Lifespan Chapter 12

The amygdala of young children (4-7 years) seemed to register differences between viewing same-sex and opposite-sex faces, whereas 10- to 12-year-old children did not show this same reaction Why do researchers think this is shown?

"cootie effect"

What were some of the major trends seen in adolescent values of sexual behavior in the 20th century (especially 60s and 70s)?

(1) 3/4 adolescents have come to believe that sex with affection in the context of a committed relationship is acceptable *most adolescents believe that partners should be in a long-term romantic relationship or feel a close emotional involvement with each other (more so females) *Most adolescents—both male and female—report that their first sexual relationship was with someone with whom they were romantically, not casually, involved *On average, teens wait about 5 months before having sex with a romantic partner (2) double standard has declined but not disappeared over the years (3) adolescents are confused about sexual norms (4) today's adolescents are more tolerant or open-minded of a variety of sexual behaviors and orientations

What is the evidence supporting that 3/4 of adolescents have come to believe that sex with affection in the context of a committed relationship is acceptable?

*most adolescents believe that partners should be in a long-term romantic relationship or feel a close emotional involvement with each other (more so females) *Most adolescents—both male and female—report that their first sexual relationship was with someone with whom they were romantically, not casually, involved *On average, teens wait about 5 months before having sex with a romantic partner

For older adults who experience declines in sexual interest and activity, what might explain this change?

-The older man is likely to be slower—slower to arouse, slower to ejaculate after being aroused, and slower to recover afterward -levels of male sex hormones decline gradually with age in many men -Physiological changes in women are less dramatic -some experience discomfort associated with decreased lubrication that occurs as estrogen levels drop with menopause -diseases and disabilities, as well as the drugs prescribed for them, can limit sexual functioning -Poor health may be especially problematic for men, who may become impotent if they have high blood pressure, coronary disease, diabetes, or other health problems -any cases of impotence among middle-aged and elderly men are attributable to psychological causes such as stress at work and depression rather than to physiological causes -Old people are stereotyped as sexually unappealing and sexless (or as "dirty old men") and are discouraged from expressing sexual interests -Most older women are widowed, divorced, or single and face the reality that there just are not enough older men to go around

How would a child in the preoperational stage explain where babies come from?

-assume the baby was already there all along or it is manufactured like a toy

What are some weaknesses to the biosocial theory of gender development?

-does not account for cases of being born inter-sexed -does not account for people who reject their gender identity -does not account for chromosomal abnormalities

What are some true gender stereotypes?

-females do display greater verbal abilities -males outperform females in spatial ability -perform similar on math tests -girls have better memory/recall -males engage in more physical and verbal aggression -boys are more physically active -boys are more developmentally vulnerable -girls are more agreeable with adults

What is Martin and Halverson's information-processing model of gender identity development?

-overcomes the key weakness of Kohlberg's theory Like Kohlberg, they believe that children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their cognitive judgments about the self. However, Martin and Halverson argue that self-socialization begins as soon as children acquire a basic gender identity, around age 2 or age 3 Said they develop gender schematas

How do the low-risk sexual activity teens compare and vary from the abstainers?

-similar throughout childhood but diverge in adolescence -At age 13, low-risk teens looked more mature than abstainers and were more involved in romantic relationships. -more likely to drink alcohol at age 16 than the abstainers

Why do differences in abilities of men and women exist?

-some of it is rooted in biology (eg: women bear children) -Confirmation bias -Socialization

What are the common long-term effects of being androgenized as a female in utero if their condition was identified and fixed right after birth?

-tomboys -many homosexual or bisexual -dating and marriage later -tend to perform better than most other females on tests of spatial ability, further evidence that early exposure to male hormones has "masculinizing" effects on a female fetus

at 17 months, for every ____ girl who is physically aggressive there are ____ boys who display frequent physical aggression

1 5

What factors contribute to the incidence of sexual assaults on college campuses?

1. Alcohol consumption, especially excessive episodic consumption (binge drinking) 2. A culture of "hooking up" can also contribute to the likelihood of perpetrating a sexual assault or experiencing one 3. Fraternity and athletic subcultures

Kohlberg believes that children everywhere progress through which three steps as they acquire gender constancy?

1. Basic GENDER IDENTITY is established by age 2 or 2½, when children can recognize and label themselves as males or females 2. around age 3—children acquire GENDER STABILITY—that is, they come to understand that gender identity is stable over time. They know that boys invariably become men and girls grow up to be women. 3. GENDER CONCEPT is complete, somewhere between age 5 and age 7, when children achieve gender consistency and realize that their sex is also stable across situations. Now children know that their sex cannot be altered by superficial changes such as dressing up as a member of the other sex or engaging in cross-sex activities.

