lifespan exam 2 chapters 6-9

Initiative vs. Guilt

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in age 3-6 years -Ability to carry out a plan. in Erikson's lifespan theory, the early childhood stage in which the alternatives are learning to plan activities in a purposeful way, or being afflicted with excess guilt that undermines initiative.

the average 3 year old has a vocabulary of about ___________ words and by age 6 it has increased to about _____________

1,000; 2,500

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor- first 2 years of life; thinking with sensorimotor activities 2. preoperational- early childhood; representational thinkers. 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

by what age do most children have a full set of 20 teeth?

3; they are the primary teeth that will get replaced with 32 permanent teeth in the course of childhood, beginning at about 6.

the typical 6 year old weight and height is what? typical 3 year is what weight and height?

45 inches tall and 45 lbs 35 inches tall and 30 lbs

what ages do child start to get responsibilities?

5-6; the time when children are first given important responsibilities in the family for food preparation, child care, and animal care.

the brain size is about ___% by age 6.

90

Asthma

A chronic allergic disorder characterized by episodes of severe breathing difficulty, coughing, and wheezing.

time out

A disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people for a specified time.

Kwashiorkor

A disease of chronic malnutrition during childhood, in which a protein deficiency makes the child more vulnerable to other diseases, such as measles, diarrhea, and influenza.

Marasmus

A disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition during early infancy, in which growth stops, body tissues waste away, and the infant eventually dies.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

A measure of body fat that is the ratio of the weight of the body in kilograms to the square of its height in meters.

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. They believe that children need love that is truly "unconditional." They may see discipline and control as having the potential to damage their children's healthy tendencies for developing creativity and expressing themselves however they wish.

authoritive parenting

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior. high in demandingness and high in responsiveness

consequences of media use in early childhood

Abundant evidence shows that violent television promotes aggressive behavior in young children. Boys most often play electronic games involving fighting and sports, whereas girls prefer adventure and learning games.

industry-versus-inferiority stage

According to Erikson, the last stage of childhood, during which children age 6 to 12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable.

Familismo

Among Latinos, a strong cultural valuing of one's nuclear and extended family. emphasizes the love, closeness, and mutual obligations of the family life

how quality of friendships changes from toddlerhood to early childhood

Children engage in cooperative pretend play more in early childhood than in toddlerhood.

theory of multiple intelligences

Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence

Motor Development in Middle Childhood

Gross-motor skill gains: -flexibility -balance -agility -force Fine-motor skill gains: -writing & drawing

western cultures vs non in discipline

In Western cultures the approach to discipline in early childhood tends to emphasize the authoritative approach of explaining the consequences of misbehavior and the reasons for discipline, whereas outside of the West, the parental role has more authority and children are expected to obey. Physical punishment and "psychological control" have quite different effects on children depending on the cultural context.

Type of Intelligence Description: Linguistic, musical, logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist

Linguistic- Ability to use language Musical- Ability to compose and/or perform music Logical/mathematical- Ability to think logically and to solve mathematical problems Spatial- Ability to understand how objects are oriented in space Bodily-kinesthetic- Speed, agility, and gross motor control. Interpersonal- Sensitivity to others and understanding motivation of others lntrapersonal- Understanding of one's emotions and how they guide actions Naturalist- Ability to recognize the patterns found in nature

Causes of Obesity in Middle Childhood

Overweight parents Low SES Parental feeding practices: overfeeding overly controlling Insufficient sleep Low physical activity Television Eating out

how does physical aggression change in early childhood from toddlerhood

Physical aggression peaks in toddlerhood and the first year of early childhood, then declines as verbal aggression rises.

triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

Classification

The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.

vocab, grammar, and pragmatics during middle childhood

There is a fourfold increase in children's vocabularies between the ages of 6 and 10 or 11, and the grammar of children's language use becomes more complex. Their understanding of pragmatics also grows substantially during middle childhood, which can be seen vividly in children's use and appreciation of humor.

early intervention programs

These are programs directed at young children who are at risk for later school problems because they come from low-income families. The goal of early intervention programs is to give these children extra cognitive stimulation in early childhood so that they will have a better opportunity to succeed once they enter school.

