MAN3240 - RESOURCE LIST - nb

Norms

Normas are more encompassing than roles. WHile roles involve behavioral expectations for specific positions, norms help organizational members determine right form wrong and good from bad. --A norm is an attitude, opinion, feeling, or action- shared by two or more people- that guides their behavior. They have a powerful influence on group and organizational behavior

Task Roles vs. Maintenance Roles

Task roles enable the work group to define, clarify, and pursue a common purpose --Maintenance roles foster supportive and constructive interpersonal relationships --In summary, task roles keep the group on track while maintenance roles keep the group together. A project team member is performing a task function when he or she says at an update meeting, "What is the real issue here? We don't seemt o be getting anywhere." Another individual who says, "Let's hear from those who oppose this plan," is performing a maintenance function

The Job Characteristics Model

*Core Job Characteristics: --Skill variety --Task identity --Task significance --Autonomy --Feedback from job *Critical Psychological States: --Experienced meaningfulness --Experienced responsibility for outcomes --Knowledge of actual results of work activities *Outcomes: --High intrinsic work motivation --High growth satisfaction --High general job satisfaciton --High work effectiveness

Equity Theory

--A model of motivation that explians how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships --Equity theory is based on cognitive dissonance theory, developed by socail psychologist Leon Festinger in the 1950's --According to Festinger's theory, people are motivated to maintain consistency between their cognitive beliefs and their behavior. Perceived inconsistencies create cognitive dissonance, which in turn motivates corrective action

Individual Inputs

--Ability, job knowledge --Dispositions and traits --Emotions, moods and affect --Beliefs and values

Stage 4: Performing

--Activity during this vital stage is focused on solving task problems. As members of a mature group, contribtuors get their work done without hampering others. There is a climate of open communication, strong cooperation, and lots of helping behavior. Conflicts and job boundary disputes are handled constructively and efficiently. Cohesiveness and personal commitment to group goals help the group achieve more than could any one individual acting alone. **Individual Issues: "How can I best perform my role?" **Group Issues: "Can we do the job properly?"

Motivational Processes

--Arousal --Attention and direction --Intensity and persistance

Job Rotation

--Calls for moving employees from one specialied job to another --Rather than performing only one job, workers are trained and givent he opportunity to perform tow or more separate jobs on a rotating basis --Other proposed advantages of job rotation include increased worker flexibility adn easier scheduling because employees are corss-trained to perform different jobs

Motivated Behaviors

--Focus: direction, what we do --Intensity: effort, how hard we try --Quality: task strategies, the way we do it --Duration: persistence, how long we stick to it

Job Satisfaction

--An affective or emotional response toward various facets of one's job. --A person can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of his or her job and dissatisfied with one or more other aspects

Expectancy

--An expectancy represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. In other words, it is an effort-->performance expectation.

Instrumentality

--An instrumentality is a performance--> outcome perception. It represents a person's belief that a particular outcome is contingent on accomplishing a specific level of performance. Performance is instrumental when it leads ot something else. For example, passing exams is instrumental to graduating from college.

Extrinsic Motivation

--Drives people's behavior when they do things in order to attain a specific outcome. In other words, extrinsic motivation is fueld by a person's desire to avoid or achieve some type of consequence for his or her behavior --Extrinsic rewards do not come from the work itself; they are given by others (i.e. teachers, managers, parents, friends or customers). At work, tehy include things like salaries, bonuses, promotions, benefits, awards and titles

Stage 1: Forming

--During this "ice-breaking" stage, group members tend ot be uncertain and anxious about such things as their roles, the people in charge, and the group's goals. --Mutual trust is low, and there is a good deal of holding back to see who takes charge and how **Individual Issues: "How do I fit in?" **Group Issues: "Why are we here?"

Stage 3: Norming

--Group that make it through stage 2 generally do so because a respected member challenges the group to resolve its power struggles so something can be accomplished. Questions about authority and power are resolved through unemotional, matter-of-fact group discussion. A feeling of team spirit is experienced because members believe they have found their proper roles --Group cohesiveness, defined as the "we feeling" that binds members of a group together, is the main by-product of stage 3. **Individual Issues: "What do the others expect me to do?" **Group Issues: "Can we agree on roles and work as a team?"

McClelland's Need Theory

--He is most recognized for his research on the need for achievement, but he also investigated the needs for affiliation and power as well.

