Lesson 2.2: Persuasive Strategies

Speakers Develop Ethos By

A. appearing competent, trustworthy, and dynamic; B. sharing their credentials and/or relevant personal experience; C. presenting a balanced and noncoercive argument; D. citing credible sources; E. using appropriate language and grammar; F. being perceived as likable; and G. appearing engaged with the topic and audience through effective delivery.

Speakers Appeal to Logos By

A. presenting factual, objective information that serves as reasons to support the argument; B. presenting a sufficient amount of relevant examples to support a proposition; C. deriving conclusions from known information; and D. using credible supporting material like expert testimony, definitions, statistics, and literal or historical analogies.

Speakers Appeal to Pathos By:

A. using vivid language to paint word pictures for audience members; B. providing lay testimony (personal stories from self or others); C. using figurative language such as metaphor, similes, and personification; D. using vocal variety, cadence, and repetition.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham H. Maslow, "A Theory of Human Motivation," Psychological Review 50 (1943): 370-96. There are several layers of needs that human beings pursue. They include physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs.

Ethos

Develops a speaker's credibility. Refers to the credibility of a speaker and includes three dimensions: ▪ Competence ▪ Trustworthiness ▪ Dynamism

Dissonance, Motivation, and Needs

Psychologically based persuasive appeals

Trustworthiness

Refers to the degree that audience members perceive a speaker to be presenting accurate, credible information in a nonmanipulative way.

Dynamism; Charisma & Energy.

Refers to the degree to which audience members perceive a speaker to be outgoing and animated. Two Components: ◆ __________ a mixture of abstract and concrete qualities that make a speaker attractive to an audience. ◆ __________ communicating enthusiasm for your topic and audience by presenting relevant content and using engaging delivery strategies such as vocal variety and eye contact can increase your dynamism.

Competence

Refers to the perception of a speaker's expertise in relation to the topic being discussed.

Using Cognitive Dissonance As A Persuasive Strategy

__________ relies on three assumptions: 1. people have a need for consistency in their thinking 2. when inconsistency exists, people experience psychological discomfort; 3. this discomfort motivates people to address the inconsistency to restore balance ▪ In short, when new information clashes with previously held information, there is an unpleasantness that results, as we have to try to reconcile the difference.

Positive and Negative

____________ motivation as persuasive strategies match well with appeals to needs and will be discussed more next.

Appeals to Safety Needs

□ Evokes an audience's concern for their safety and the safety of their loved ones. □ When we work to preserve our safety and the safety of our loved ones. Speakers can combine appeals to safety with positive motivation by presenting information that will result in increased safety and security. □ Combining safety needs and negative motivation, a speaker may convey that audience members' safety and security will be put at risk if the speaker's message isn't followed. Combining negative motivation and safety needs depends on using some degree of fear as a motivator. ◆ Ethics of Using Fear Appeals

Appeals to Social Needs

□ Evokes an audience's need for belonging and inclusion. □ Relate to our desire to belong to supportive and caring groups. □ We meet social needs through interpersonal relationships ranging from acquaintances to intimate partnerships.

Appeals to Self-Esteem Needs

□ Evokes an audience's need to think well of themselves and have others think well of them, too.

Physiological Needs

□ Form the base of the hierarchy of needs. □ Speakers do not appeal to physiological needs. After all, a person who doesn't have food, air, or water isn't very likely to want to engage in persuasion, and it wouldn't be ethical to deny or promise these things to someone for persuasive gain.

Negative Motivation

□ Implies or states that failure to follow a speaker's advice will result in negative consequences. □ Promises negative consequences if a speaker's message is rejected.

Appeals to Social Needs

□ Positive and negative motivation can be combined with social appeals. Positive motivation is present in messages that promise the receiver "in-group" status or belonging, and negative motivation can be seen in messages that persuade by saying, "Don't be left out." Although these arguments may rely on the bandwagon fallacy to varying degrees, they draw out insecurities people have about being in the "out-group."

Self-Actualization

□ Refers to our need to achieve our highest potential, and these needs are much more intrapersonal than the others

Positive Motivation

□ Speakers implicitly or explicitly convey to the audience that listening to their message or following their advice will lead to positive results. □ Promises rewards if the speaker's message is accepted.

Positive and Negative Motivation

▪ Common persuasive strategies used by teachers, parents, and public speakers. Rewards can be used for positive motivation, and the threat of punishment or negative consequences can be used for negative motivation.

Appeals to Needs

▪ Maslow's hierarchy of needs states that there are several layers of needs that human beings pursue. They include physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs. Abraham H. Maslow, "A Theory of Human Motivation," Psychological Review 50 (1943): 370-96. Since these needs are fundamental to human survival and happiness, tapping into needs is a common persuasive strategy. ▪ Appeals to needs are often paired with positive or negative motivation, which can increase the persuasiveness of the message.

Cognitive Dissonance

▪ Moves an audience by pointing out inconsistencies between new information and their currently held beliefs, attitudes, and values. ▪ Refers to the mental discomfort that results when new information clashes with or contradicts currently held beliefs, attitudes, or values. ▪ Some frequently used strategies to resolve cognitive dissonance include discrediting the speaker or source of information, viewing yourself as an exception, seeking selective information that supports your originally held belief, or intentionally avoiding or ignoring sources of cognitive dissonance.

Ethics of Using Fear Appeals

◆ Do not overuse fear appeals ◆ The threat must be credible and supported by evidence. ◆ Empower the audience to address the threat.

Logos

○ Evokes a rational, cognitive response from the audience. ○ Refers to the reasoning or logic of an argument. ○ Speakers employ logos by presenting credible information as supporting material and verbally citing their sources during their speech. ○ Carefully choosing supporting material that is verifiable, specific, and unbiased can help a speaker appeal to logos. Speakers can also appeal to logos by citing personal experience and providing the credentials and/or qualifications of sources of Information.

Pathos

○ Evokes an emotional response from the audience. ○ Refers to emotional appeals. ○ Stirring emotions in an audience is a way to get them involved in the speech, and involvement can create more opportunities for persuasion and action.