Accidental injury among young children ______________. a. is less of a danger than disease in developing countries b. happens at a greater rate in developed countries than developing c. is equally common among boys and girls d. is extremely rare in the US because of increased awareness and better technology; rates under 5%

a

According to your text, what is one of the factors that make cultural learning in developed countries different from cultural learning in traditional cultures? a. Children in developed countries are often apart from their families for a substantial part of the day, so they don't have as much guided participation in daily activities within the family as children in traditional cultures do. b. Parents in developed countries have assimilated into the culture and are not as interested in teaching their children skills or traditions as parents in traditional cultures are. c. Children in developed countries aren't interested in guided participation in daily activities the way children in traditional cultures are. d. Parents in developed countries believe that their children should learn independently.

a

Five-year-old Marco draws a picture of a train with a smiley a. animism b. centration c. sensorimotor thought d. reversibility

a

If parents listen receptively to opinions from their children, their parenting style is considered to be _____ _ a. authoritative b. authoritarian c. child-centered d. autocratic

a

Imagine that you have just walked into a kindergarten classroom during art time and all the children in this particular class are 5 years old. What would you most likely see? a. Most of the children drawing something that is recognizable, such as a person or animal b. Most of the children scribbling on a piece of paper c. Most of the children showing depth and realistic detail in their artwork d. Most of the girls getting frustrated because they can't hold a crayon or paintbrush

a

Learning to be able to set the table in a developed country, such as the United States, or to help prepare food in a nontraditional culture, such as Botswana, are examples of cultural learning. According to Vygotsky, these skills _____ _ a. develop as part of a social process b. must be learned in the sensorimotor stage first or they never fully develop c. develop best if they take place in a formal setting d. are usually first taught in toddlerhood

a

One can see a preference for the use of a particular hand, handedness, over another as early as _____ _ a. the prenatal period c. toddlerhood b. infancy d. age 5

a

The use of shame as a punishment ________ a. is referred to as psychological control among American researchers b. has been related to positive outcomes in both Western and traditional cultures c. is associated with high rates of behavior problems in Japanese children d. is universally accepted as the best method of discipline because it does not include physical punishment

a

Which of the following is TRUE regarding handedness? a- A premature birth is more common among left-handed infants. b. Left-handed people are less likely to have problems learning to read than right- handed people. c. Children do not show hand preference until the middle of kindergarten when they are learning to write. d. Left-handed people tend to have poorer verbal and math ability than right-handed people.

a

Which of the following is TRUE regarding media use in early childhood? a. Children are able to connect musical sounds with specific emotions. b. Most of the research on the effects of music has focused on very young children. c. Girls are more likely than boys to prefer violent video games because they are striving to achieve an independent and assertive identity. d. Boys and girls spend equal amounts of time playing electronic games.

a

Which of the following is TRUE? a. Children learning English fast-map nouns earlier than verbs. b. Japanese and Korean children tend to learn nouns before verbs. c. In both Eastern and Western languages, modifiers are added before nouns and verbs. d. Vocabulary growth slows down in toddlerhood and then speeds up again by around age 5.

a

Which of the following is the most accurate statement based on existing research? a. Western parents tend to use a lot of praise for compliant behavior. b. Not all cultures have some system of discipline for misbehavior; some feel that children are inherently good and do not need discipline. c. Permissive parenting would be most likely in cultures that have a tradition of filial piety. d. Japanese mothers usually respond to their children's misbehavior with loud reprimands and physical punishment.

a

Your cousin has a five-year-old son and a three-year-old daughter. He has been taking them to story lime at the library, but his daughter is having a very difficult time sitting still, even for 1 O minutes. His son is able to sit through the entire story time because his ______________ is more fully developed than his sister's. a. reticular formation b. corpus callosum c. hippocampus d. cerebellum

a

Montessori approach

a philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities.