Kohlberg (1966a) proposed a cognitive theory of gender typing with which two major themes

1. Gender-role development depends on stage-like changes in cognitive development; children must acquire certain understandings about gender before they will be influenced by their social experiences. 2.Children engage in self-socialization; instead of being the passive targets of social influence, they actively socialize themselves.

Many experts have now identified which 5 types of sexual orientation?

1. Heterosexual 2. Mostly heterosexual 3. Mostly homosexual 4. Homosexual 5. Bisexual

Receiving either an XX or XY chromosome pair sets the stage for what in terms of gender development?

1. If certain genes on the Y chromosome are present, a previously undifferentiated tissue develops into testes as the embryo develops; otherwise, it develops into ovaries. 2. The testes of a male embryo normally secrete more of the male hormone testosterone, which stimulates the development of a male internal reproductive system, and another hormone that inhibits the development of female organs. Without these hormones, the internal reproductive system of a female will develop from the same tissues. 4. Three to four months after conception, secretion of additional testosterone by the testes normally leads to the growth of a penis and scrotum. If testosterone is absent (as in typically developing females), or if a male fetus's cells are insensitive to the male sex hormones he produces, female external genitalia (labia and clitoris) will form. The relative amount of testosterone alters the development of the brain and nervous system. For example, it signals the male brain to stop secreting hormones in a cyclical pattern so that males do not experience menstrual cycles at puberty.

List the 5 stages of adopting a transgender identity

1. Pre-coming out 2. Coming out 3. Exploration 4. Intimacy 5. Identity integration

What do studies of individuals with genital abnormalities such as the 18 dominican children who were insensitive to androgen and were raised as girls but later were realized to be boys appear to teach us?

1. We are predisposed by our biology to develop as males or females 2. the first 3 years of life are a sensitive period perhaps, but not a critical period, for gender-role development 3. both biology and social labeling contribute to gender-role development

Social learning theorists argue that children learn masculine or feminine identities, preferences, and behaviors through which two processes

1. differential reinforcement, children are rewarded for sex-appropriate behaviors and are punished for behaviors considered more appropriate for members of the other sex. 2. through observational learning, children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models. In this view, children's gender-role development depends on which of their behaviors people reinforce or punish and on what sorts of social models are available.

What are some non-physiological factors that contribute to decrease in sex for some older people?

1. diseases and disabilities, as well as the drugs prescribed for them, can limit sexual functioning 2. social attitudes that view sexual activity in old age as ridiculous, or at least inappropriate 3. the lack of a partner, or at least of a willing and desirable partner 4. "use it or lose it" (if don't for a long time, may be hard to again)

Which factors help reduce the difficulty in a child recovering from sexual abuse?

1. high-quality relationships with their mother and friends 2. receiving psychotherapy

How does the "use it or lose it" principle apply to sex in old age?

1. individual's level of sexual activity early in adulthood predicts his level of sexual activity in later life 2. Middle-aged and elderly adults who experience a long period of sexual abstinence often have difficulty regaining their sexual capacity

What are some Within-person factors associated with more risky sexual behaviors in teens?

1. low levels of impulse control and communality 2. high levels of being adventurous 3. tendency towards negative emotionality (a tendency to feel anxious and depressed and react poorly to stressful situations)

Jessica Siebenbruner and her colleagues (2007) found which three groups on the basis of self-reported sexual behaviors at age 16

1. sexual abstainers who had not yet had sexual intercourse 2. low risk-takers who reported having five or fewer sexual partners and always using contraception 3. high risk-takers who reported having six or more sexual partners and inconsistently using contraception

Studies of teen sexual behavior have found which encouraging findings?

1. teens who feel close to their parents, especially their mothers, and who report having closer parental supervision are more likely to delay initiating sexual activity 2. educational programs that emphasize abstinence can be effective

Teens rated in the high risk-taking sexual activity group who report having had sex with 6 or more partners by 16 are more likely to have experienced which factors?

1. unwed mothers 2. grew up in homes that were characterized as less emotionally responsive 3. rated by teachers as engaging in more externalizing behaviors at ages 9 and 12

Which factors in sexual abuse are associated with increased difficulty later on?

1. when the abuse involved penetration and force and occurred frequently over a long period, 2. when the perpetrator was a close relative such as the father, 3. when the child's mother did not serve as a reliable source of emotional support

What are some hormonal theories of homosexual development?

1. women who are over androgenized in the womb are more likely to lesbian 2. later born males with older brothers are more likely to be gay

Which two problems seem to be especially linked to being sexually abused?

1.) about a third of survivors engage in sexualized behavior, acting out sexually by putting objects in their vaginas, masturbating in public, behaving seductively, or if they are older, behaving promiscuously 2.) about a third of survivors display the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder

Gilbert Herdt and Martha McClintock (2000) have gathered evidence that age ___ is an important point in sexual development, a time when many boys and girls experience their first sexual attraction

10

By ___ months, most toddlers seem to have an emerging understanding that they are either like other males or like other females, even if they cannot verbalize it

18

Those who choose to tell their parents that they are homosexual usually do so around which age?

