Logic Midterm 1 (Chapter 1)
Deductive or Inductive Henry and Carl, who are neighbors, are about the same age, and they both have heart conditions. Henry takes Digitoxin for his heart, and it relieves his symptoms. Therefore, it would be a good idea for Carl to take the same medicine for his heart.
Inductive, weak
Inductive or Deductive After investing in the stock market, Pamela doubled her money in just two years, and Beth and Tiffany did the same thing. However, Greg, Ivan, and Marty all lost money on the stock market during the same time frame. The obvious conclusion is that women do better than men in the stock market.
Inductive, weak
Inductive or Deductive Jim Searcy, a religious prophet who now lives in Cypress, claims that the Prince of Wales is the Antichrist. Therefore, we must conclude that the Prince of Wales is up to no good.
Inductive, weak
Inductive or Deductive The pop-up message on your computer screen says "Earn $10,000 per week. Call 306-981-4872." Therefore, if you call that number you can earn $10,000 per week.
Inductive, weak
Inductive or Deductive Graffiti painted on that vacant building says "Boycott Meat." Therefore, it's clear that we should all become vegetarians.
Inductive, weak
Inductive or Deductive When asked how to address the militaristic ambitions of North Korea, two Republican senators said we should drop bombs on Pyongyang, and a third said we should invade. The obvious conclusion is that Republicans are all a bunch of war mongers.
Inductive, weak
Inductive or deductive Astrological calculations indicate that the U.S. stock market will crash in the year 2020. Therefore, you should get your money out of the market before that year.
Inductive, weak
Which of the following are all deductive arguments?
Hypothetical syllogisms, disjunctive syllogisms, arguments based on mathematics.
Inductive or Deductive The engraved plate beneath this painting in the art museum says "Monet." Therefore, the painting must be the work of Monet.
Inductive, strong
An element is a collection of atoms of the same type. Each atom contains three fundamental particles—a proton, a neutron, and an electron. The protons and neutrons are in the center, or nucleus, of the atom. Protons have a positive charge, while neutrons have no electric charge. The electrons have a negative charge and orbit about the nucleus at a specific distance.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Lead is toxic, but do you know why? Lead is toxic mainly because it preferentially replaces other metals in biochemical reactions. In so doing it interferes with the proteins that regulate blood pressure (which can cause development delays in children and high blood pressure in adults), heme production (which can lead to anemia), and sperm production. Lead also displaces calcium in the reactions that transmit electrical impulses in the brain, which diminishes the ability to think and recall information.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Little is known of the Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived around 400 B.C. Nevertheless, the writings attributed to him have provided a number of principles underlying modern medical practice. One of his most famous contributions, the Hippocratic Oath, is the foundation of contemporary medical ethics. It requires the physician to swear that he or she will help the sick, refrain from intentional wrongdoing, and keep confidential all matters pertaining to the doctor-patient relationship.
Nonargument
If a deductive argument has one true premise and a true conclusion, then we know:
Nothing as such about the argument's validity.
If an inductive argument has all false premises and a probably false conclusion, then we know:
Nothing, as such, about the argument's strength.
Which of the following are all nonarguments?
Conditional statements, explanations, statements of belief.
Any argument in which the conclusion actually follows with strict necessity from the premises is:
Deductive and valid
Deductive or Inductive Given that A and B are the diagonals of a parallelogram. It follows that A and B have the same length.
Deductive, invalid
Deductive or Inductive No drug cartels are legal operations, so no legal operations are enterprises that engage in smuggling, because all drug cartels are enterprises that engage in smuggling.
Deductive, invalid
Deductive or Inductive If football is a rough sport, then football injuries abound. It is the case that football injuries abound. Thus, it follows that football is a rough sport.
Deductive, invalid
Given that figure A is a triangle, and one of its sides has a length of 1 foot. It follows that its area is less than 1 square foot.
Deductive, invalid
Inductive or Deductive Brandon is a polytheist. Therefore, he believes in more than one god.
Deductive, valid
Argument or Nonargument Finding an identity as a Latino is a tricky issue in the United States because the pressure to assimilate is being repressed by the pressure to retain your roots. If you are deemed too assimilated into American culture, you are branded a "gringo" by your peers or even a turncoat to your blood and country. If you shun all American culture, you are branded as a freeloading malcontent who would be better off going back to where he came from. It is a lose-lose situation.
Argument; conclusion: Finding an identity ... in the United States.
