managment

Mintzberg's five archetypes

1) Simple structure: little managment in between, use direct supervision 2) machine bureaucracy: efficiency and flexibility 3) professional bureaucracy: hire people with specific training and skills 4) divisionalized form: divisions that are self-sufficient, measure output which tends to be monetary 5) adhocracy: typically small creative companies that cannot be standardized, for example small advertising firms

Mintzberg's 5 coordinating mechanisms

1) direct supervision 2) standardization and work processes: checklists, minimizing error, standards 3)standardization of outputs: defined output, process is undefined as long as output is same, for example the boss wants you to see 500 units, no matter how you do it. 4) standardization of skills: training programs so people know what they need to do, this can replace the need for direct supervision. 5) mutual adjustments: change as you go to adjust to the changing environment

What are the 4 frames?

1) structural: draws from sociology, economics and management science. depicts world as rational with goals and procedures, hierarchies to coordinate. issues arise when structure and circumstances don't line up. 2) political: rooted in political science, sees orgs as judges with competition over scarce resources and power. conflict caused by differing needs, coalitions come and go. issues arise when power is concentrated in the wrong place. 3)HR: rooted in psychology, sees orgs as families made of people with needs and feelings, key is tailoring orgs to people and finding ways to make people feel fulfilled, otherwise they strike or quit. 4) symbolic: draws form social and cultural anthropology, treats orgs like temples where people follow rules, rituals,norms and managerial authority. this is why companies have mottos, issues arise when meaning in the dog is lost

Three dimensions of power

1st dimension: a conflict is identified, power is visible. Based on formal and visible sources. 2nd dimension: limit scope for decision making, power is less visible. For example, pick a or b, not pick what you want. 3rd dimention: interests of actors are influenced, no issues arise. Institutionalized power limiting interpretations by controlling symbols and norms.

Basic assumptions and history in the structural frame

2 basic concepts of structural frame: division of labor and allocation of tasks, Organizations exist to achieve established goals and objectives and organizations improve efficiency and performance through specialization and division of labor, became prevalent during the industrial revolution when factories and manufacturing prevailed. Frederick Taylor was the father of scientific management, his idea was to break tasks into parts and retain workers to get the most from each moment spent at work, Max Weber also had his idea of a "monocratic bureaucracy" meant to maximize norms or rationality. Weber's model outlined several features → fixed division of labor, hierarchy of offices, set of rules for governing performance, use of technical qualifications for selecting staff and employment as primary occupation and long term career

Argyris and Schon's theories for action

Argue that individual behavior is controlled by personal theories for action, they distinguish between two kinds of theories: Espoused theories: accounts an individual provides when trying to explain, describe or predict behavior. Theories in use: guide what people actually do, set of rules that specifies how to behave, discovered major differences between espoused theories and theories in use, this means people misperceive themselves. The biggest block in learning is self protective model of interpersonal behavior that they refer to as Model 1→ Model 1: Core assumption is an organization is dangerous place where you have to look out for yourself, leads people to follow a set of steps to influence others. Result is minimal learning, strained relationships and deterioration in decision making. Common action in model 1 behaviour: assume issue is caused by other side, develope a private unilateral diagnosis and solution, since the other person is the issue get them to change, if the other person is resistant it just confirms they are the issue, respond to resistance with pressure or rejection, if your efforts are unsuccessful it is the other person's fault. Model 2 offers an alternative option → Model 2: Offers insight into how to better handle situations. Major guidelines in model 2: emphasize common goals and mutual influence, communicate openly, combine advocacy with inquiry in an open dialogue. Asks managers to express what they think while seeking to understand the other person's feelings

Argyris' view on motivation

Argyris argued people has self actualization trends, he believed organizations treated workers like children Like McGregor, Argyris saw person structure conflict built into traditional management styles and structural design. In the past, the concept of task specialization defined jobs to be as narrow as possible to improve efficiency Argyris argued that employees escape frustrations or this type of management by: withdrawing mentally or just quitting, becoming indifferent, passive and apathetic, by restricting output or even sabotage, they may try to climb the hierarchy in search for better jobs or form alliances like labor unions to reduce power imbalance, they tend to teach their children that work sucks and chances for advancement are slim. Argyris and McGregor formed their views by observing American organizations in the 50's and 60's