19

Kohlberg believes basic GENDER IDENTITY is established by age ____ or ____, when children can recognize and label themselves as males or females

2 or 2.5

Among the top scorers on the SAT-Math test, males outnumber females by a ratio of __ to ___

2 to 1

As early as ___-___ years of age, children seem to understand society's gender stereotypes and act in gendered ways.

2-3

Almost all children give verbal proof that they have acquired a basic sense of gender identity, or an awareness that they are either a boy or a girl, by age ____ to age ____

2.5 to age 3

What proportion of transgender youth report bullying, harassment, and verbal abuse by not only their peers, but in some cases by their own parents?

2/3

By __ months, they look longer at males and females performing gender-inconsistent activities (such as a man putting on makeup) than those performing activities consistent with gender stereotypes

24

Girls as young as ___ months understand which activities are associated with males and which ones are more typical of females

24

By the end of childhood, ___% of females and ____% of males have experienced sexual assault or sexual abuse

27% 5%

When does Kohlberg think children acquire gender stability?

3

gender-typed behavior in childhood—as early as age ____—is consistent with later gender-typed behavior

3

At age 4½, children in the United States spend _____ times more time with same-sex peers than with peers of the other sex; by age 6½, they spend _____ times more time

3 11

____ to ____ months after conception, secretion of additional testosterone by the testes normally leads to the growth of a penis and scrotum

3 to 4

At around ___-____ months of age, infants can distinguish between male and female faces

3-4

According to a 2013 Gallup poll, _____% of the U.S. population self-identifies as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender

3.5%

A notable exception to the disappearing gender differences in this area is the College Board SAT Mathematics test, on which males continue to score approximately ____ points higher than females

30

Children begin to favor same-sex playmates as early as ___-___ months of age

30-36

At age ____, children in the United States spend three times more time with same-sex peers than with peers of the other sex; by age ______, they spend 11 times more time

4.5 6.5

if we ordered people based on degree of aggressiveness from most aggressive to the least aggressive person in a group, only ____% of the observed differences could be attributed to whether a person is male or female

5

Hanns Trautner found peak levels of gender stereotype rigidity occurred between ages ___ and ___, followed by significant relaxation of beliefs from age ___ to ____

5 and 7 7 to 10

When does Kohlberg think children establish a gender consistency?

5 to 7

Are 5 year olds or 9 year olds more concerned by gender type violations?

5 year olds

By age ___-____, girls show a preference for feminine toys and boys show a preference for masculine toys

5-6

Around age ___ or ___, children begin to pay much closer attention to same-sex models than to other-sex models

6 or 7

Once gender identities are clearly established, usually by age ___, children become much more open about gender behaviors, as illustrated by the sharp increase in number of flexible responses to questions about what is "acceptable" behavior for boys and girls.

7

Which age men were twice as likely to be sexually active and four times as likely to express interest in sex as women the same age?

75-85 year olds

What is androgyny?

A gender-role orientation in which the person blends both positive masculine-stereotyped and positive feminine-stereotyped personality traits

What are androgenized females?

A genetic female who was exposed to male sex hormones during the prenatal period and therefore developed malelike external genitals and some masculine behaviors

What is gender intensification?

A magnification of differences between males and females during adolescence associated with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles boys begin to see themselves as more masculine and girls emphasize their feminine side

Define gender roles

A pattern of behaviors and traits that defines how to act the part of a female or a male in a particular society

What is gender constancy?

A solid understanding of oneself as male-female, man-woman, over time and across situations

How do women change after their children leave the house?

After being relatively passive and nurturing in their younger years, they become more active, domineering, and assertive in later life

Define communality

An orientation that emphasizes the well-being of others and includes traits of emotionality and sensitivity to others; considered feminine

_________ is a balancing of both agentic and communal traits in a person

Androgyny

What did each age group answer when asked questions about boys who wear a barrette in their hair or put on nail polish and about girls who sport a crew haircut or wear a boy's suit?

Both the kindergartners and the adolescents judged these behaviors to be wrong, whereas third-graders and fifth-graders viewed them far more tolerantly.

By what time do babies look longer at a male (or female) face when they hear a male (or female) voice than when they hear a voice that does not match the gender of the face, demonstrating cross-modal association of gender-related information

By the end of the first year

Which theory would agree with this: Children engage in self-socialization; instead of being the passive targets of social influence, they actively socialize themselves

Cognitive (specifically Kohlberg)

A notable exception to the disappearing gender differences in this area is the ______ ______ _____ ____ test, on which males continue to score approximately 30 points higher than females

College Board SAT Mathematics

What is social-role theory?