Argument or Nonargument Humans are biological organisms. To understand our behavior and mental processes, we need to understand their biological underpinnings, starting with the cellular level, the neuron. How we feel, learn, remember, and think all stem from neuronal activity. So, how a neuron works and how neurons communicate are crucial pieces of information in solving the puzzle of human behavior and mental processing.
Argument; conclusion: How a neuron works ... mental processing.
Argument or Nonargument The consequences of violence for children are very often grave and damaging. Violence may result in greater susceptibility to lifelong social, emotional and cognitive impairments. Related mental health and social problems include anxiety and depressive disorders, hallucinations, impaired work performance, memory disturbances and aggressive behavior. Early exposure to violence is also associated with later lung, heart and liver disease, fetal death during pregnancy, and suicide attempts.
Argument; conclusion: The consequences of violence ... grave and damaging.
The earth is of interest to astronomy for many reasons. Nearly all observations must be made through the atmosphere, and the phenomena of the upper atmosphere and the magnetosphere reflect the state of interplanetary space. The earth is also the most important object of comparison for planetologists.
Argument; conclusion: The earth is of interest to astronomy.
An argument whose conclusion rests on some geometrical procedure is:
a deductive argument
In the expression "If a nation engages in torture, then it loses moral authority in the world community," the statement "A nation engages in torture" is called the:
antecedent
In the expression "The moon sends forth light because it reflects light from the sun," the statement "The moon sends forth light" is called the:
Explanandum
In the expression, "Carbon monoxide is poisonous because it prevents hemoglobin from supplying oxygen to the body," the statement "Carbon monoxide is poisonous" is called the:
Explanandum
An argument that applies a scientific law to a specific case is usually:
A deductive argument
Argument or Nonargument It is a fact that major life forms now on earth were not at all represented in the past. There were no birds or mammals 250 million years ago. It is a fact that major life forms of the past are no longer living. There used to be dinosaurs and Pithecanthropus, and there are none now. It is a fact that all living forms came from previously living forms. Therefore, all present forms of life arose from ancestral forms that were different: birds arose from nonbirds and humans from nonhumans.
Argument; conclusion: All present forms of life ... forms that were different.
Argument or Nonargument It's even more important these days that your computer be protected by a firewall. There are criminal elements lurking in the shadows of cyberspace who send out probes to detect unprotected PCs. Once a vulnerable computer is found, these criminals install software that assists them in committing identity theft and fencing stolen IDs. They also defraud online advertisers by using these zombie computers to visit pay-per-click ads.
Argument; conclusion: It's even more important ... protected by a firewall.
An argument whose conclusion rests on a similarity between two things or situations is:
Inductive argument
Inductive or Deductive As the universe expands, it gets colder and colder. Furthermore, this expansion will continue for ever and ever. Therefore, at some point in the future the universe will become too cold to support human life, and all humans will perish.
Inductive, strong
Inductive or Deductive The arctic ice cap has been shrinking for several years as a result of global warming, and that trend is expected to continue. Therefore, since arctic polar bears depend on that ice for survival, the arctic polar bear population will shrink in the years ahead.
Inductive, strong
Which of the following are all conclusion indicators?
Therefore, for this reason, entails that.
An argument that proceeds from knowledge of an effect to a claim about a cause is:
inductive argument
Premise Indicators
since, for, because, in that, as, inasmuch as, for the reason that
Conclusion Indicators
wherefore, accordingly, so, entails that, hence, implies that, for this reason
Computerized scanning equipment has revolutionized the study of brain diseases and injuries. At best, conventional X-rays produce only shadowy images of the brain. Computed tomographic (CT) scanning is a specialized type of X-ray that does a much better job of making the brain visible. In a CT scan, X-ray information is collected by a computer and formed into an image of the brain. A CT scan can reveal the effects of strokes, injuries, tumors, and other brain disorders.
Argument; conclusion: Computerized scanning equipment ... and injuries.
Deductive or Inductive Either Leonardo da Vinci or Andrew Wyeth painted the Mona Lisa. But it clearly wasn't da Vinci. Therefore, Andrew Wyeth painted the Mona Lisa.
Deductive, valid
Inductive or Deductive No taggers are publicly spirited citizens, because all taggers are criminals, and no criminals are publicly spirited citizens.
Deductive, valid
Inductive or Deductive If interest rates rise, then home sales will decline. Thus, if interest rates rise, then real estate prices will drop, because if home sales decline, then real estate prices will drop.