Basic assumptions in Political frame

Assumption of the political frame explains why organizations are inevitably political, coalitions from due to interdependence between the members who need each other as interests overlap. Enduring differences imply that political activity is more visible and dominant under diverse rather than homogenous conditions. Concept of scarce resources suggests politics will be more salient in difficult times. Power in an organization means the power to make things happen, social scientists link power with dependency; if A has something B wants, A has leverage. Goals are not set by the top, they evolve through negotiation, for example the CEO doesn't make all the decisions, he/she is hired by the board who is elected by the shareholders

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Began with the notion that people are motivated by a variety of wants, some more important than others. Desire for food dominates lives of starving people, but once that need is fulfilled they move on to to other things. Maslow grouped needs into five categories in a hierarchy from lowest-highest. In his view basic needs for safety and well being have to be satisfied first, then social needs like love and inclusion. At the top if the pyramid is self actualization, meaning developing to one's ultimate potential. Maslow's theory is hard to test but is widely used and accepted, critiques are that needs are not just at work and that job satisfaction doesn't always lead to good performance. Belongs in the symbolic frame and it a content theory

Basic HR strategies

Develop and implement an HR strategy: develop a shared philosophy for managing people Hire the right people: strong companies know what they want and hire people who fit the mold. Keep the right people: reward well, protect jobs, promote from within, share the wealth. Firms with high employee branding also provide family benefits. Sharing the wealth may involve employee stock ownership profit sharing plans which give employees a bonus tied to profitability. Invest in the right people: invest in learning, create development opportunities. Costs of training are immediate and easy to measure but benefits take time to show. Empower the right people: encourage autonomy, redesign work, foster self managing teams, provide info and support. Philosophy called "open book management" which revolves around transparency is seen in progressive firms, it sends a clear signal that management trusts people, creates incentive for employees to participate and provides info needed to do a good job. Promote diversity: hold managers accountable for diversity. Promote egalitarianism in the workplace, but don't stop at democracy, the playing field can be further leveled by diminishing status symbols. Can buy from minority vendors

Theory X and Y

Douglas McGregor built on Maslow's theory by adding idea that managers assumptions become self fulfilling prophecies. He argued that most managers had "Theory X" assumptions, believing that subordinates are lazy and passive. Theory Y's position is that the task of management is to arrange conditions so that people can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational rewards. If individuals find no satisfaction in work, management has no choice but to reply on theory X, the more managers align organizational needs with worker's self-interest, they can rely on theory Y's principle of self direction

Mintzberg on Contingency theory

Environments can be analyzed using 4 dimensions: 1) stable vs. dynamic: level of predictability 2) simple vs. complex: level of complexity, can also be technological and expertise 3) consolidated vs. diversified business: market diversity 4) Munificent vs. Hostile: hostility Defines structure as the ways labor is divided into tasks and its coordination achieved through those tasks

Equity theory

Equity theory is process theory, states that motivation is not predefined instead it is adjusted as you learn about what people around you have. Process and content theory: nurture or nature, explanation for people being the way they are. Process theory sees how needs develop over time due to interaction with environment. equity theory focuses on people's feelings as to how fairly they have been treated when compared with the treatment receive by others in similar positions. Inequity occurs when a person perceives that the ratio if his outcomes to inputs is not equal to the ratio between the outcomes to inputs of another in a similar position. Both the inputs and the output of a person and those of another are based upon the person's perceptions. Examples of perceived variables are age, sex, education, social status, organizational position , qualifications and how hard a person works. Outcomes consist primarily of rewards such as pay, status, promotion and intrinsic interest in the job.

