Learning, Chapter 10: Observational Learning

Learning

Change in behavior due to experience

2 Types of observational learning

Social observational learning (vicarious learning) Asocial observational learning

Is a social observational learning more effective than social?

Yes sometimes it's more effective to learn without the model

Imitating irrelevant aspects of a model's behavior is called ___________.

overimitation

If an observer looks on as a model's behavior is reinforced, we speak of ____.

vicarious reinforcement

Observational Learning that involves a model

Social observational learning

A form of treatment for phobias that makes use of observational learning is called a. virtual exposure therapy b. observational desensitization c. participant modeling d. vicarious sensitization

c.

The operant learning model of observational learning takes the _________ approach.

natural science

There are two kinds of consequences of a model's behavior, ___________ and ___________.

vicarious reinforcement, vicarious punishment

Motivational processes

Evaluating the consequences of imitating behavior. This is more the expectation than the actual consequence.

Two important variables in social observational learning are the ____________ of the model's behavior and the ____________ of the observer's behavior.

consequences, consequences

The tendency to imitate models even when the modeled behavior is not reinforced is called __________.

generalized imitation

Some researchers use a _______ condition to study asocial observational learning.

ghost

Over-imitation is the tendency to imitate behavior that is ___________.

irrelevant/superfluous/unnecessary

Bandura's theory vs Operant Theory

1st is cognitive and intuitive vs 2nd is environmental, observable, and lacks intuitive

Vicarious reinforcement

An increase in the strength of an observer's tendency to exhibit a behavior following reinforcement of that behavior in a model. Note: OBSERVER'S tendency.

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory says that we imitate successful models because we ________ rewarding consequences

Expect them

We imitate only when we observe models?

No we imitate behavior without a model as in ghosting procedures as well

Those who are most likely to learn from observing a model are probably ____.

adults

Model characteristics are important because they can induce the observer to ________________.

attend to the model's behavior

social/observational learning involves

observing the behavior of another individual (usually the same species) and the consequence of the model's behavior. Usually, the consequences have a similar effect on model and observer.

Observational learning and human nature

A couple who were both psychologists adopted Viki when she was very young. They tested her observation skills and compared her results to children her age. She did remarkably well. Viki was a chimp.

Vicarious punishment

A decrease in the strength of an observer's tendency to exhibit a behavior following punishment of that behavior in a model. Note: OBSERVER'S tendency.

Social Observational Learning also called

Active Observational Learning

Ghost condition

An experimental procedure used in social observational learning in which an event normally performed by a model appears to occur without a model.

Bandura's social cognitive theory

Bandura is super famous for his work in social observational learning. His theory says that cognitive processes - things going on in your brain - account for learning from models. There are four kinds of cognitice processes: attentional, retentional motor-reproductive, and motivational. This theory has intuitive appeal.

Theories of observational learning

Bandura's social cognitive theory Operant learning model

What is the chief difference between Bandura's social cognitive theory and the operant learning model?

Bandura's theory relies on things that happen within the individual and are unmeasurable and unobservable. The operant learning model relies just on what we can see.

Consequences of observed acts

Common sense, If the model is reinforced for behavior, an observer is more likely to imitate. Consequences of acts that are not modeled are important, too.

Variables effecting observational learning

Difficulty of the task Skilled vs. Unskilled model Characteristics of the model Characteristics of the observer Consequences of observed acts Consequences of observer's behavior

_____________ uses fiction to model socially helpful behavior.

Edutainment

According to the operant learning model, attention refers to the influence of _______________ events on behavior.

Environmental

Asocial observational Learning

Examples of this learning are - Hopper and colleagues: monkeys watching door with transparent fishing line - Thompson and Russel with toy on mat - without seeing model (Actually more successful when asocial. Sometimes.)

Social observational learning examples

Examples: - Thorndike and his cats (which didn't work out) - Warden and his monkeys solving problems - Herbert and Harsh and their cats (which DID work out) - Hopper and colleagues and their monkeys and children - Thomson and Russel with the toy on the mat - Levy and colleagues with picture preferences in kids - Kanfer and Marston with college students and words

Attentional processes

Have to do with the individual directing his attention to relevant aspects of the model's behavior and its consequences. It involves the self-directed exploration of the environment and construction of meaningful perception from ongoing modeled events. Self-directed and construction are key elements: Self-directed means we determine where to look and what to listen to. Construction means what we derive comes from us.

Consequences of observer's behavior

If observing pays off, we'll observe more. In a study by Hirata and Morimura, chimps were paired and had to solve a problem that required a tool. If they failed, they were more likely to observe.

An example of generalized imitation

In Baer and Sherman's study, a puppet provided social reinforcers for imitating only 3 acts of many, but the children imitated everything it did is an example of

How does Bandura's view of attention differ from that of the operant learning model? Which is more scientific? Which do you prefer?