Morality

a set of cultural beliefs that explain what it means to be human, how to be human and interact with other humans, and to address human problems

During middle childhood, there is an increase in myelination of the ______________ boys and girls.

a. Broca's area c. corpus callosum b. Wernicke's area d. pituitary gland

Chris realized that even though the teacher dressed up like Michael Jackson for Halloween, she is still a female. Based on this information. one would expect that Chris _____ _ a. has not yet attained gender identity, but knows the gender identity of the teacher b. uses gender schemas, but does not yet understand gender constancy c. is a 4-year-old boy d. is a 7-year- old boy

a?

emotional self-regulation

ability to exercise control over one's emotions

media use for ages 2-8

about 2 hours daily

child maltreatment

abuse or neglect of children, including physical, emotional, or sexual abuse

divorce mediation

arrangement in which a professional mediator meets with divorcing parents to help them negotiate an agreement that both will find acceptable

Gender identity _____ a. develops much more quickly in females than males b. includes an understanding that maleness and femaleness are biological c. refers to the ability of children to identify themselves as male and female d. develops around age

b

Which of the following would you most likely to see five-year olds doing on a playground in a Western culture? a. Girls playing catch with the boys b. Boys playing a game to see who could throw a ball the farthest c. Boys engaging in cooperative, fantasy play d. Children playing in mixed-age groups

b

While learning language, children who learn English and other Western languages have been shown to fast-map ______ first. a. verbs b. nouns c. adjectives d. possessives

b

corpus callosum

band of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain. allows for coordination of activity between the two hemispheres, so increased myelination of this area of the brain enhances the speed of functioning throughout the cerebral cortex.

why do young children get injured more so?

because they have high activity levels and their motor development is advanced enough for them to be able to run, jump, and climb, but their cognitive development is not yet advanced enough for them to anticipate situations that might become dangerous.

how attention and memory change from early childhood to middle childhood

become more capable of focusing their attention on relevant information and disregarding what is irrelevant.

Filial Piety

belief that children should respect, obey, and revere their parents throughout life; common in Asian cultures

Based on the research, which of the following is most likely true of Sebastian, a four-year-old American male? a. If he is especially physically aggressive at this time in development, he is unlikely to be more aggressive than his peers later on. b. He is less likely to be physically aggressive than girls at this age. c. He engages in rough-and-tumble play at recess when he is around other boys of the same age. d. He is much more likely than female peers his age to use relational and verbal aggression.

c

In early childhood _____ _ a. moral judgments tend to be based more on fear of punishment than is the case for older children b. children are not yet able to experience empathy c. children from different cultures learn the same moral rules d. children have more difficulty with perspective taking than they did earlier in development because of their stronger sense of self

c

Limited autobiographical memory prior to age 5 is probably due to incomplete myelination of the ___________. a. reticular formation b. corpus callosum c. hippocampus d. Broca's area

c

Research on parenting has found that _____ a. the two main dimensions of parenting are demandingness and strictness b. children of permissive parents tend to do better in school than children of other parenting styles because they learn to think for themselves c. there are bidirectional effects between parents and their children d. the outcomes for children of authoritative parents are virtually identical to outcomes for children of permissive parents

c

The dimension of parenting known as responsiveness is also known as _____ _ a. setting limits b. psychological control c. warmth d. disengaged

c

The way we organize and process information in terms of gender-based categories is referred to as _____ _ a. gender stereotyping b. gender constancy c. gender schemas d. self-socialization

c

Walter is a 5 year old boy who lives in the United States. Based on the research, if he has a nutritional problem it is most likely to be ____________. a. maramus b. kwashiorkor c. calcium deficiency d. protein deficiency

c

Lucien is still cared for mainly by his mother, who just recently stopped breast feeding. He also spends a lot of time with his older siblings and the older children who live nearby. When he is distressed, the older children comfort him if the mother is not in the vicinity. Using Mead's classification, Lucien would be considered a _____ _ a. knee child b. yard child c. lap child d. neighborhood child

c 0-2 yrs= lap child; needs constant care. 3-4 yrs= knee child; still cared for mainly by mother, but spends more time with other children. 5-6 yrs= yard child; more time spent with same-sex peers, sometimes unsupervised.