Gender

Helgesons's web of inclusion argues that idea of hierarchy is primarily a male driven depiction, notes that female executives tend to put themselves at the center of a firm rather than at the top. Coined the term "web of inclusion" to depict an organic, social form more circular than a hierarchy, consequently, weakness in the center spirals out Gender is a source of power, in power-blind theories the outcomes of decisions are considered the result of rational reasons. There is increasing awareness that gender influences how people are perceived and hence can be a source of power. Rationality, technology, competition and power is often associated with men while care, accepting minor roles is often associated with women

PESTEL

Helps to analyze organizational environments P: political, covers legislation for hiring foreign experts and business in foreign lands E: Economic, covers purchasing power and interest rates S: social, covers norms, cultures, religions and social norms T: technological, 4G, internet connectivity E: Ecological, covers temperatures, being green L: legal, covers laws and regulations

Open systems theory

Historically organizational studies disregard their macro environment, in the 60's open systems theory was proposed stressing the ongoing exchanges involved with organizations: people, energy, supplies, products, etc. People realized organizational boundaries are not fixed, since resources are shared and interaction with outside environment is always changing

Hofstede on national culture

Hofstede's idea of culture: study of +100,000 employees in a multinational firm. Came up with 5 dimensions: 1. Power distance: in low power distance countries there is a belief in more equality, in high power countries people accept authority 2. Individualism- collectivism: individuals responsible for their own well being or families 3. Feminine- masculine: in feminine societies both men and women are allowed and perceived to be caring. In masculine societies gender roles are strict and separated, women are expected to be modest and caring 4. Uncertainty avoidance: in high uncertainty avoidance cultures the expectation that work is routinized and defined in advance, while in low uncertainty avoidance cultures, uncertainty is embraced 5. Confucian dynamism: short or long term approach to results

overbound and underbounded systems

In an overbounded system power is concentrated and everything is regulated, while in an underbounded system power is diffused and the system is loosely controlled An overbound system regulates politics with firm hand and an underbounded system encourages conflict and power games

lateral coordination

Lateral forms are less formal and more flexible and often simpler and quicker as well Formal and informal gatherings through meetings are the cornerstone of lateral organizations, boards meet to make policy and decisions Task forces asses assemble when new issues arise and require collaboration of diverso specialties

hard and soft versions of theory X

Management practices in his view were built on hard or soft versions of theory X → Hard version: emphasises coercion, tight controls, threats and punishment, it produces low productivity → Soft version: tries to avoid conflict and keep everyone happy, results in superficial harmony Key point is that a hard or soft theory X approach is self fulfilling, McGregor advocated a different way to think about people called "Theory Y"

mechanistic vs. organic organizations

Mechanistic: good in stable conditions, breaks down to specialized tasks, definition of rights and obligations. hierarchy structure, knowledge at the top, insists on loyalty and obedience, vertical interaction of units organic: suitable in changing conditions, focused on what specialize knowledge can contribute, constant redefinition of obligations and lateral communication for advice

ERG theory

Nedds are Energy, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) Alderfer developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory. existence concerned with providing the basic material existence requirements of humans, including items Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs is those of relatedness - the desire people have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization.

Personal and organizational sources of power

Organizational: coercive power, position power, information and expertise, control of rewards, for example professors can reward students with good grades if they study and participate, alliance and networks, if you want to have something done your way you need to have support from other people, you need to be likeable also personal power and access and control of agendas, for example if you control what topics are included or how they are included, finally, control of counter organization (like unions) and control of meanings and symbols Personal: energy and ability to focus energy and not waste time, flexibility in order to reach goals, ability to read and understand others, able to be a team player

Assumptions of the HR frame

Organizations exist to serve human needs not the reverse, people and organizations need each other good fit between the needs of people and organizations makes both prosper, they also both suffer if the fit is bad HR frame build on 4 central assumptions: Organizations exist to serve human needs rather than visa versa. People and organizations need each other, organizations need ideas, energy and talent while people need careers, salaries and opportunities. When the fit between an individual and the system is poor, both suffer. Individuals are exploited or exploit the organization. A good fit benefits both, if individuals find meaning and satisfaction in work then organizations get the talent and energy they need to succeed

Schein's levels of culture

Schein's idea of culture: defined as a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group has learned as it solved its issues of external adaptation Schein's has 3 levels of culture: 1. Artifacts: for example, SU sweatshirts worn by students to represent their university culture, they are exposed values with basic assumptions 2. Espoused values: how things ought to be, expressed openly, for example when a firm says that people are their most important asset since this is a value they portray outward 3. Basic assumptions: firms want to treat people as the most important assets but also want to lower their salaries to make a higher profit margin