In Bandura's view, attention is something that is self-directed. In the operant learning model, it is the influence the environment has on us and can be measured by observing behavior, such as eye contact. Bandura's view sounds scientific, but we can't measure it. The operant learning model provides a simpler explanation that we can observe and measure.

O[M(B) -> S^(-/+)]

In social observational learning, an observer (O) views model's behavior (M(B)) and it's positive or negative consequences (S^(-/+))

Retentional processes

Involve representing the model's behavior in some way (in words/images) to aid recall. For example, memorizing route: RRLLRLL for turns. Also, using mnemonics and the like.

Asocial observational learning

Leaning from observed events in the absence of a model. In other words, from surroundings. There is no vicarious reinforcement or punishment.

Observational learning

Learning by observing events and their consequences

Another name for an unskilled model

Learning model

Edutainment

Materials (books, videos, radio programs, etc.) that attempt to educate and entertain the public simultaneously. There is little hard evidence to say that this works. The problem is it assumes that behavior will be naturally reinforced.

Is vicarious reinforcement involved in asocial observational learning?

No. In asocial observational learning, there isn't a model, so you can't be vicariously reinforced. You can, however, see that certain events produce certain consequences.

Early studies of observational learning

Originally, the question was, can one individual learn by observing the experience of another? The study began with Thorndike and his cats (and chicks and dogs). Anecdotal evidence had said we did learn through observation, but Thorndike didn't find evidence of this. Watson had similar findings in a study with monkeys. Then in the 30's, Warden and colleagues found that monkeys can learn through observation. As a result, research on observational learning took off quickly. Further research includes Bandura and the Bobo doll.

Problems with Bandura's Theory

Problems include: it's unobservable and unmeasureable, it's hypothetical, and the source of the processes is unknown.

Vicky, in experiments for observational behavior was a

She was a Chimp

Vicarious Pavlovian Conditioning

Short story: it doesn't exist (Probably). An observer watches a model go through CC. For example, an observer watches an observer view a picture of a snake then get shocked. The observer ends up being afraid of snakes. The problem is, the observer is also going through CC because they view the snake picture then see the model react fearfully when shocked.

Characteristics of the observer

Species (humans take away the most from observational learning, followed by great apes). Learning history (chimps who have language training learn more). Sometimes age (Young monkeys learn more than old monkeys. Gender makes a difference in age differences. Young are more likely to imitate, old take in more from observational learning. Developmental age is more important than chronological.) Sensory handicaps (if you can't see, that's a problem.) Emotional states (if you're aroused, you aren't going to learn).

Education and observational learning

Starts at infancy: an example includes language. Classroom learning: how much learning takes place depends on how attentive the student is. Reinforce attentiveness in one student, and other kids are vicariously reinforced. Occurs in practical skills in and out of school. In kids with ID and disabilities, a decreased ability to pay attention is correlated to decreased imitation, but imitation can be acquired.

Social change and observational learning

Survival is more likely with others. This occurs in nonhumans, too. Laland and Williams showed observational learning in a study with guppies. Imo the monkey started washing sweet potatoes and the behavior spread. Monkeys in Thailand started flossing - and they floss even more when an infant is watching. Chimps learn to fish for ants socially. Observational learning helps with the adoption of new tools and practices. It also is related to societal problems, such as influencing tendency to exercise. Fiction also makes a difference, such as in edutainment.

The downside of observational learning

TV, film, and video games teach aggression. The more you watch TV, the more likely you are to be a criminal.

Difficulty of the task in observational learning

The more difficult the task is, the less learning there will be. Watching a model increases the likelihood of success. If the task is more complicated, then social learning is more successful than asocial. If the task is less complicated, then asocial may be better.

Overimitation

The tendency of observers to imitate acts by a model that are irrelevant to obtaining reinforcement. Other primates are less inclined to do this. It could be some kind of evolutionary fluke. Some argue that it is good. Whiten et al.: It ensures success. Unnecessary behaviors can be edited out. Nielson et al.: It facilitates dissemination of new practices, increasing survival. Or, the tendency could be learned. Heyes: we are rewarded for imitating since infancy.

Generalized imitation

The tendency to imitate modeled behavior even though the imitative behavior is not reinforced. We may not only reinforce the imitation of a particular behavior, we reinforce the tendency to imitate.

