Liberal Challenges and Revolutions

• originally part of Dutch Netherlands, Belgium was inspired from news about July Revolution to rebel against Dutch rule • Belgium became a constitutional monarchy with a parliament of two houses, both elected by about one of every thirty males

Describe Belgium independence

- revolution influence quickly spread from France and resonated with educated German youth - German states were experiencing the "hungry forties" and many died from hunger and disease—there were riots against grain suppliers because the poor felt taken advantage of. - German leaders, after seeing what occurred in France, were inspired to make concessions as a preservative measure. - in Berlin demonstrators in a crowd were fired on by troops - Prussian king hears liberal demands and replaces conservative cabinet, gives the people a constitution, and reduces censorship.

Describe Revolution in the German states. What inspired riots? What was the German leader response? What happened in Berlin?

Restoration: Bourbon monarchy—constitutional monarchy • equality before the law and acceptance of Napoleonic code • Central state bureaucracy • Church still subject to Concordat, but returned to original position and Catholicism again became the official state religion Charles X becomes king: • many in France retained allegiance to Napoleon's memory and some plotted to overthrow the Restoration • Merchants and manufactures believed that the restoration monarchy paid insufficient attention to commerce and dusty, listening only to rural nobles. • rise in liberal literature among romantic writers against Charles X Circumstances • Charle X dissolved the newly elected Chamber of Deputies, disfranchised almost 3/4 of those currently eligible to vote, ordered new elections under the restricted franchise, and muzzled the press • Charles took action to ensure that he had more power Who involved • Parisian liberals Action • demonstrations for liberal Louis-Philippe to be the new king. Results • Charles X abdicated and Louis Philippe became the new King of the French • Catholicism ceased to be the official religion of the state • Number of voters was doubled and there was greater representation among the middle class • New economic growth that benefited manufactures and merchants

Describe the Bourbon Restoration in France and the Revolution of 1830.

Circumstances • Liberal and idealistic Alexander I takes throne and advocates for reform and works to make state more efficient • Alexander became increasingly reactionary and conservative elements regained power. Liberal ideas were not supported, study abroad was banned, and there was lots of censorship • Alexander was afraid of losing power Who involved • young nobles who had been educated in Western Europe—wanted to evolve toward British constitutionalism • Army officers—wanted to establish a republic Action • Alexander dies and throne split between Constantine and Nicholas ◦ Young nobles and army supported Constantine (as a more liberal force) , but when Nicolas took power the leaders of the Decembrists were killed Results • Nicolas rule with divine right ◦ Exclusion of Western ideas ◦ Codification of Russian laws ◦ Liberal ideas from West encouraged reform-minded men within the imperial bureaucracy

Describe the Decembrist Revolt in Russia. What were the circumstances? Who was involved? What action took place? What were the results?

Circumstances • grew out of small Greek nationalist movement Who involved • Greeks against Ottoman Turks Action • revolt was condemned by Congress powers and Russia • Large loss of life on both sides, but Greek massacre caught attention of West Results • put the Congress powers in a bind. Christian Europe traditionally considered the Turks savage infidels. But at the same time, the Congress powers had to recognize the Ottoman Empire as the historically legitimate sovereign of the Greeks • support for Greek rebels would thus renounce the status quo • Greek revolt caught imagination of Western Europe • Many in Western Europe embraced the revolt as a modern crusade for Christianity and independence against Turkish oppression. • Greeks gained independence in 1832

Describe the liberal Greek Revolt. Who was involved? What action took place? What was the result?

Who involved • members of student fraternities demanded a united Germany Action • In their revolt for unification they burned anti-patriotic books and murdered a man accused of close connections with tzar • Strong nationalistic elements Result • Carlsband Decrees ◦ Muzzled the press and dissolves student fraternities ◦ Discouraged any universal representation

Describe the liberal revolts in Germany. Who was involved? What action took place? What was the result?