Operating core

Secures inputs, transforms input into output, distributes output, examples are maintenance and production, sales and service

how other frames view conflict (besides political frame)

Structural Frame: Focuses the interests of the owners, not overly concerned with the influence of others, reliance on one form of power (authority) as a way to create order - Conflict is the result of inadequate control, planning and execution Human Resource Frame: Admits also employees have interests, admits problem in neglecting conflict, conflict is the result of failure to consider needs - Views resolution of conflict as unproblematic

Shortcomings of structural frame

Structural frame is more scientific, people became more aware of worker's indifference, sabotage,teaching their kids that work is unrewarding, etc. Basically scientific management disregarded people's needs and limited productivity. This critique caused the HR frame to develop

Symbolic perspectives/ basic assumptions

Symbolic perspectives: Array of approaches rather than a coherent set of theories. Less focus on what organizations are, instead symbolic approaches show how they're perceived and that that means to people, Influenced by sociology and philosophy Basic assumptions in the symbolic frame: Life is uncertain and ambiguous, Meaning is more important that was has actually occurred, Activities and meaning are loosely coupled since people interpret actions differently they give different meanings to the same action, Uncertainty undercuts rationality and efforts to be practical, smart and plan ahead, People create symbols to reduce uncertainty, create faith and create common meanings, Many events are more important for what is expressed than what is produces

Contingency theory and contingencies to consider

There are 6 main contingencies: 1. Size and age: complexity and formality increase with size and age 2. Core process: core process and technologies must align with structure 3. Environment: stable environment means you can have a simpler structure while a turbulent environment requires a more complex, flexible structure 4. Strategy and goals: variation in clarity or goals requires appropriate structural adaptations 5. Information technology: info tech permits more flexible and decentralized structures 6. Nature of the work force: more educated and professional workers need and demand greater autonomy and discretion

Structural dilemmas

There is no way to ensure an organization is adapted to all situations. Key structural dilemmas: differentiation vs. integration, gaps vs. overlaps, underuse vs. overload, lack of clarity vs. lack of creativity, autonomy vs. independence, loose vs. tight, diffuse authority vs. overcentralization, goal-less vs. goal-bound.

Vertical coordination

Vertical coordination: basic way to harmonize efforts is with formal authority charged with aligning goals and objectives Rules and policies govern conditions for work and specify standards, this also helps ensure that similar cases are handled in the same way, measurements against standards also allow for identifying and fixing issues Standard operating procedures (SOPs) reduce variance in routines that have a bigger margin of error Vertical systems rely on planning and control systems, Mintzberg distinguishes between two major approaches to control and planning: Performance control: imposes concrete outcome objectives (increase sales by 5 %) without specifying how the results will be achieved Action planning: specifies methods and timeframes for decisions, works best when it is easier to assess how a job is done

Herzberg's 2 factor model

certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction Attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health are related to Maslow's theory of motivation. According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the satisfaction of lower-order needs at work, those needs associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher-level psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself Critique: studies have shown both factors to be related to dissatisfaction, cultural bias (american middle class values)

Middle line

collects feedback about performance, carries our decisions and passes info and resources downward, examples include foremen, division heads, and managers

challenges facing most organizations

complexity means they are open systems dealing with changing environments, what you expect isn't always what will occur , they re also deceptive because they hide mistakes and cause confusion as there are many units working together, it is hard to get the fact and if you do its hard to interpret them

Institutional theory

considers the processes by which structures, including schemes, rules, norms, and routines, become established as authoritative guidelines for social behavior. Institutions: taken for granted, are rationalized and impersonal, supported by public opinion, have rule like status, are normative since they express how things should be Efficiency vs legitimacy: efficiency is traditional and demands goods and services while legitimacy reflects institutions, norms and values central to societies

Strategic apex

manages external relations, develops strategy, direct supervision, examples are executive committees or a board of directors. Pull is to centralize

Support staff

provides support to operating core, examples include mailroom, payroll, PR, etc. Pull is to collaborate

Technostructure

standardize work of operating core, analysts who plan and do quality control, standardize people skills, examples include strategic and product planning and personal trainers. Pull is to standardize