Deductive, valid
Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a parent?
Giving birth
Inductive or Deductive The poster on your neighbor's lawn says "Vote Horton for Sheriff." Therefore, it's clear that Horton would make a great sheriff.
Inductive, weak
If a deductive argument has all false premises and a true conclusion, then we know:
Nothing as such about the argument's validity.
Which of the following are all arguments? A. Illustrations, syllogisms, explanations. B. Predictions, categorical syllogisms, arguments from signs. C. Warnings, conditional statements, statements of belief. D. Expository passages, reports, pieces of advice. E. Propositions, analogies, inferences.
Predictions, categorical syllogisms, arguments from signs.
Which of the following is a sufficient condition for committing a crime?
Robbing a bank
Which of the following are all premise indicators?
Since, given that, because
If organic food contains pesticides, then consumers are misled. Organic food does not contain pesticides. Therefore, consumers are not misled.
Deductive, invalid
Inductive or Deductive Louis graduated from college after Cheri, and Cheri graduated before Denise. Therefore, it follows necessarily that Louis graduated before Denise.
Deductive, invalid
Inductive or Deductive If the northern pike is a ferocious predator, then it is a threat to lake trout. The northern pike is indeed a threat to lake trout. Therefore, the northern pike is a ferocious predator.
Deductive, invalid
Inductive or Deductive Lydia loves Ryan, and Ryan loves anchovy pizza. Therefore, it follows necessarily that Lydia loves anchovy pizza.
Deductive, invalid
Inductive or Deductive Some preachers are evangelists, so some preachers are TV personalities, since some evangelists are TV personalities.
Deductive, invalid
Deductive or Inductive Given that figure A is an equilateral triangle, and one of its sides has a length of 1 foot. It follows that its area is less than 1 square foot.
Deductive, valid
In the expression "Hard water causes spots on glass because it contains calcium and magnesium salts that remain when the water dries," the statement "It contains calcium and magnesium salts that remain when the water dries" is called the:
Explanans
Which of the following is a necessary condition for graduating from college?
Fulfilling the course requirements.
Which of the following are all inductive arguments?
Generalizations, arguments from authority, arguments based on signs.
Which of the following are all conclusion indicators? A. As a result, it follows that, given that. B. Accordingly, because, as indicated by. C. Given that, for, seeing that. D. Hence, thus, so. E. Thus, implies that, because.
Hence, thus, so
Deductive or Inductive As climate change continues, the temperature of the world's oceans will rise. As ocean temperatures rise, hurricanes will become more intense. Therefore, hurricanes in the Caribbean will intensify in the years ahead.
Inductive, strong
Which of the following sentences is a statement?
Robert Downey is a brain surgeon
Which of the following are all nonarguments?
Statements of belief, warnings, conditional statements.
Argument or Nonargument If you go to foreign films, if you go to documentaries, if you go to independent films, if you go to good films, you will become a better person because you will understand human nature better. Movies record human nature in a better way than any other art form. That's for sure.
Argument; conclusion: If you go to foreign films you will become a better person.
Argument or Nonargument It is likely that innocent prisoners in this country have been executed for crimes they did not commit. From 1973 until 2016, 151 death row inmates have been exonerated. In many of these cases DNA evidence played a crucial role. Yet, in that same time frame, more than 1000 prisoners were executed. For many of these prisoners no DNA evidence was available. If such evidence had been available, how may more would have been exonerated?
Argument; conclusion: It is likely that innocent prisoners ... they did not commit.
Argument or Nonargument Undocumented immigrants pay local sales taxes, and many of them also pay state, local, and federal income tax and Social Security tax. They also purchase items from local merchants, increasing the amount these merchants pay in taxes. In addition, they work for low salaries, which increases the earnings of their employers and the amount of taxes these employers pay. Thus, it is not correct to say that undocumented immigrants contribute nothing to the communities in which they live.
Argument; conclusion: It is not correct to say ... communities in which they live.
Argument or Nonargument Some over-the-counter medicines should not be given to very young children. For example, cold medicines contain decongestants and antihistamines. These substances raise blood pressure and heart rate. If an overdose should occur in a young child, the result can be fatal.
Argument; conclusion: Some over-the-counter medicines ... very young children.
Argument or Nonargument In general, whoever produces or distributes child pornography is subject to prosecution. But that rule is not absolute. For example, in 2002 the Supreme Court ruled that computer generated child porn is protected under the First Amendment. The Court reasoned that such pornography was permissible because no real children are exploited.