Which of the following is TRUE regarding emotional regulation? a. The development of the temporal lobe promotes self-regulation. b. Self-regulation develops earlier in boys than in girls. c. Temper tantrums and crying decrease from age 2 to 6. d. Different cultures have similar views about what the optimal level of control is.

c; In the brain, the development of the frontal cortex promotes this process, because this is the part of the brain most involved in emotional self-regulation

multilingual

capable of using three or more languages

intelligence

capacity for acquiring knowledge, reasoning, and solving problems

important cognitive achievement of concrete operations is

classification

cultural models

cognitive structures pertaining to common cultural activities

reticular formation

controls alertness and arousal. the myelination is completed by 5 so it helps explain the increased attention span to about 10-15 minutes.

cerebellum

controls balance and motor movements. increased myelination enhances connections between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex . this change increases ability to jump, run, climb, throw.

gender roles

cultural expectations imposed on men and women to behave in ways deemed appropriate for their gender

A child who is left-handed __________. a. likely first developed this tendency during the preschool years b. is often praised for their uniqueness in non-Western cultures c. will be more likely to learn to be right handed in an Asian or African culture than in the United States d. will always have a left-handed twin if they are monozygotic (MZ) twins

d

Hyejin is an only child from China. Which of the following is most likely true? a. She has higher cognitive development than her counterparts with siblings. b. She scores lower on likeability than her counterparts with siblings who have had to share and negotiate. c. She would be considered overindulged and selfish. d. She has poorer social skills, but is considered more assertive than her counterparts with siblings.

d

In Berko's (1958) classic experiment, she showed young children a picture of a figure called a "wug" and then showed them two of these figures. She then asked them to respond to the following question: "Now there are two _____ _ Berko was measuring children's understanding of what? a. overextension b. possessives c. pragmatics d. grammar

d

In Piagetian terms, which of the following is the principle that the amount of a physical substance remains the same even if its physical appearance changes? a. Physical stability b. Centration c. Reversibility d. Conservation

d

In early childhood (from ages 3-6) _____ _ a. fine motor skills are refined, but gross motor skills remain the same as they were in toddlerhood b. children from high socioeconomic status tend to have better gross motor skills than their counterparts from lower socioeconomic backgrounds c. girls and boys are equally skilled at body-coordination skills, such as balancing on one foot d. gender differences in gross motor development appear.

d

Which of the following is TRUE regarding theory of mind? a. It refers to the independence and stubbornness characteristic of toddlers as they develop a sense of self. b. It develops the same way in all cultures with spoken language. c. It begins to develop around age 5. d. It is measured with false-belief tasks.

d

during early childhood____________. a- the amount of tooth decay is similar between children in developing and developed countries. b- girls are slightly taller and heavier than boys. c- physical development occurs at a more rapid pace than it did in the first three years. d- most children become more like adults in terms of their body proportions.

d

Four-year-old Nicco uses infant-directed speech when talking to his neighbor's new baby; this demonstrates a. overregularization b. fast mapping c. pragmatics d. existence of the language acquisition device

d?

Responiveness

degree to which parents are sensitive to their children's needs and express love, warmth, and concern for them.

Demandingness

degree to which parents set down rules and expectations for behavior and require their children to comply with them

outcomes associated with authoritarian parenting styles

dependent passive conforming

ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

diagnosis that includes problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness

Anemia

dietary deficiency of iron that causes problems such as fatigue, irritability, and attention difficulties.

factors parents should consider when looking for a preK

education and training of teachers class size and child-teacher ratio age-appropriate material and activities teacher-child interactions note that the criteria for high-quality preschools do not include intense academic instruction. Here again there is a broad consensus among early childhood scholars that preschool teaching should be based on developmentally appropriate educational practice (NAEYC, 2010). At the preschool age, this means that learning should involve exploring and discovering through relatively unstructured, hands-on experiences-learning about the physical world through playing in a water or sand area, for example, or learning new words through songs and nursery rhymes.