Eagly's view that gender-role stereotypes are created and maintained by differences in the roles that men and women play in society rather than being inherent in males and females

What parts of Freud's psychosexual theory were wrong?

Elementary school age children in Freud's latency period may be more discreet about their sexual experimentation than preschoolers, but they have by no means lost their sexual curiosity

T or F: Gender identity is determined by parenting styles

False

T or F: There are fairly minor differences in how most men and most women perceive themselves in terms of gender identity

False

T or F: girls develop stronger gender-typed preferences at earlier ages

False

For the most part, sexual orientation varies significantly across the life span

False - stable (especially for those who identify as being 100% heterosexual or 100% homosexual) For individuals who identify as bisexual, there is less stability over time, with only one in four remaining in this category over time

T or F: Kohlberg suggests that children first understand that they are girls or boys and then passively become influenced by same-sex models and a range of information about how to act like a girl or a boy

False -- actively seek models and info

According to Martin and Halverson, how does the gender schemata develop?

First, children acquire a simple in-group-out-group schema that allows them to classify some objects, behaviors, and roles as appropriate for males and others as appropriate for females Then they seek more elaborate information about the role of their own sex, constructing an own-sex schema

Kohlberg believes basic ______ _____ is established by age 2 or 2½

GENDER IDENTITY

Under which circumstances will female genetalia form in utero around 3-4 months?

If testosterone is absent (as in typically developing females), or if a male fetus's cells are insensitive to the male sex hormones he produces,

What is the effect of sexual abuse on the survivor?

Kathleen Kendall-Tackett, Linda Williams, and David Finkelhor (1993) analyzed 45 studies and found: No single distinctive "syndrome" of psychological problems characterizes abuse survivors. may experience any number of problems commonly seen in emotionally disturbed individuals, including anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, aggression, acting out, withdrawal, and school learning problems. Roughly 20%-30% experience each of these problems, and boys seem to experience the same types and degrees of disturbance as girls do. Two problems seem to be especially linked to being sexually abused: 1.) about a third of survivors engage in sexualized behavior, acting out sexually by putting objects in their vaginas, masturbating in public, behaving seductively, or if they are older, behaving promiscuously 2.) about a third of survivors display the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder

What is childhood gender nonconformity?

Lack of adherence as a child to the typical gender-role norms for members of one's assigned gender group

What is biosocial theory?

Money and Ehrhardt's theory of gender-role development that focuses on how biological events influence the development of boys and girls and how early biological developments influence how society reacts to children.

What is gender schemata?

Organized sets of beliefs and expectations about males and females that guide information processing

How does the "gender curriculum" in the home influence children?

Parents who show the clearest patterns of differential reinforcement based on gender have children who are relatively quick to label themselves as girls or boys and to develop strongly sex-typed toy and activity preferences

What have been the historical trends in level of adolescent sexual activity?

Rates of sexual activity climbed in the 1960s and continued to climb through the 1980s before leveling off and then declining somewhat from the mid-1990s on

What were the consequences to offspring of mothers who, in past decades, were given drugs containing progestins to help prevent miscarriages?

The drugs were converted by the mother's body into the male hormone testosterone and, depending on the dose and timing, ended up masculinizing female fetuses so that, despite their XX genetic endowment and female internal organs, they were born with external organs that resembled those of a boy Called androgenized females

Define gender segregation

The formation of separate boys' and girls' peer groups during childhood

Define gender typing

The process by which children become aware of their gender and acquire the motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for members of their biological sex

Define the double standard

The view that sexual behavior appropriate for members of one gender is inappropriate for members of the other

Design the project by Rebecca Bigler and Lynn Liben (1990) to decrease gender stereotyping

They exposed 6- to 11-year-olds to a series of problem-solving discussions emphasizing that: 1. the most important considerations in deciding who could perform well in such traditionally masculine or feminine occupations as construction worker and beautician are the person's interests and willingness to learn and 2. the person's gender is irrelevant. Compared with children who received no such training, program participants showed a clear decline in occupational stereotyping brought about a decrease in biased information processing

T or F: Men typically score higher than women on standardized tests of mathematical ability

True

T or F: a toddler may say that a boy could become a mommy if he really wanted to

True

T or F: most men hold a masculine gender identity, whereas most women have a feminine gender identity

True

T or F: the social pressure to conform to gender stereotypes does not need to be real—adolescents' perceptions of their peers' thoughts and expectations can affect their behaviors and lead to gender intensification

True

How do men and women compare in math skills?

Women have higher grades but men have higher math SAT skills

What is the developmental path like in terms of level of rigidity in thinking about gender roles?

