Mastery Assessment #1

Better terminology than the word "prove" and why?:

"Supports" or "Are consistent with" or "are inconsistent with" Is better terminology. Because these terms correspond with the one hypothesis they are working with.

What is an example of an ordinal scale?

1st, 2nd, 3rd place

YES - What does a categorical variable mean? Ex.

A categorical variable is a variable that is able to categorized or separated into groups. For example, colors of t-shirts. Each color is a category

YES - What is a conceptual variable?

A conceptual variable includes ideas. It is not a variable that can be measured, it is rather a variable that is abstract.

What does a continuous variable mean?

A continuous variable means that there is an infinite number of values b/w any 2 values. Or the value within the two values, is continuous. This is usually a range, and not groups Ex. students who are (juniors in high school - seniors in college)

YES - What is the difference between measured and manipulated?

A measured variable means that it has some quantitative value or observation attached. A manipulated variable is controlled by the researcher. It is usually something you can change

What is a physiological measure?

A physiological measure involves any biological data. For example, brain activity, hormones, etc.

Hypothesis def:

A prediction about the researchers are going to see in this specific study. One hypothesis cannot cover the whole theory.

How can a self-report measure be used to operationalize a variable?

A self-report measure can be used to operationalize a variable by asking specific questions. For example, the gullibility questionnaire in class operationally defined gullibility into two sub categories of it, one of them being untrustworthiness.

YES - What is a self-report measure?

A self-report measure is when people provide their own measurements of themselves. For example, a questionnaire or interview.

Theory def:

A simple statement generally saying how certain variables relate to each other.

What is the difference between variable and a constant?

A variable is something that is changeable. A constant does not change at all. A variable also has two or more levels while a constant only has one.

* - See if these are good examples* Example of a Theory:

An example of a Theory is Australian Shepards like females

What is an observational measure?

An observational measure includes observations or recordings of that contrust

Example of basic research and applied research:

Applied example, which softball bat is better for high school students. Basic example which subject is most liked by high school students.

Theory-data cycle is:

Asking a question, forming a hypothesis that only leads to specific questions. Then collect data on those specific questions. When they are proven wrong or supported, other questions are asked and the cycle starts again.

Example of a Hypothesis:

Australian Shepards will chose to go to a female over a male

What is the difference between basic and applied research?

Basic research aims to enhance general knowledge, usually in a lab setting. Applied research pertains to practical problems.

How does probabilistic explain why conclusions from research don't always match your personal experience?

Because every person is different and not every variable can be accounted for in a big population, so while the data explains the majority, you may have a different experience.

Why do we never use the term "prove" regarding theories

Because you can never be 100% certain about anything. There is always a chance of mutation, variability, change, and findings in the unknown. To say that something is 100% supported all of the time is impossible, especially in science.

How can an observational measure be used to operationalize a variable?

By defining happiness by a smile. For example, people that smile more are happier.

How can a physiological measure be used to operationalize a variable?

By defining the variable by a measurement. For example, more brain activity = more _____________

Why is test-retest reliability helpful?

Can be used with any measure (Self-report, observational, or physiological)

What is the difference between a categorical (nominal) and quantitative variable?

Categorical just means categories and note that one value or category is not higher or lower than another in comparison. A quantitative variable has meaning to its numerical values.

How is communality self-correcting?

Communality is self-correcting by allowing multiple people to view the data and results. When the knowledge is shared with multiple people, there is at least one person who could catch a mistake made and be able to communicate that mistake to the group, so the knowledge can correct itself.

YES - What is a confound?

Confounds are other things that may have created the result. For example, if you drink a coke and take ibuprofen every time you have a headache then you don't know if it the caffeine or the medicine that is fixing your headache.

* What is the difference between construct and conceptual variable?* What does the term construct mean?

Construct is more of a formal statement.

Known-groups evidence is also known as:

Criterion validity

How is disinterestedness self-correcting?

Disinterestedness is self-correcting because sometimes it is hard to keep your biases or political beliefs out of the facts, but by keeping disinterestedness in mind, scientists can review their research over and over again to eliminate all conviction, idealism, etc and correct itself.

YES - How is our intuition bias during bias blind spot?

During bias blind spot, we tend to lean into our own confidence rather than relying on the facts. For example "knowing" that the results are correct instead of actually checking the results. For example, when "I know" that a calculation is right, but scientist would still type it into the calculator to be sure.

When do you use interrater reliability?

During observational measures

When do you use internal reliability?

During questionnaires

How does empiricism help to define psychology as a science?

Empirical work allows other observers to verify it independently. This is similar to other sciences such that a chemist may run a test over and over again or another chemist will look at the experiment and data and be able to replicate it.

What is an interval scale?

Have even spacing between values

What does reliability mean?

How consistent your data is

What is an example of a ratio scale?