Job Enrichment Continued

--Herzberg found job dissatisfaction to be associated primarily with factors in the owrk context or environment. Specifically, company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one's supervisor, and working conditions were most frequently mentioned by employees expressing job dissatisfaction. Herzberg labeled this second cluster of factors hygiene factors. He further proposed that they were not motivational. An individual will experience no job dissatisfaction when he or she has no grievances about hygiene factors

Expectancy Theory

--Holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinatins of expected outcomes --Embedded in expectancy theory is the principle of hedonism. Hedonistic people strive to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. Generally, expectancy theory can be used to predict behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made --Understanding the cognitive processes underlying this theory cna help managers develop organizational policies and practices that enhance employee motivation

Formal and Informal Groups

--If the group is formed by a manager to help the organization accomplish its goals, then it qualifies as a formal group --Formal groups typically wear such labels as work group, team, committee, or task force. --An informal group exists when the members' overriding purpose of getting together is friendship

Sense of Progress

--The accomplishment you feel in achieving the task purpose. The feeling of progress involves the sense that the task is moving forward, that your activies are really accomplishing something --A senes of progress promotes intrinsic motivation because it reinforces the feeling that one is wisely spending his or her time

Formal and Informal Groups Continued

--The desirability of overlapping formal and informal groups is problematic. Some managers firmly believe persoanl friendship fosters productive teamwork on the job while others view workplace "bull sessions" as a serious threat to productivity

The Need for Achievement

--The desire to accomplish something difficult, and do so as rapidly and as independently as possible. --Achievement-motivated people share three common characteristics: 1. A preference for working on tasks of moderate difficulty 2. A preference for situations in which performance is due to their efforts rather than other factors, such as luck 3. They desire more feedback on their successes and failures than do low achievers

The Need for Power

--The desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve --People with a high need for power like to work and are concerned with discipline and self-respect

The Need for Affiliation

--The desire to spend time in social relationships and activities --Individuals high in this need are not the most effective managers or leaders because they have a hard time making difficult decisions without worrying about being disliked

The Mechanistic Approach

--The mechanistic approach draws from research in industrial engineering and scientific management and is most heavily influenced by the work of Frederick Taylor --Because jobs are highly specialized and standardized when they are designed according to the principles of scientific management, this approach to job design targets efficiency, flexibility and employee productivity --However, research revelas that simplified, repetitive jobs also lead to job dissatisfaciton, poor mental health, higher levels of stress, and low sense of accomplishment and personal growth

Motivatinal Approaches

--The motivational appraoches to job design attempt to improve employees' affective and intrinsic motivation as well as a host of behavioral outcomes such as absenteeism, turnover, and performance --The three key motivatioal techniques are: job enlargement, job enrichment, and a contingency approach calle dthe job characteristics model

Sense of Meaningfulness

--The opportunity you feel to select task activities that make sense to you and to perform them in ways that seem appropriate. The feeling of choice is the feeling of being free to choose- of being able to use your own judgement and act out of your own understanding of the task --The opportunity you feel to pursue a worthy task purpose. Th efeeling of meaningfulness is the feeling that you are on a path that is owrth your time and energy- that you are on a valuable mission, that your purpose matters i nteh larger scheme of things. --This description revelas that it is not the task itself that derives intrinsic motivation, but rahter the overall purpose for completing tasks

Vroom's Expectancy Theory

--Victor Vroom formulated a mathematical model of expectancy theory in his 1964 book Work and Motivation --Motivation, according to Vroom, boils down to the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. This choice is based on a two-stage sequence of expectations 1. Motivation is affected by an individual's expectation that a certain level of effort will produce the intended performance goal 2. Motivation is influenced by the employee's perceived chances of getting various outcomes as result of accomplishing his or her performance goal --Three key concepts within Vroom's model are expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

Group Member Roles

-Roles are sets of behaviors that persons expect of occupants of a position. --For employees, roles can go beyond duties in a job description to include, for example, helping coworkers and suggesting improvements

Sense of Choice

-The accomplishment you feel in skillfully performing task activiteies you have chose. The feeling of competence involves the sense thta you are doing good, high-quality work on a task. --In general, people feel a greater sense of competence by completing challenging tasks

Group

-Two or more freely interacting individuals who share collective norms and goals and have a common identity. --Organizational psychologist Edgar Schein shed additional light on this concept by drawing instructive distinctions between a group, a crowd and an organization.