Young children are inflexible in their thinking of gender roles Older children think more flexibly, recognizing that gender norms are not absolute, inviolable laws adolescents again seem to become highly intolerant of certain role violations and stereotyped in their thinking about the proper roles of males and females in adolescence. They are more likely than somewhat younger children to make negative judgments about peers who violate expectations by engaging in cross-sex behavior or expressing cross-sex interests

Define a hookup

a casual, often brief, sexual encounter between two people who have often just met at a party and have little expectation of forming a romantic relationship women express a wider range of mostly negative emotional reactions to hooking up

Explain the last stage-identity integration-of becoming transgender

a union of one's public and private selves. This integration promotes living comfortably as one's true self, whatever that means to the individual

an orientation toward individual action and achievement that emphasizes traits of dominance, independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness is called...

agency

the central aspect of the masculine gender role is ________, an orientation toward individual action and achievement that emphasizes traits of dominance, independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness

agency

The ____________ (brain region) of young children (4-7 years) seemed to register differences between viewing same-sex and opposite-sex faces, whereas 10- to 12-year-old children did not show this same reaction

amygdala

What does systemize mean?

analyze and explore how things work

A genetic female who was exposed to male sex hormones during the prenatal period and therefore developed malelike external genitals and some masculine behaviors is called....

androgenized female

A gender-role orientation in which the person blends both positive masculine-stereotyped and positive feminine-stereotyped personality traits is called...

androgyny

males are more likely to display which disorders?

antisocial behaviors and drug and alcohol abuse and are more frequently diagnosed with autism

Females are more prone to develop which psychological disorders

anxiety disorders, depression, and eating disorders

In a playroom filled with toys, which of the following will be the youngest child to show a distinct preference for a toy that matches traditional gender expectations? a. Amy, who is 4 years old b. Rashid, who is 5 years old c. Wally, who is 6 years old d. Beatriz, who is 7 years old

b. Rashid, who is 5 years old

Between age 19 and 24, the percentage of males who have had sex ________. a. stays roughly the same b. doubles c. triples d. increases four-fold

b. doubles

Why are males more vulnerable to diseases and disorders?

b/ of sex-linked disorders

The physical characteristics that define male and female are called...

biological sex

Money and Ehrhardt's theory of gender-role development that focuses on how biological events influence the development of boys and girls and how early biological developments influence how society reacts to children is called...

biosocial theory

In her freshman year at college, Miranda came out to friends and family as bisexual. What is the likelihood that Miranda will continue to identify as bisexual at her 65th birthday? a. 5 percent b. 15 percent c. 25 percent d. 35 percent

c. 25 percent

Akbar's parents are celebrating his birth and are ready to bring him home to his nursery painted blue. How old will Akbar be when he knows that boys are expected to play with trucks but not with dolls? a. 20 months b. 24 months c. 30 months d. 36 months

c. 30 months

When does the realization of being transgender typically occur?

can occur at any time across the life span, although most transgender adults acknowledge feeling different from others from a young age

Lack of adherence as a child to the typical gender-role norms for members of one's assigned gender group is called...

childhood gender nonconformity

In their information-processing model, Martin and Halverson argue that self-socialization begins as soon as ....

children acquire a basic gender identity, around age 2 or age 3

Explain the pre-coming out stage in transgender development

children begin to feel confused as they realize they do not fit nicely into the two big gender categories that everyone else seems to embrace and expect of them

Cognitive theorists place greater emphasis on what in children's gender role development compared to social learning theorists?

children's active involvement

Experimentation with homosexual activity is fairly _________ during adolescence, but ________ adolescents become part of the estimated 5-6% of adults who establish an enduring homosexual or bisexual sexual orientation

common few

An orientation that emphasizes the well-being of others and includes traits of emotionality and sensitivity to others; considered feminine is called...

communality

Males use ________ more than females do and express greater confidence in their _______ abilities

computer computer

As children enter Piaget's __________ __________ stage of cognitive development and come to grasp concepts such as conservation of liquids, they also realize that gender is conserved—remains constant—despite changes in appearance

concrete-operational

As children enter Piaget's concrete-operational stage of cognitive development and come to grasp concepts such as ___________ ____ __________, they also realize that gender is conserved—remains constant—despite changes in appearance

conservation of liquids

Robin Banerjee and Vicki Lintern (2000) tested the rigidity of 4- to 9-year-olds' gender-stereotypic beliefs with four brief stories in which characters had either gender-stereotypic interests (for example, a boy named Tom who was best friends with another boy and liked playing with airplanes) or gender-counterstereotypic interests (for example, a boy named John who was best friends with a girl and liked playing with doll carriages). Children were then asked whether the target child would like to play with dolls, play football, skip, or play with toy guns. How did 4-6 year olds respond?

considerably more rigid in their beliefs than older children; they did not believe boys would want to play with dolls or skip (stereotypic girl activities) or girls would want to play with footballs or toy guns