• background: there would be no revolution in 19th century Britain because the landed elite, which dominated Parliament, enacted reforms that defused social and political tensions by bowing to middle-class demands—the fear of popular protest and revolution led them to compromise. • Test Act and Corporation Act—forced anyone holding public office to take communion in the Anglican Church. • Catholic emancipation had emerged as a major political issue. In Ireland a reform movement had begun and organized protests against English Protestant domination. • This acts impacted Catholics of means in Ireland and England as they were barred from voting • this relates to conservatism and liberalism because it shows Parliament being influenced by liberal demands • This legislation was repealed in hopes of quelling revolt and a response to growing Catholic unrest in England and Ireland

Explain the Repeal of the Test Act and Corporation Act. How does it relate to the liberal/ conservative debate

- it was anti-aristocratic - there was a religious adherence during Romanticism that was a reaction to Enlightenment rationality - Romanticism embraced nationalism as many places began to celebrate local art and literary tradition and turn away from Classical Greek and Roman inspiration

How was Romanticism a reaction to the Enlightenment and the Revolution

- he announced liberal reformes such as National Workshops, expanded electorate, freedom of the press etc. But when wealth requirement still determined ability to vote/be a representative many became upset causing Ferdinand to renege on his reforms. - Hungarian politicians demanded autonomy. There was a nationalist take over. Enacted freedom of the press, abolished feudalism etc. - Czech nationalist staged revolt in Prague and demanded Bohemian autonomy. Wanted to cut ties with monarch to privilege people and expand border so all of Czech people unified.

Revolution in Central Europe: What did emperor Ferdinand do? What happened in Hungary?

- Venice declared a republic - Liberals forced King Ferdinand II to adopt a constitution - King Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia invaded Lombardy. Armies defeated Austrians and Albert annexed Lombardy adding it to PS - this action of annexation caused Austrian forces to intervene with the support of the pope.

The revolutions in Italian states were motivated by different goals. What happened in Venice? Ferdinand II? Piedmont-Sardinia?

- belief in Christian monarchy as final stage of political/religious development. Believed that the monarchy would bring back social and political order - updated theory of divine right—if power comes from God, a king's power cannot be limited by his subjects - believed reform and revolution were one in the same - monarchy needs to have absolute power - a willingness to reform shows weakness on behalf of the monarch.

What conservative ideology began to arise in restoration Europe?

- the landed magnates agreed to lower the minimum franchise requirement, almost doubling the size of the electorate. British Parliament now more accurately reflected Britain's emerging industrial society. • demonstrates liberal success in achieving greater voter representation. This Bill took power away from the hands of the Tories allowing for increased Whig strength. • It was part of a larger reform movement in Britain that allowed many more Whigs, including Dissenters, to assume positions of responsibility in local government, another blow to the domination of public life by the old aristocratic oligarchy and the Established Church • Two proposed reform bills were rejected by the House of Lords leading to demonstrations that resulted in violent, I think that this legislation was passed in hopes of avoiding a larger conflict between businessmen and radicals vs. upper class.

What did the Reform Bill of 1832 do? How does it relate to liberalism vs. conservatism? Why was the legislation passed?

- it tried to preserve French power and influence - restored the Bourbon dynasty with Louie VXIII - it set the boarder of France back to before Napoleon's conquests, bringing up debate among powers in Europe over who controlled what

What did the Treaty of Paris 1814 accomplish?

- the popularity of the Reform Bill increased Whig support and legislation new laws regarding: were created - limits on child labor - poor laws - outlaw slavery - Reform local governments

What did the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832 lead to?

- the July Monarchy (Louis Philippe) had made many enemies - conservatives felt he didnt have legitimacy as a monarch - liberals didnt want another monarch to rule and wanted greater representation - Francois Guizot banned republican demonstrations—this outlaw of protests caused demonstrations in France which turned violent when troops fired on the crowds and demonstrators began to build barricades in Paris - Louis-Philippe abdicated - proclamation of the Second French Republic—proclaimed universal male suffrage and the outlawing of slavery

What events led to the overthrow of the July Monarchy and Louis Philippe and the proclamation of the Second French Republic?