Practical Lessons from Equity Theory

1. Change Inputs --Equity theory provides managers with yet another explanation of how beliefs and attitudes affect job performance 2. Change Outcomes --Research on equity theory emphasizes the need for managers to pay attention to employees' perceptions of what is fair and equitable. No matter how fair management thinks the organization's policies, procedures, and reward system are, each employee's perception of the equity of those factors is what counts. 3. Distort Self Perceptions --Managers benefit by allowing employees to participate in making decison about important work outcomes. In general, employees' perceptions of procedural justice are enhanced when they have a voice in the decision-making process.

Insights from Goal-Setting Research

1. Difficult goals lead to higher perfomance. Goal difficulty reflects the amount of effort required to meet a goal. 2. Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance for simple rather than complex tasts. Goal specificity pertains to teh quanitfiability of a goal. 3. Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals. Feedback lets people know if they are headed toward their goals or if they are off course and need to redirect their efforts. 4. Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set goals are equally effective. 5. Goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes. Goal commitment is the extent to which an individual is personally committed to achieving a goal.

Practical Lessons from Equity Theory Continued

4. Distort Perceptions of Others --Employees should be given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare. Being able to appeal a decision promotes the belief that management treats employees fairly. 5. Choose a Different Referant --Employees are more likely to accept and support organizational change when they believe it is implemented fairly and when it produces equitable outcomes. 6. Leave the Situation --Managers can promote cooperation and teamwork among group membes by treating them equitably. Research reveals that people are just as concerned with fairness in group settings as they are with their own personal interests.

Thresholds of Equity and Inequity

Benevolents are people who have a higher tolerance for negative inequity. They are altruistic in the sense that they prefer their outcome/input ratio to be lower than ratios from comparison others --Equity sensitives are described as individuals who adhere to strict norm of reciprocity and are quickly motivated to resolve both negative and positive inequity --Entitleds have no tolerance for negative inequity. They actually expect to obtain greater output/input ratios than comparison others and become upset when this is not the case

Hygiene Factors

Dissatisfaction: --Jobs with poor company policies and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions No Dissatisfaction: --Jobs wiht good company policies and administration, technical supervision, alary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions

Goal Setting

Edwin Locke, a leading authority on goal setting, defines a goal as "what an individual is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action"

Stage 2: Storming

--This is a time of testing. Individuals test the leader's policies and assumptions as they try to determine how they fit into the power structure. Subgroups take shape, and subtle forms of rebellion, such as procrastination, occur. Many groups stall in stage 2 because power politics erupts into open rebellion. **Individual Issues: "What's my role here?" **Group Issues: "Why are we fighting over who is in charge and who does what?"

5 Causes of Job Satisfaction

1. Need fulfillment: these models propose that satisfaciton is determined by the extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill his or her needs 2. Discrepancies: these models propose that satisfaction is a result of met expectations, which represent the difference between what an individual expects to receive from a job, such as good pay and promotional opportunities, and what he or she receives. 3. Value Attainment: satisfaction results from the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individual's important work values 4. Equity: in this model, satisfaction is a function of how "fairly" an individual is treated at work 5. Dispositional/Genetic Components: this model is based on the belief that job satisfaction is partly a function of both personal traits and genetic factors

Management by Objective

A management system that incorporates participation in decision-making, goal setting, and objective feedback

Negative and Postivie Inequity

Equity exists for an individual when his or her ratio of perceived outcomes to inputs is equal to the ratio of outcomes to inputs for a relevant coworker. Because equity is based on comparing ratios of outcomes to inputs, inequity will not necessarily be perceived just because someone else receives greater rewards. If the other person's additional outcomes are due to his or her greater inputs, a sense of equity may still exist --If the comparison person enjoys greater outcomes for similar inputs, negative inequity will be perceived --A person will experience positive inequity when his or her outcome to input ratio is greater than that of a relevant coworker

Motivators

No Satisfaction: --Jobs that do not offer achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement Satisfaction: --Jobs offering achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement

Motivation

Represents those psychological processes that cause the arousal, direciton and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed --Motivated behaviors are likely to be enhanced when managers supply employees with adequate resources to get he job done and provide effective coaching. This coaching might entail furnishing employees wiht successful role models, showing employees how to complete complex tasks, and helping them maintain high self-efficacy and self-esteem. **Performance is influenced by motivated behavior

3 Steps to Follow When Setting Goals--> Step 1

Step 1: Set Goals --A number of sources an be used as input during this goal-setting stage. Time and motion studies are one source. Goals also may be based ont eh average past performace of job holders. Third, the employee and his or her manager may set the goal participatively, through give and take negotiation. Fourth, goals can be set by conducting external or internal benchmarking. Finally, the overall strategy of a company may affect the goals set by employees at various levels in the organization.