ambivalence

emotional state of experiencing two contradictory emotions at once

moral development in childhood

empathy increases in early childhood, which leads in turn to an increase in prosocial behavior. Children learn morality in part through observing the behavior of others and its consequences. begin to show a capacity for moral reasoning, and demonstrate that they have learned the moral beliefs of their culture.

characteristics of children who have ADHD.

especially notable difficulties in maintaining attention

3 categories of world view

ethic of autonomy- view overall, the individual has the primary control of moral reasoning and actions ethic of community- that the community is the primary moral authority ethic of divinity- that divine (religion and spiritual belief) has primary control of moral authority.

what happens emotionally in middle childhood

exceptional stability and contentment as emotional selfregulation becomes firmly established and emotional understanding advances. Increased involvement in contexts outside the family, such as school and sports teams, requires higher levels of emotional self-regulation.

foster care

for maltreated children, approach in which adults approved by a state agency take over the care of the child

the _________ grows faster than the rest of the cerebral cortex during early childhood. growth in this part helps with advances in what?

frontal lobe; emotional regulation, foresight, and planned behavior seen in preschool years.

gender schema

gender-based cognitive structure for organizing and processing information, comprising expectations for males' and females' appearance and behavior

gross motor skill milestones for ages 3-6

hop on one foot multiple hops in a row jump farther from a standing position running jumps learn to climb stairs without support catching a ball and throwing more accurate increased agility

social comparsion

how persons view themselves in relation to others with regard to status, abilities, or achievements

outcomes associated with disengaged parenting styles

impulsive behavior problems early sex, drugs

gifted

in IQ test performance, persons who score 130 or above

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Centration

in Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features. example- in the conservation of liquid task, they notice the change in height as the water is poured into the taller glass but neglect to observe the change in width that place simultaneously.

median

in a distribution of data, the score that is precisely in the middle, with half the distribution lying above and half below

overweight

in children, defined as having a BMI exceeding 18

obesity

in children, defined as having a BMI exceeding 21

reciprocal or bidirectional effects

in relations between two persons, the principle that each of them affects the other

social information processing

in social encounters, evaluations of others' intentions, motivations, and behavior

selective association

in social relations, the principle that people tend to prefer being around others who are like themselves

sensitive period

in the course of development, a period when the capacity for learning in a specific area is especially pronounced

metalinguistic skills

in the understanding of language, skills that reflect awareness of the underlying structure of language

outcomes associated with authoritative parenting styles

independent creative self-assured socially skilled

hippocampus

involved in transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory. the myelination is completed by 5 in the hippocampus. since it is not completed until this age, it helps explain why autobiographical memory is limited prior to this age.

outcomes associated with permissive parenting styles

irresponsible conforming immature

Conservation is a key milestone of cognitive development because

it enables the child to perceive regularities and principles in the natural world, which is the basis of being able to think logically about how the world works.

dyslexia

learning disability that includes difficulty sounding out letters, difficulty learning to spell words, and a tendency to misperceive the order of letters in words

learning disability

learning disability that includes difficulty sounding out letters, difficulty learning to spell words, and a tendency to misperceive the order of letters in words

intellectual disability

level of cognitive abilities of persons who score 70 or below on IQ tests

why is illness and injury relatively low and rates of asthma have risen in middle childhood?

low rates of illnesses and diseases due to stronger immune systems, and the increased immunization rates and better public health policies. Rates of asthma have risen in developed countries due to carpets, pets, and airtight windows, and in developing countries due to worsening air pollution. more agile and better at anticipating situations that may cause injury.