Which of the following would be presented as an example in support of the gender similarities hypothesis in males and females? a. physical activity b. self-perceptions c. spatial ability d. verbal tasks

d. verbal tasks

Women with higher rates of casual sex—hookups—are more likely to experience ___________ relative to those having no or little casual sex

depression

According to the gender schema theory, how may individuals distort their memories to fit their gender schemas?

did research showing children videos of people doing gender inconsistent activities (like a woman sawing wood), and then later the kid remembered it as being gender consistent (like it was a man who was sawing the wood) child who believes that women cannot be doctors may be introduced to a female doctor but may remember meeting a nurse instead and continue to state that women cannot be doctors. Even adults have trouble suppressing gender stereotypes and are influenced by their gender stereotypes when reading and interpreting text

Parents who show the clearest patterns of _______ _________ have children who are relatively quick to label themselves as girls or boys and to develop strongly sex-typed toy and activity preferences

differential reinforcement

T or F: older adults tend to stop having sex

false people continue to be sexual beings throughout the life span

T or F: Teens who engage only in oral sex (without intercourse) report MORE positive feelings about themselves and their relationship than other sexually active teens

false -- LESS

T or F: Only members of female sex have just one sexual partner at a time

false -- both genders report this

T or F: androgenized females are less likely than other women to adopt a lesbian or bisexual orientation

false -- they are MORE likely

T or F: Girls whose parents are nontraditional in their gender-role attitudes and behaviors still show the declines in math and science achievement in early adolescence that girls from more traditional families display

false!

_________s are more likely than __________s to reward children's gender-appropriate behavior and to discourage behavior considered more appropriate for the other sex

fathers mothers

A combination of all those features that a society associates with or considers appropriate for being a man and woman is called...

gender

Carol Martin and her colleagues (2013) found that the ________ of potential playmates, and not the activity of the playmates, is the primary criterion for selecting playmates.

gender

A solid understanding of oneself as male-female, man-woman, over time and across situations is called...

gender constancy

Increased intolerance of deviance from gender-role expectations is tied to a larger process of ______________ ____________, in which gender differences may be magnified by hormonal changes associated with puberty and increased pressure to conform to gender roles

gender intensification

Which theory of gender development does this example illustrate: a young girl who knows her basic gender identity might first learn that sewing is for girls and building model airplanes is for boys. Then, because she is a girl and wants to act consistently with her own self-concept, she gathers a great deal of information about sewing to add to her own-sex schema, largely ignoring any information that comes her way about how to build model airplanes

gender schema theory

Organized sets of beliefs and expectations about males and females that guide information processing are called...

gender schemata

The formation of separate boys' and girls' peer groups during childhood is called...

gender segregation

_______ ______ ______states that "males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. That is, men and women, as well as boys and girls, are more alike than they are different"

gender similarities hypothesis

Is the following considered a gender stereotype or a gender-role norm? women are more nurturing

gender stereotype

overgeneralized and largely inaccurate beliefs about the characteristics of all males and all females are called

gender stereotypes

The process by which children become aware of their gender and acquire the motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for members of their biological sex is called...

gender typing

Is the following considered a gender stereotype or a gender-role norm? women take care of the children

gender-role norm

Through the ______-______ process, Susie may learn a gender-role norm stating that women should strive to be good mothers and gender-role stereotypes indicating that women are more skilled at nurturing children than men are. As an adult, Susan may then adopt the traditional communal role by switching from full-time to part-time work when her first child is born and devoting herself to the task of mothering

gender-typing

Girls display (greater/lesser) memory ability than boys

greater

According to the biosocial theory, if a biological male were consistently labeled and treated as a girl what would happen?

he would, by about age 3, acquire the gender identity of a girl

the biosocial theory predicts that if a biological male were consistently labeled and treated as a girl, what would happen?

he would, by about age 3, acquire the gender identity of a girl

in India, the term ______ is used to describe third-sex individuals, often individuals with biologically male or ambiguous genitalia who dress in ways that appear feminine but do not view themselves as either male or female

hijras

differences in play activities seem to arise from a combination of ... and a society that promotes the "..." of children throughout their development

hormone-driven preferences genderization

With longer and healthier life spans and greater recognition and acceptance of middle and older adults' sexual activity, what was an unexpected consequence?

increased STIs among older adults

Explain the 2nd stage of transgender development, coming out

individuals begin to acknowledge to selves and others that they do not fit the standard gender identities and are, instead, transgender. This realization can occur at any time across the life span, although most transgender adults acknowledge feeling different from others from a young age

Define transgender

individuals who identify with a gender other than their biological one

The milestone around age 10 of experiencing their first sexual attraction seems to be due to what?

influenced by the maturation of the adrenal glands (which produce male androgens)

Martin and Halverson (1981, 1987) have proposed a somewhat different cognitive theory, an ________-_________ one that overcomes the key weakness of Kohlberg's theory

information-processing

What is the cognitive theory about gender development that Martin and Halverson (1981, 1987) proposed?