- the House of Lords continually rejected attempts at electoral reform - Torie support grew in the Commons because the King threatened to create new seats in parliament in order to get the Bill passed. Tories gave into Whig demands in order to preserve their own power

What happened that led to the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832?

• the corn laws was an issue that put liberals against conservatives. The issue of the repeal of the Corn Laws pitted proponents of laissez-faire economic policies against wealthy property owners. Whigs against Tories. The Corn law was a matter of business men vs. landowners and was seen as an issue connected to universal male suffrage. -Conservative Robert Peel worked to dismantle legislation - he negotiated with Whigs to reduce taxes on wheat allowing the Whigs to come out victorious.

What issue did the Corn Laws create? What did Robert Peel do?

- opinions were divided over what the government should look like. - Noble conservatives wanted the bourbon or Philippe line to be restored. - republicans wanted to uphold republican ideals and liberal values - socialist and napoleon supporters as well - opened National Workshops—paid unemployed to work in infrastructure projects - the elections resulted in a Conservative majority. So was a republican government with conservative majority who would be writing the new constitution - radicals and republicans won a small number of seats

What problems came about with the proclamation of the Second French Republic? What did the gov do to counter economic hardship? What was the result of the elections for the Constituent Assembly?

- Monarchs and nobility experienced a resurgence of power and influence, especially in the East—Russia and Eastern German States - Nobles were still the taste makers of Europe - restoration coincided with a religious revival in Europe—there was a strong connection between the nobility and the church as lots of nobles donated to the church, second great awakening, brings back religious intolerance and conflict

What restoration occurred in Europe?

- Demands for political reform took hold, much of it focused on expanding the electoral base - many poor were looking for work and dependent on government aid - agricultural failures and crime exacerbated the challenges of the rural and urban poor - in light of the demands for political reform, Parliament passed the Combination Acts which outlawed strikes and trade unions - this led to the Peterloo Massacre

What was Britain like in the early 19th century?

• emphasized imagination and emotion in personal development • It began to emerge as a literary, artistic, and musical movement • Call to abandon the classical style based on Greek and Roman models that characterized 18th century court and aristocratic life and instead express emotional response to nature • Emphasis on free expression and original creations to inspire and move others • Individualistic

What was Romanticism?

- inspired by the architecture of the Middle Ages, it was designed to evoke emotional response and to glorify God - Known as Gothic Revival, a response to the previous neo-classical movement - again reflecting anti-aristocratic sentiment

What was architecture like in the Romantic Period? What was this style called?

- it was a middle class economic/political theory and world view that was largely a reaction to the rise in upper class conservatism - belief in human progress—that progress was inevitable and rooted in science - advocated for legal equality as it applied to middle class property owners - laissez-faire economics—government doesn't have hand in economics, let supply and demand control - liberals wanted their values reflected in government - government by constitution - representative bodies - acknowledgment that citizens have authority and guaranteed rights.

What was liberalism? What comprised liberal belief?

Privileged individualism and the heroic genius: - hero was up against natural opposition or challenge - showed how people/hero could find freedom despite constraints from government and society Themes: - isolation from others - respect for nature and power of nature - historically minded—either to criticize or evoke the past; often looked to Gothic or Medieval world - emphasis on cult of domesticity Authors: - romantic authors lived out the values of the artistic movement in their everyday lives - they saw themselves as outcasts and loners trying to find meaning in their own lives

What was literature like in the Romantic period? How did the authors during Romanticism relate to the themes of the period?

- music aimed to elicit emotion, particularly in the German States - Ludwig van Beethoven defined the era - made the piano increasingly popular as a solo instrument - opera remained a poplar form of expression - reflected push towards emotion and history

What was music like in the Romantic Period?

• removed the legal restrictions that had kept Catholics from holding office or serving in Parliament • this relates to conservatism/liberalism because it is opening up representation in government, one of the key factors in liberal political ideas. • This legislation was created in hopes of quelling revolt and to appease landowning Catholics.

What was the Catholic Emancipation Act? How does it relate to the liberal/conservative debate? Why was the legislation created?

