop

their emotional intelligence

the most effective persuaders seem to share a common trait

they are open-minded, never dogmatic. They enter the persuasion process prepared to adjust their viewpoints and incorporate others' ideas. often enter the persuasion process with judicious compromises already prepared.

Extrinsic rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation when

they are unexpected, such as a surprise bonus, when they have low value relative to the intrinsic motivator, and when they are not contingent on specific behavior (such as receiving a fixed salary).

self-reinforcement

they reward and punish themselves for exceeding or falling short of their self-set standards of excellence

Building Your Support Team

to help them stay on course. Those teams counsel them in times of uncertainty, help them in times of difficulty, and celebrate with them in times of success. provides affirmation, advice, perspective, and calls for course corrections when needed. Leaders must give as much to their supporters as they get from them so that mutually beneficial relationships can develop

The women, on the other hand, tended to describe themselves in

transformational terms. They helped subordinates develop commitment to broader goals than their own self-interest, and they described their influence more in terms of personal characteristics like charisma and interpersonal skill than mere organizational position.

Self-Regulation Hallmarks

trustworthiness and integrity comfort with ambiguity openness to change

extinction (do nothing) should follow

undesirable behaviors

Practicing Your Values and Principles

values translated into action and testing them under fire enables you to develop the principles you will use in leading.

need for achievement (nAch)

want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own effort. They prefer working alone rather than in teams, and they choose moderately challenging tasks (i.e., neither too easy nor impossible to complete). People with high nAch desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success. Money is a weak motivator, except when it provides feedback and recognition. In contrast, employees with low nAch perform better when money is used as an incentive

need for power (nPow)

want to exercise control over others and are concerned about maintaining their leadership position. They frequently rely on persuasive communication, make more suggestions in meetings, and tend to publicly evaluate situations more frequently. There are two types of nPow: Individuals who enjoy their power for its own sake, use it to advance personal interests, and wear their power as a status symbol have personalized power. Others mainly have a high need for socialized power because they desire power as a means to help others

equality principle

when we believe that everyone in the group should receive the same outcomes

need principle

when we believe that those with the greatest need should receive more outcomes than others with less need