Argument; conclusion: That rule is not absolute.
Argument or Nonargument The world-wide disappearance of frogs may be the result of agricultural runoff. Scientists have shown that runoff rich in fertilizer causes a pronounced increase in the algae of lakes and ponds. Snails then gorge themselves on the algae, causing parasites living inside them to produce huge quantities of eggs. When the eggs hatch, the parasites infect young frogs, causing severe deformation of their limbs.
Argument; conclusion: The world-wide disappearance ... agricultural runoff.
Argument or Nonargument Until recently, it looked as though the loggerhead sea turtle might be making a comeback. But a new federal report suggests that loggerheads have begun to decline again. Their life-pattern makes them doubly vulnerable to humans. They lay their eggs on beaches, habitat vulnerable to development and disturbance, and they spend their long lives at sea, where they are often fouled in fishing nets.
Argument; conclusion: Their life-pattern ... doubly vulnerable to humans.
Argument or Nonargument? There appears to be a growing happiness gap between men and women. Women today are working more and relaxing less, while men are working less and relaxing more. Forty years ago a typical woman spent 40 minutes more per week than the typical man performing an activity considered unpleasant. Today, with men working less, the gap is 90 minutes and growing.
Argument; conclusion: There appears to be a growing happiness gap between men and women.`
Argument or Nonargument Good intentions aside, there are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation. Hydrofluosilic acid, the industrial waste product used in municipal water systems, is contaminated with arsenic, lead, and other heavy metals. There are significant increases in lead levels in children who drink fluoridated water. A 2015 Harvard study found a fivefold to sevenfold increase in bone cancer in exposed young men. Sadly, the youngest children are the most susceptible.
Argument; conclusion: There are compelling reasons to avoid water fluoridation.
Argument or Nonargument To focus on the performance of the stock market is to zero in on an economic indicator that can do well even as the country does poorly. In 2006, for instance, the Dow Jones industrial average hit highs. According to the just released census data, however, median earnings fell one percent, and millions more Americans entered the ranks of the uninsured. Indeed, from 2000 to 2007 the S&P 500 gained more than 500 points. Meanwhile, the median household income fell by more than $900.
Argument; conclusion: To focus on the performance of the stock market is to zero in on an economic indicator that can do well even as the country does poorly.
Scientists have recently shown that heaps of intact DNA from the extinct wooly mammoth are retrievable from the animals' fur. A great deal of that fur is readily available in natural history museums. Such amounts of DNA make it possible to piece together the entire mammoth genome. Hence, we can expect to see mammoth clones in the not too distant future.
Argument; conclusion: We can expect to see ... in the not too distant future.
Which of the following are all inductive arguments? A. Arguments from authority, arguments from analogy, causal inferences. B. Causal inferences, hypothetical syllogisms, predictions. C. Generalizations, arguments from authority, arguments from definition. D. Hypothetical syllogisms, arguments from definition, disjunctive syllogisms. E. Categorical syllogisms, arguments from authority, arguments based on signs.
Arguments from authority, arguments from analogy, causal inferences.
Which of the following is a sufficient condition for winning an election?
Getting more than half the votes
Which of the following is a necessary condition for playing baseball?
Having a bat
Inductive or Deductive After drinking a bottle of Black Diamond Special Brew, Clyde noticed a slightly bitter aftertaste. Lauren and Nicole noticed the same thing when they drank some Black Diamond a year earlier. We conclude that every bottle of Black Diamond Special Brew has a slightly bitter after taste.
Inductive, strong
Inductive or Deductive After buying a pair of Blue Atlas jeans, Carter was disappointed to find that they fell apart after only one month. The same thing happened to Jeff, Mario, and Ralph. Apparently, Blue Atlas jeans don't hold up very well.