3 Steps to Follow When Setting Goals--> Step 2

Step 2: Promote Goal Commitment --Obtaining goal commitment is important because employees are more motivated to pursue goals they view as reasonable, obtainable, and fair.

3 Steps to Follow When Setting Goals--> Step 3

Step 3: Provide Support and Feedback --Step 3 calls for providing employees with the necessary support elements or resources to get the job done. This includes ensuring that each employee has the necessary abilities, training, and information needed to achieve his or her goals

Job Enrichment

The practical applicaiton of Frederick Herzberg's motivator- hygiene thoery of job satisfaction --Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with achievement, recognition, characteristics of work , responsibility and advancement --These factros were all related to outcomes associated with the content of the task being performed, Herzberg labeled these factors motivators because each was associated with strong effort and good performance --Herzberg's theory predicts managers cna motivate individuals by incorporating "motivators" into an individual's job

Stage 5: Adjourning

The work is done; it is time to move on to other things.. Having worked so hard to get along and get something done, many members feel a compelling sense of loss. The return to independence can be eased by rituals celebrating "the end" and "new beginnings." --Leaders need to emphasize valuable lessons learned in group dynamics to prepare everyone for future group and team efforts. **Individual Issues: "What's next?" **Group Issues: "Can we help members transition out?" --The work is done; it is time to move on to other things.. Having worked so hard to get along and get something done, many members feel a compelling sense of loss. The return to independence can be eased by rituals celebrating "the end" and "new beginnings." --Leaders need to emphasize valuable lessons learned in group dynamics to prepare everyone for future group and team efforts. **Individual Issues: "What's next?" **Group Issues: "Can we help members transition out?"

Valence

Valence refers to the positive or negative value people place on outcomes. Valence mirrors our personal preferences. For example, most employees have a positive valence for receiving additional money or recognition.

Step 1 Continued

--In accordance with available research evidence, goals should be "SMART," which stands for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound. --There are two additional recommendations to consider when setting goals. 1. For complex tasks, managers should train employees in problem-solving techniques and encourage them to develop a performance action plan. 2 Because of individual differences, it may be necessary to establish different goals for employeeds performing the same job. Three types of goal orientations are a learnign goal orientation, a perfromance-prove goal orientation, and a performance-avoid goal orientation

Job Enlargement

--Involves putting more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty --Some cal this horizontally loading the job

Job Enrichment Continued

--Job enrichment is based on teh applicated of Herzberg's ideas. Specifically, job enrichment entails modifying a job such that na employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. These characteristics are incoporated in to a job through vertical loading. Vertical loading consists of giving workers more responsibility. In other words, employees take on chores normally performed by their supervisors

A Model of Intrinsic Motivation

--Kenneth Thomas proposed the most recent model of intrinsic motivation --Lookin across the rows, rewards of meaningfulness and progress are derived from the purpose for completing various tasks, while the sense of choice and sense of competence ceom from the specific tasks one completes. --Looking down the columns, teh sense of choice and meaningfulness are related to the opportunity to use one's own judgement and to pursue a worthwhile purpose. In contrast, accomplishment rewards- a sense of competence and progress- are derived from teh extent to which individuals feel competent in completing tasks and successful in attaining their original task, purpose, respectively.

Dynamics of Perceived Inequity

--Managers can derive practical benefits from Adam's equity thoery by recognizing that: 1. people have varyingin sensitivies to perceived equity and inequity 2. inequity can be reduced in a variety of ways

Promoting Intrinsic Motivation

--Managers can foster a sense of meaningfulness by inspiring their employees and modeling desired behaviors. This can be done by helping employees to indentify their passions at work and creating an exciting organizaitonal vision that employees are motivated to pursue --Managers can lead for choice by empowering employees and delegating meaningful assignments and tasks --Managers can enhance a sense of competence by supporitn gand coaching their employees --Managers can increase employees' sense of progress by monitoring and rewarding them. On-the-spot incentives are a useful way to reward a borader-based group of employees

Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory

--Maslow proposed that motivation is a funciton of five basic needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization --Maslow said these five need categories are arranged in a prepotent hierarchy --When one's physiological needs are relatively satisfied, one's safety needs emerge, and so on up the need hierarchy, one step at a time. --This process continues until the need for self-actualization is activated

McClelland's Need Theory Summary

--McClelland proposes that top managers should have a high need for power coupled wiht a low need for affiliation. He also believes that individuals with high achievement motivation are not best suited for top management positions.