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

conservation

mental ability to understand that the quantity of a substance or material remains the same even if its appearance changes. example- two glasses with the same amount but don't look like the same amount.

whole language approach

method of teaching reading in which the emphasis is on the meaning of written language in whole passages, rather than breaking down words into their smallest components

phonics approach

method of teaching reading that advocates breaking down words into their component sounds, called phonics, then putting the phonics together into words

ADHD is usually first diagnosed in ________, when children are required to sit still for long periods in school

middle childhood

elaboration

mnemonic strategy of making mental associations involving items to be remembered

organization

mnemonic that involves placing things mentally into meaningful categories

rehearsal

mnemonic that involves repeating the same information over and over

major cognitive advances that occur during piaget's concrete operations stage

occurs in middle childhood as they learn to think more systematically and scientifically about how the world works and avoid cognitive errors. gain the ability to understand conservation, improved classification skills, and the understanding of seriation, which includes which includes problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. learn to use memory strategies such as rehearsal, organization, and elaboration.

psychological control

parenting strategy that uses shame and withdrawal of love to influence children's behavior

disengaged parenting

parenting style characterized by low warmth and low control. Their goal may be to minimize the amount of time and emotion they devote to parenting

coercive cycle

pattern in relations between parents and children in which children's disobedient behavior evokes harsh responses from parents, which in turn makes children even more resistant to parental control, evoking even harsher responses

self-esteem

person's overall sense of worth and well-being

self-concept

person's perception and evaluation of him or herself

sensory and physical development during middle childhood

physical growth continues at a slow but steady pace, about 2-3 inches and about 5-7 pounds per year. Children lose all 20 primary teeth and their permanent teeth begin to grow in. Ear health improves, but one-fourth of children become nearsighted during middle childhood.

fine motor skill milestones in ages 3-6

pick something up with two fingers more precisely can draw objects draw shapes and letters dressing them selves using scissors brushing teeth putting on shoes

the 4 categories of peer social status

popular, rejected, neglected, and controversial

parenting styles

practices that parents exhibit in relation to their children and their beliefs about those practices authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved

internalizing problems

problems that entail turning distress inward, toward the self, such as depression and anxiety

self-socialization

process by which people seek to maintain consistency between their gender schemas and their behavior

coregulation

relationship between parents and children in which parents provide broad guidelines for behavior but children are capable of a substantial amount of independent, self-directed behavior

IQ

score of mental ability as assessed by intelligence tests, calculated relative to the performance of other people the same age

pragmatics

social and cultural context of language that guides people as to what is appropriate to say and not to say in a given social situation. example-by age 4, children are more sensitive to he characteristics of their conversational partner and will adjust their speech accordingly.

age graded

social organization based on grouping persons of similar ages

Flynn effect

steep rise in the median IQ score in Western countries during the 20th century, named after James Flynn, who first identified it

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child high in demandingness but low in responsiveness.

Animism

tendency to attribute human thoughts and feelings to inanimate objects and forces. is an aspect of egocentrism. example- thunder is angry.

selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

Seriation (Piaget)

the ability to organize objects in order from least to most amount. (ex rank order objects on a dimension like height or length)

theory of mind

the ability to understand that other people have mental states that influence their behavior

fast mapping

the fact that children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure

Myelination

the formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron.

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3. one theory proposes that autobiographical memory before age 2 is limited because the awareness of self becomes stable around age 2 and serves as a new organizer around which events can be encoded, stored, and retrieved in memory as personal. another theory is that the encoding of memories is promoted by language development, because language allows us to tell ourselves a narrative of events and experiences, so autobiographical memory wouldn't occur until around 2 after language development accelerates.

handedness

the preference of using one hand over another. shown even prenatally when fetuses show a definite preference for sucking the thumb of their right or left hand.

corporal punishment

the use of physical force to discipline a child; spanking

overcontrol

trait of having excessive emotional self-regulation

undercontrol

trait of having inadequate emotional self-regulation

hostile aggression

type of aggression that entails signs of anger and intent to inflict pain or harm on others

relational aggression

type of aggression that involves damaging another person's reputation among peers through social exclusion and malicious gossip--> girls

instrumental aggression

type of aggression when a child wants something and uses aggressive behavior or words to get it

Metamemory

understanding of processes of memory

numeracy

understanding of the meaning of numbers

gender constancy

understanding that maleness and femaleness are biological and cannot change

myopia

visual condition of being unable to see distant objects clearly; also known as being nearsighted

social status

within a group, the degree of power, authority, and influence that each person has in the view of the others