Inductive, strong
Argument or Non If people buy cars that are more efficient, replace large appliances with energy efficient ones, unplug unused freezers and refrigerators, replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent models, and plant trees on private property and public land, then millions of tons of heat-trapping gasses will be kept out of the atmosphere, the current level of these gasses will be reduced, and the catastrophic consequences of global warming will be averted.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument A crystal is a form of mineral that has grown in an orderly and symmetrical manner. When broken, it naturally divides into a common shape based on its structure. Crystals are the result of the atomic arrangement of atoms as they grow in a shape that can be duplicated many times. Crystals are made up of molecules that fit neatly together in an orderly way. All crystals of the same material have the same shape.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Aristotle focused on clarifying the concept of virtue itself. He argued that it was virtuous to choose the proper amount of emotion and/or action called for in a particular situation and that extremes of emotion and action were vices. In all communities there are some men of practical wisdom who have the capacity to judge wisely. Aristotle argued that they have the capacity to follow the "right rule" whatever the situation.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Evolution as a process that has always gone on in the history of the earth can be doubted only by those who are ignorant of the evidence or are resistant to evidence, owing to emotional blocks or to plain bigotry. By contrast, the mechanisms that bring evolution about certainly need study and clarification. There are no alternatives to evolution as history that can withstand critical examination. Yet we are constantly learning new and important facts about evolutionary mechanisms.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Hair turns color when we age because the follicles at the base of the hair shaft cease to produce melanin. Melanin is a chemical that gives the hair shaft its color (black, brown, blond, red, and all shades in between). The darkness or lightness of your hair depends on how much melanin each strand contains. With age, the cells in the follicle that produce melanin die off. As they do so, that hair strand will become silver, grey, or white, as it grows.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Numerous studies have indicated that women of color, black women in particular, are over-arrested, over-indicted, and over-sentenced. African-American women are seven times more likely to be arrested for prostitution than women of other ethnic groups. Black women have received significantly longer sentences for crimes against property and served longer periods in prison. For both murder and drug offenses, Euroamerican women ended up serving one-third less time for the same offenses than black women.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument The relationship between two measurable factors can be represented by a graph. If both values increase, they are considered to have a direct relationship. For example, the more you work, the more money you make. If one value increases while the other decreases, they have an inverse relationship. For example, the more you work on your golf swing, the lower your score will be.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument If its ion engine operates as planned, its huge solar panel remains deployed and undamaged, and its xenon energy source is not exhausted, then the Dawn spacecraft will reach both Vesta and Ceres (large asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter), and scientists will gather information about the formation of planets, whether Ceres has a buried ocean of fresh water, and whether vestiges of life lurk beneath its icy surface.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Native peoples, completely dependent on Mother Earth for everything in their lives, worshipped the Earth as a nurturing goddess that provided for all their needs. From the soil came plants and growing things that provided clothing and food. From the rivers and seas came fish and shellfish for food, trade articles, and tools. From the air came rain, snow, and wind to grow crops and alter the seasons. The Earth was never stagnant or dull, but always provided for those in her care.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Two million children have been killed in armed conflicts in the last decade. Three times as many have been injured or permanently disabled. Millions of others have been forced to take part in or witness horrifying acts of violence. In countless cases the impact of armed conflict on children's lives remains invisible. The children themselves may be removed from the public, in institutions, or survive as victims of prostitution. But those who have lost parents often experience humiliation, rejection and discrimination, and suffer in silence as their self-esteem crumbles.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument Viruses are acellular entities too small to be seen with a light microscope. They are composed of a nucleic acid and a few proteins. Viruses replicate themselves and display other properties of living organisms only when they have invaded living cells. Indeed, some viruses can be crystallized and stored in a container on a shelf for years, but they retain the capacity to invade cells and cause disease.
Nonargument
Argument or Nonargument? Harnessing the clean, abundant energy of the sun and wind is critical to solving the global warming problem. Technological advances have brought the cost of electricity generated by the wind down by 82 percent since 1981. Solar energy technology has made remarkable progress as new photovoltaic cells have been developed to convert even greater amounts of sunlight directly into electricity. Today the costs of wind and solar power are becoming competitive with dirty coal-fired plants.
Nonargument
If the trade in tiger products is banned, tiger reserves are guarded by well equipped staff, communities abutting tiger habitat are given a stake in protecting tigers, and the makers of traditional medicines can be persuaded that tiger parts are not needed, then tiger poaching will be halted, habitat and life sustaining prey will be restored, and the immanent extinction of tigers in the wild will be averted.`
Nonargument
While there is no technology to reduce CO2 from a car's exhaust, we can make cars pollute less by making them more fuel efficient. By using today's best technology, car makers could dramatically increase the fuel economy of their cars and trucks. In fact, off-the-shelf technology can change the nation's best selling SUV, the Ford Explorer, from a 19 mpg gas guzzler to an efficient 34 mpg vehicle. If we are to make any progress in slowing global warming, we must make our cars go farther on a gallon of gas.
Nonargument