Major Correlates and Consequences of Job Satisfaction

--Motivation: managers cna potentially enhance employees' motivation through various attempts to increase job satisfaction --Job involvement: represents the extent to which an individual is personally involved with his or her work role --Organizational Commitment: reflects the extent to which an individual identifies wiht an organization and is committed to its goals --Organizaitonal Citizenship Behavior (OCB): consist of employee behaviors that are beyond the call of duty --Absenteeism --Turnover --Perceived Stress --Job performance

Need Theories of Motivation

--Need theories attempt to pinpoint internal factors that energize behavior --Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior. They can be strong or weak and are influenced by envrionmental factors. Human needs thus vary over time and place

Intrinsic Motivation

--Occurs when an individual is turned on to one's work because of the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments form teh boss) for the motivation to work effectively. These positive feelings power a self-perpetuating cycle of motivation

The Group Development Process

--One oft-cited model is the one proposed in 1965 by educational psychologist Bruce W Tuckman. --His model involved forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning

Job Context

--Physical environment --Task design --Rewards and reinforcement --Supervisory support and coaching --Social norms --Organizational culture

Job Design (aka job redesign)

--Refers to any set of activities that involve the alteration of specific jobs or interdependent systems of jobs with the intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and their on-the-job productivity --Four major approaches are: mechanistic, motivational, biological, and perceptual-motor

Equity sensitivity

--Reflecrts an individual's different preferences for, tolerances for, and reactions to the level of equity associated with any given situation --Equity sensitivity spans a continuum ranging from benevolents to sensitives to entitled

Functions of Formal Groups

--Researchers point out that formal groups fulfill two basic functions: organizational and individual

Sense of Competence

--The accomplishment you feel in achieving the task purpose. The feeling of progress involves the sense that the task is moving forward, that your activies are really accomplishing something --A senes of progress promotes intrinsic motivation because it reinforces the feeling that one is wisely spending his or her time

4 Motivational Mechanisms of Goal Setting

1. Goal direct attention --Goals direct one's atteniton and effort toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities 2. Goal regulate effort --Not only do goals muake us selectively perceptive, they also motivate us to act 3. Goal increase persistence --Persistent peopl etend to see obstacles as challenges to be overcome rather than as reasons to fail. A difficult goal that is important to an individual is a constant reminder to keep exerting effort in the appropriate direction 4. Goals foster the development --Goals can help because they encrouage people to develop strategies and action plans that enable them to achieve their goals

5 Core Job Characteristics

1. Skill Variety: the extent to whcih the job requires an individual to perform a varity of taks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities 2. Task identity: the extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work 3. Task significance: the extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization 4. Autonomy: the extent to shich the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, an ddiscretion in both scheduling an determining the procedures used in completing the job 5. Feedback: the extent to which an individual received direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job

Practical Lessons from Equity Theory Continued

7. Treating employees inequitably can lead to litigation and costly court settlements. Employeeds denied justice at work are more likely to file employee grievances, to seek arbitration, and to ultimately seek relief from the courts. 8. Employees' perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by their managers. It thus is important for managers to consider the justice-related implicaitnos of their decisions, actions, and public communications 9. Managers should pay attention to hte organization's climate for justice. Researchers believe that a climate of justice can significantly influence the type of customer service provided by employees.

The Individual-Organization Exchange Relationship

Adams points out that two primary components are involved in teh employee-employer excahnge, inputs and outcomes. --An employee's inputs, for which he or she expects a just retrun, include education/training, skills, creativity, seniorikty, age, personality traits, effort expended, and personal appearance. --On the outcome side of hte exchange, the organization provides such things as pay/bonuses, fringe benefits, challenging assignments, job security, promotions, status symbols, recognition and participation in important decisions