information-processing one that overcomes the key weakness of Kohlberg's theory Like Kohlberg, they believe that children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their cognitive judgments about the self. However, Martin and Halverson argue that self-socialization begins as soon as children acquire a basic gender identity, around age 2 or age 3 According to their schematic-processing model, children acquire gender schemata (plural of schema)—organized sets of beliefs and expectations about males and females that influence the kinds of information they will attend to and remember First, children acquire a simple in-group-out-group schema that allows them to classify some objects, behaviors, and roles as appropriate for males and others as appropriate for females Then they seek more elaborate information about the role of their own sex, constructing an own-sex schema

Male newborns tend to be somewhat more _________ than females, and female newborns are more _________ than males

irritable alert

Why has it been difficult to establish unambiguously that high concentrations of male hormones cause aggressive behavior in humans?

it is a bidirectional relationship not sure if testosterone causes aggression or aggressive environments cause increase in testosterone

The relative amount of testosterone alters the development of the brain and nervous system, what is one example of how this effects the brain?

it signals the male brain to stop secreting hormones in a cyclical pattern so that males do not experience menstrual cycles at puberty

Why do girls commonly succumb to pink frilly dress syndrome?

may help these young 'gender detectives' solidify their new understanding of themselves as girls

How do men change after their children leave the house?

men become less active and more passive, take less interest in community affairs, and focus more on religious contemplation and family relationships also become more sensitive and emotionally expressive

Across 21 diverse countries, teachers in nearly all the countries report that boys are (more/less) aggressive than girls

more

the roles of men and women become (MORE/LESS) distinct when they marry or settle into a stable romantic relationship and especially when (and if) they become parents

more

On the nature side, how might genetic and hormonal factors influence one's gender-role development?

most of us receive either the standard male pattern of sex chromosomes (XY) or the female pattern of sex chromosomes (XX). These set the stage for various other events to unfold: 1. If certain genes on the Y chromosome are present, a previously undifferentiated tissue develops into testes as the embryo develops; otherwise, it develops into ovaries. 2. The testes of a male embryo normally secrete more of the male hormone testosterone, which stimulates the development of a male internal reproductive system, and another hormone that inhibits the development of female organs. Without these hormones, the internal reproductive system of a female will develop from the same tissues. 3. Three to four months after conception, secretion of additional testosterone by the testes normally leads to the growth of a penis and scrotum. If testosterone is absent (as in typically developing females), or if a male fetus's cells are insensitive to the male sex hormones he produces, female external genitalia (labia and clitoris) will form. 4. The relative amount of testosterone alters the development of the brain and nervous system. For example, it signals the male brain to stop secreting hormones in a cyclical pattern so that males do not experience menstrual cycles at puberty.

Ritch Savin-Williams and colleagues (2012) report that females who initially identified as bisexual are most likely to later identify as ".....," whereas males who initially identify as bisexual are much more .... in their identity at later points in time

mostly heterosexual variable

Has casual sex become the norm among young teenagers?

no Most adolescents—both male and female—report that their first sexual relationship was with someone with whom they were romantically, not casually, involved

Does identifying as bisexual remain stable over time?

no there is less stability over time, with only one in four remaining in this category over time

Why do Jacquelynne Eccles and her colleagues (1990) think girls tend to shy away from math and science courses and are underrepresented in occupations that involve math and science?

parental expectations about gender differences in mathematical ability become self-fulfilling prophecies -expect sons to outperform daughters in math and science -expect daughters to be less interested -credit sons success to ability and daughter's to hard work -use more scientific explanations with sons -girls internalize that they are not good at math -girls become less interested in math, are less likely to take math courses, and are less likely to pursue career possibilities that involve math after high school

the requirement that mothers and fathers adopt different roles to raise children successfully is called...

parental imperative

What is gender intensification largely due to?

peer influence and the growing importance of dating and hormones

Define sexual orientation

preference for sexual partners of the same or other sex, or both exists on a continuum

Rigidity about gender stereotypes is especially high during the _________ years, but then decreases over the ________ school years

preschool elementary

What parts of Freud's psychosexual theory have turned out to be right?

preschoolers are highly curious about their bodies, masturbate, and engage in both same-sex and cross-sex sexual play (see Kellogg, 2009). Between ages 2 and 5, interest increases and at least half of all children engage in sexual play (playing doctor or house), and sexual exploration such as looking at and touching genitals—their own, a peer's, or a younger sibling's

One verbal task where females consistently outperform males is __________

reading

How much does shared environment seem to impact sexual orientation development?

researchers concluded that the shared environment contributed next to nothing to the concordance of twins' sexual orientation (Långström et al., 2010). Instead, genetics played a role and was stronger for males than females

How do the sex lives of couples change with age?