- it was a philosophical, rather than revolutionary, liberal reform movement in England - pushed for more equitable economic and political system—against monopoly of wealth and political influence in Britain by a small percentage of the population (wealthy landowners and the captains of industry) - attracted female, industrial, Northern England, and Welsh support People's Charter: - universal male suffrage - secret ballot to protect voters - get rid of property requirement to be in Parliament and vote - pay members of Parliament - equal representation in Parliament - annual parliamentary election—to prevent corruption

What was the Charist Movement? What was the People's Charter?

• A large crowd gathered to demonstrate for the right to form political organizations and to assemble freely. Local constables moved in to arrest the main speaker. Then soldiers gunned down protestors many of whom were laboring poor. • This relates to the conservatism/liberalism debate because in Britain there were many demands for political reform that would expand electoral franchise and allow greater involvement for middle-class voters. This liberal desire for greater involvement expanded to the laboring class who demanded universal suffrage • British governments move towards conservatism—dissolving political organizations and suspending habeas corpus the government passed the Six Acts

What was the Peterloo Massacre? How does it relate to the liberal vs. conservative debate? What was the Result?

- to restore traditional dynastic monarchies; overarching goal was to control the reach of France and limit the power of Russia. - creation of Kingdom of Poland—put a check on Russian power - recreation of Swiss Confederation—protect Italy and Eastern Europe from French aggression - Belgium to the Dutch - Creation of the German Confederation—loose alliance of states united by Diet (representative body); was an attempt to reestablish the bond between the German States

What was the goal of the Congress System designed by Metternich? What were the important outcomes?

- romanticism first influenced landscape painting, because of new respect for the power of nature. - many artists abandoned rules and proportions of classical painting—there was an emphasis on emotion and size vs. realism - many artists focused on "history" paintings - new found dedication to nationalism reflected in historical paintings - others focused on mystical, mythical, or occult world.

What was visual art like in the Romantic Period?

- there were widespread economic problems including food shortages and famines, high unemployment, and suffering of the urban poor - there was an agitation among reformers (liberals, nationalists, and radicals) who were inspired by the conditions mentioned above and pushed for change - the revolutionary movements were sparked by the overthrow of the July Monarchy in France

What were conditions like in the late 1840s that sparked revolutionary movements?

- they grew in popularity in Central and Eastern European multinational empires—German states and Poland pushed for unification - closely tied to liberalism and challenged traditional systems - nationalists desired redrawing of national boundaries - nationalist movement increased across the continent, but at a slow pace

What were nationalist revolts like in Europe?

• Rotten borough: sparsely populated rural districts who were able to elect a member to Parliament despite having very few voters. • Pocket borough: electoral districts "in the pocket" of a wealthy landowner routinely returned to Parliament. • Rotten boroughs and pocket boroughs are an example of conservatism. The electoral districts represent an electoral system based on the interests of local elites and particular communities. Many large northern industrial centers did not receive representation in Parliament because of this old system. Political liberalism in Britain, closely linked to the Whig party advocated for electoral reform

What were rotten boroughs and pocket boroughs? How do they relate to the liberal/conservative debate?

- redistribute territory - achieve balance of power - hinder development of future revolutions—most monarchists and conservatives wanted to uphold their own power - Holy Alliance—Russia, Prussia, Austria offer each other assistance if their respective religions are threatened.

What were the 3 goals of the Congress of Vienna (1815). The Congress of Vienna led to the creation of what?

- they imposed high tariffs on wheat imports - the laws protected landowners, but were detrimental to the interests of businessmen who imported or sold imported grain. - they also heavily impacted ordinary people who were forced to pay higher prices for bread - these laws coupled with poor harvests in 1839-1841 created widespread hunger

What were the Corn Laws?

• revised the representative legislation of the era of the French Revolution and included suspending habeas corpus and imposing further restrictions on the press. • this legislation was made in reaction to liberal revolt and was an attempt to suppress future spread of liberal ideas and give Parliament greater control.

What were the Six Acts?