Operant learning model

Theorizes that observational learning is operant learning. Modeled behavior and consequences are cues that similar behavior sill have that consequence. If a behavior pays off, we'll imitate. The Millar and Dollard example is that a boy runs to greet his dad when the dad comes home. The boy's little brother follows the boy and watches. If both boys are greeted and given a reward, what is being reinforced? The older boy is being reinforced for greeting the dad, but the younger boy is reinforced for imitating the brother. The 4 processes in Bandura's theory are important in this theory, but viewed differently. - Attention is not a thing in our head; it is the influence exerted by environmental events on our behavior (can be measured in overt behavior, such as eye contact). - Retentional processes are acts the observer performs, covertly or overtly, that improve performance. - Motor reproduction is overt performance of imitative behavior - Motivation is a product of the environment; experiences teaches us that we are likely to receive the same consequence as the model. Weaknesses: No intuitive appeal. It takes the natural science approach which many are not familiar with.

Skilled vs. unskilled model

There are two categories of models: skilled and unskilled (or learning model). The skilled model demonstrates proper performance and the unskilled model has to figure out what works. There is not a definite answer for which is better. There are other factors involved, including number of observations.

Imitate

To behave in a manner resembling the behavior of a model. Or, in the absence of a model, to perform an observed act. But we're mostly concerned with it when it is modeled.

examples of Bandura's 4 step process

To illustrate: We use attenional processes when we watch a model open a safe. We use retentional processes when we encode the model moving the dial to 20-40-20 and make some sort of mental representation to aid with recall. We use motor-reproductive processes to use our representation of 20-40-20 to open the safe. Whether or not we do this depends on our motivational processes: we'll want to do it to get what's inside the safe.

Motor-reproductive processes

Using symbolic representation stored during retentional process to guide action. In other words, how we recall images/words and use them to guide us when we actually do the thing that we observed.

Cross-species observational learning

We can learn from other species. For example, the Inuits learned hunting strategies from polar bears.

How social is social learning?

We may just view the events, not the model. However, there are differences in studies of social and asocial observational learning.

Characteristics of model

We prefer listening to models who are attractive, powerful, popular, likable, prestigious, or unique. Other factors include age (generally, someone slightly older is better) or expressions (a more expressive model, regardless of whether expressions are positive or negative, attracts more attention). We tend to imitate celebrities - even fictional ones.

Bandura's theory relies on four processes. These include _________, _________, _________, and_________ processes.

attentional, retentional, motor-reproductive, motivational

In the debate about the relation between watching TV violence and aggressive behavior... a. there is no correlation between aggressive behavior and watching violent TV b. there is evidence that children who watch violent TV are more aggressive many years later c. all aggressive tendencies disappear a few hours after watching TV violence d. no one has ever conducted a study in which the effects of TV violence are actually tested on children

b.

Research suggests that children will be more likely to vicariously learn from an adult model if the model a. is of the opposite sex b. has power over the children c. witholds reinforcement d. none of the above

b.

Two major applications of observational learning

education and social change

According to the operant learning model, attention refers to the influence of __________ on behavior.

environmental events

According to Bandura's theory, we imitate successful models because we ______ rewarding consequences.

expect

The first studies of observational learning ____.

failed to find evidence of observational learning in animals

Jill is an impressionable 17-year-old college freshman with average academic skills. She lives in the college dorms with two roommates. One of them, Martha, is bright, attractive, popular, rich, and a local celebrity because of her singing; she seldom studies. Jill's other roommate, Ann, is also bright, but has only a few friends, wears inexpensive clothes, and plays the tuba poorly; she studies all the time. On the basis of what you know about observational learning, you predict that Jill will ____.

flunk out

O[E -> S^(-/+)]

formula for Asocial observational learning the observer (O) views an event (E) and its positive or negative consequences (S^(-/+)

In a study by Hopper and colleagues, some observers watched a model slide a door and retrieve a desired item. Other observers saw the door slide in the absence of a model, revealing the desired item. The latter procedure is called the __________ condition.

ghost

Generally, the ability to learn from models _________ (increases/decreases) with age.

increases

An unskilled model is also called a _________ model.

learning

Traditional definition of observational learning

learning from the experience of a model

The operant learning model says that observational learning is a variation of ______________.

operant learning

Generalized imitation is the tendency to imitate modeled behavior even when imitation of the behavior is not ______________.

reinforced

In Bandura's theory of observational learning, steps taken during observation to improve later recall of a model's behavior are called ____.

retentional processes

This text identifies two types of observational learning, ___________ and ___________.

social, asocial

Primatologist Elizabeth Lornsdorf found that wild young female chimps are more likely than males to learn about __________ .

termite fishing

generalized imitation vs Overimitation

the 1st is a tendency to imitate even without reinforcement and the 2nd is imitation of irrelevant steps in the behavior

Kazdin's research shows that attentiveness can be ______________ reinforced.

vicariously

Keith and Catherine Hayes found that their adoptee, Viki, learned more from observing models than some children of about the same age. This was surprising because Viki _________.

was a chimpanzee