small decline in the quality of sex over the course of marriage, as well as a drop in the quantity of sex

Eagly's view that gender-role stereotypes are created and maintained by differences in the roles that men and women play in society rather than being inherent in males and females is called...

social-role theory

What are gender-role norms?

society's expectations or standards concerning what males and females should be like

Males outperform females on many tests of ______ _______, especially three-dimensional mental rotations, starting in childhood and persisting across the life span

spatial ability

What is the gender similarities hypothesis?

states that "males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. That is, men and women, as well as boys and girls, are more alike than they are different"

Is the following considered a gender stereotype or a gender-role norm? men are better at math

stereotype

Is the following considered a gender stereotype or a gender-role norm? women are emotional

stereotype

Baron-Cohen (2003) claims that men's focus on work, achievement, and independence stems from the male brain's tendency to __________, or analyze and explore how things work

systemize

How does the birth of a child effect the couples' gender identities?

tends to make even egalitarian couples divide their labors in more traditional ways than they did before the birth and migrate toward more traditional gender-role attitudes

male exposure to what may be part of the reason males are more likely than females to commit violent acts?

testosterone and other male hormones

Which part of Kohlberg's claim has been the most controversial?

that only when children fully grasp that their biological sex is unchangeable, around age 5 to age 7, do they actively seek same-sex models and attempt to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their cognitive judgments about themselves

The view that sexual behavior appropriate for members of one gender is inappropriate for members of the other is known as...

the double standard

The testes of a male embryo normally secrete more of the male hormone testosterone, which stimulates the development of a male internal reproductive system, and another hormone that inhibits the development of female organs. Without these hormones what happens?

the internal reproductive system of a female will develop from the same tissues

The testes of a male embryo normally secrete more of the male hormone testosterone. Without these hormones, what will happen?

the internal reproductive system of a female will develop from the same tissues.

What is the parental imperative?

the requirement that mothers and fathers adopt different roles to raise children successfully young and middle-aged men must emphasize their "masculine" qualities to feed and protect their families, whereas young and middle-aged women must express their "feminine" qualities to nurture the young and meet the emotional needs of their families

babies establish preferences for "boys' _____" or "girls' ______" even before they have established clear _________ as males or females or can correctly label toys as "boy things" or "girl things"

toys toys identities

T or F: Adults are happier when they are having more frequent sex

true

T or F: Children who watch a large amount of television are more likely to choose gender-appropriate toys and to hold stereotyped views of males and females than their classmates who watch little television

true

T or F: Girls performing better in reading is observed in many different countries, and the size of the difference is often quite large.

true

T or F: Knowing that someone prefers same-sex romantic partners reveals no more about his or her personality than knowing that someone is heterosexual

true

T or F: Males outperform females on many tests of spatial ability, especially three-dimensional mental rotations, starting in childhood and persisting across the life span

true

T or F: Men have more sexual partners and report more sexual activity than women during their adult lives

true

T or F: Training in the form of playing action video games can reduce or eliminate the gender difference on most spatial tasks

true

T or F: adolescents are confused about sexual norms

true

T or F: boys and girls who display feminine or masculine behaviors at age 3 continue to have feminine or masculine preferences in adolescence

true

T or F: boys are more physically active than girls

true

T or F: boys seem to hold more gender-stereotypical toy preferences than girls

true

T or F: boys with sisters and girls with brothers have less gender-typed activity preferences than children who grow up with same-sex siblings

true

T or F: gender-typed behavior in childhood—as early as age 3—is consistent with later gender-typed behavior

true

T or F: girls feel less competent than do boys about math and science even when they outperform the boys

true

T or F: men who are in the role of homemaker are perceived as being just as caring and affectionate as women in this role

true

T or F: throughout much of infancy, males spend more time looking at a truck whereas females spend more time looking at a doll

true

T or F: Females and males perform similarly on most but not all standardized math tests, and females obtain slightly higher math grades in the classroom than males

true but males perform better on some standardized math tests

T or F: Twin studies have established that identical twins are more alike in sexual orientation than fraternal twins

true but there is still a large part due to the environment

T or F: Children even learn gender roles from their picture books and elementary school texts

true sexism in these has decreased but is still prevalent

How does sexual behavior vary from sexual orientation?

usually higher homosexual activity in adolescence than adulthood

Other research shows that females excel at recalling _______ information, as well as _______

verbal faces

Perhaps the strongest traditional gender stereotypes are found in ______ ________ (type of media)

video games

If, as we have just seen, females and males are more psychologically similar than different, then why do unfounded stereotypes persist?

we, as the holders of male—female stereotypes, are biased in our perceptions

The amygdala of ______ children (__-___ years) seemed to register differences between viewing same-sex and opposite-sex faces, whereas ___- to ___-year-old children did not show this same reaction

young 4-7 10-12