How many episodes of a show you watched

Example of data:

How many times different Australian Shepards go to a female first over going to male first

What is an example of an interval scale?

IQ scores is an interval scale

Why is interrater reliability helpful?

If you have more than one person observing and recording the same thing then you can determine which points were stronger and consistent and which points were outliers and possible mistakes made by the researchers.

YES - What does it mean when research is probabilistic?

It means that it applies to the majority of the population in the specific situation, but the findings cannot be applied to every single person because every person is different and have their own experiences to where it either does work for them or it doesn't, despite what the data states.

How does the Theory-Data Cycle help to define psychology as a science?

It sets up a layout of steps similar to the "Scientific Method". The theory-data cycle introduces questions, hypotheses, experiments, data, and conclusions. Again, a layout that is similarly found in other sciences.

How is our intuition bias when being swayed by a good story?

Just because it sounds good, does not mean it is statistically right. For example, if your computer is hot, you should pour water on it to cool it down, which makes sense. But in reality, it will fry you're computer because it is electric.

YES - What does levels of a variable mean?

Levels of variables means the constructs you are measuring. The "ideas" can be measured or manipulated. Each concept, is a different level in the study.

What is interrater reliability?

One observer records data and then another observer is recording the same data. After they are done collecting data, they compare answers

What is an ordinal scale?

Ordinal scale means rank in order

How is organized skepticism self-correcting?

Organized Skepticism corrects itself by constantly questioning itself. Scientists may think their work in "correct", but if they read their work with organized skepticism then they can question their own work to see where they theory may have been wrong and some editing could be done to their theory.

DON'T FEEL GOOD ABOUT THIS ONE - How is our intuition bias when present/present bias?

Our intuition is bias based on the things that coincidentally happen at the same time. For example, in our small group at church. I can focus of the girls that are there, but fail to remember that there are other girls outside of our group that may feel different.

How is our intuition bias during availability heuristic?

Our intuition is biased based on the things we see or hear the most. For example politic views - the type of people you hang around and the politic side you see on TikTok influence your politic views. Or if you listen to a bunch of murder podcasts, you will think that murders happen way more often then they actually do.

How do you interpret a scatterplot to assess reliability for test-retest

Put measures the first time on the scatterplot and then using test-retest, you compare the first dots to the second set of dots to see which ones are close in correlation of each other.

What is Universalism?

Scientific claims are evaluated based on quality of how how good or worthy they are; independent of how good or worthy the researchers reputation is.

What is Communality?

Scientific knowledge is created by community and its findings belong to the community.

What is Disinterestedness?

Scientists are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit. The strive to discover the actual truth

What is Organized Skepticism?

Scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and "ancient wisdom".

What is test-retest liability?

Scores should be consistent the first time they took the test and the second time no matter how much time was in between

YES - What is an example of a measured variable?

Temp. of a room or race of children

Difference between a theory, data, and hypothesis:

Theory is the general idea while hypothesis predicts a part of the theory and data is what you actually observe in relation to your hypothesis.

How does research control for confounds that occur as a part of personal experience?

They use confederates (actors who know what is going on in the experiment, but pretend that they don't) and other controls in research to eliminate as many confounds as they can until they get the one variable they want to analyze alone.

YES YES YES - What does it mean to operationalize a variable with an operational definition?

To operationalize a variable mean to specifically define the aspect you are looking at of the construct and also give it a quantifiable value so that it can be manipulated or measured.

Why is internal reliability helpful?

To really focus in on one aspect of the construct

Why is it important that a theory is falsifiable?

To show the efficacy, which means how strong the internal validity.

Name Merton's Scientific Norms

Universalism Communality Disinterestedness Organized Skepticism

How is universalism self-correcting?

Universalism is self-correcting by evaluating the work for what it is. Scientists are able to evaluate and reevaluate the work for reliability and validity. If the work is neither or only one, then the researchers can re-do the work. This is self-correcting.

How is our intuition bias during confirmation bias?

We tend to only look at the research with which we agree. For example we may look at our favorite teams quarter backs stats

What is internal reliability?

When consistency is found within the measure vs within the outcomes

When should test-retest reliability be used?

When measuring constructs that are theoretically stable (not moods)

YES - What is an example of a manipulated variable?

Whether researchers put the participants in the control, experimental, or placebo group.

Why does a comparison group make research a better source of information than your personal experience?

Without one, you are not able to see where your own mistakes are made. If you base it off your personal experiences, biases are allowed. A comparison group allows the research to continuously evaluate their findings and possibly change their theory.

What is a ratio scale?

absolute zero and one number is twice as high as the other

* - What's the difference between this definition and the definition of dependent variable or measurementData def:

quantifiable observations

What are Merton's scientific norms?

shared expectations of how they should act

Empiricism means:

using evidence from the five senses or from instruments that help measure around the senses (thermometers, timers, scales, questionnaires, etc.) to base conclusions