Materials Science Helping Tool

Good iron

"Good Iron" credited to the Hittites, and their iron weapons and chariots helped conquer enemies Repeated cycles of heating a piece of bloom in charcoal furnace ~1200 degrees C for softening, and then hammering to remove slag and to compact it Continued exposure to carbon monoxide gas of burning charcoal during heat treatment degrees C (~0.3-0.6 wt%) diffuses into surface of iron to produce Fe-C alloys. These were the first steels, though the Hittites did not know it, and did not even know what they were doing!

Polymers

"Poly"- many "Meros" = parts Polymers are long-chain carbon-based molecules consisting of many (poly) repeating sub-units (mers) Can occur in nature and are essential to life material difference is plastic

Float glass for window production

(Pilkington process -1950's Britain) 1) Molten soda-lime glass floated on molten tin 2) Tin is used because it has higher density than glass, and a low melting point 3) Glass can be shaped as it is cooled curved windows, car windshields, etc. 4) Global market size is about $150 B

Murano glassmakers of Venice

1) "Cristallo" -very pure, clear glass -addition of Mn to remove color, use of crushed pure quartz pebbles 2) "Lattimo" glass - milk white glass produced by adding lead and tin 3) "Millefiori" glass -colored beads in clear glass 4) Murano mirrors

Phase Diagrams

1) A phase diagram is a graph that describes the dependence of the phase of a particular material on temperature, pressure, and composition. 2) We have already encountered one phase diagram -that of the aforementioned carbon

Alumina (Al2O3)

1) As a naturally occurring mineral, known as corundum 2) In single crystal form known as sapphire 3) Can be made synthetically in the laboratory: 4) But more commonly as a polycrystalline ceramic (alumina)

Phase diagram for Carbon

1) At room temperature and pressure, graphite is the stable form of carbon 2) At high temperature and pressure, graphite is converted to diamond

Brass

1) Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Like bronze it was probably discovered when ancient people smelted copper ores that also contained zinc ores. 2)The characteristic feature of brass is its yellowish color, as opposed to bronze, which appears more reddish-brown. 3) The earliest brasses date to about 5000 BCE some 3000 years after the introduction of bronze. 4) The Romans made widespread use of brass, including for coinage and ceremonial armor

1500 BCE: Stoneware

1) Clay fired at approximately 1200 -1300 C 2) Results in partially amorphous, nonporous material 3) First developed in Shang dynasty, China 4) Black (basalte) and white (jasper) stoneware developed by Wedgewood in England (1700) using metal oxides to provide color

1000 CE: Porcelain

1) Developed in China -used pure white kaolin clay with quartz and feldspar (a mineral) fired as high as 1400C 2) Results in completely vitrified material that is tough, strong, translucent, generally white 3) Bone china was developed in England around 1750 and uses bone ash (containing calcium oxide and phosphorus pentoxide) -results in very strong porcelain that can be made very thin

9000 BCE Earthenware

1) First ceramics -fired kaolinite clay around 800 -1200 C 2) results in crystalline, porous material 3) Later (3000BCE) Egyptians used glazing with glass to produce nonporous vessels 4) Other glazes using tin and lead developed

Ancient Gold uses

1) First uses of gold were ornamental in the form of jewelry 2) Highly valued for pharaoh tombstones 3) The first coins of gold were struck in Asia Minor in about 700 BC, as the concept of money as an exchange medium for goods was developed

Synthesized natural diamonds

1) Formed billions of years ago deep within the Earth's crust 2) High temperature, pressure force melting of graphite, recrystallization as diamond 3) Transported "explosively" to surface in the magma of small volcanic eruptions 4) Cooled magma, known as kimberlite, contains diamond deposits at the surface

"Lost waxes" process for metal casing

1) In the lost wax process a mold is created using a wax model. The wax is then melted away, or "lost," and the molten metal is poured into the form. 2) The process dates back to the third millennium BCE, and was used heavily in Ancient Greece to create intricate sculptures and jewelry 3)The process is used industrially today (where it is frequently called investment casting) to create intricate objects like this turbine engine

What is a ceramic? (compare with glass)

1) Inorganic, nonmetallic solid exhibiting covalent or ionic bonding 2) Brittle, high melting point, usually a poor conductor, stiff (high Young's modulus), chemically resistant 3) Crystallinity varies from crystalline to semicrystalline to vitrified to fully amorphous 4) As usual, there are exceptions to the rules -for instance, some ceramics are good electrical conductors, and can even be superconducting!

Copper production today

1) It is estimated that the Earth contains about 10^14 tons of copper, many millions of years worth at current production rates 2) However, much of this copper is not economically feasible to extract. It is estimated that the amount of copper that can be extracted economically is only on the order of 50 years worth or so. 3) Today copper is extracted from a variety of copper containing ores and minerals, including chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), bornite (Cu5FeS4) and tetrahedrite (Cu12Sb4S13) 4)Michigan was a major producer of Copper in the 1800's from native copper mines in the Keweenaw Peninsula. These reserves are largely played out, although recently some companies have been attempting to revive the industry.

Glass blowing in babylon

1) Molten glass "gathered" on end of a hollow metal pipe 2) Inflated into bubble by blowing through the pipe 3) Rolled on a "marver" to shape the gather 4) Other pieces "welded" on

Smelting and the use of copper ores

1) Pure metal copper was first found in native form in smallquantities and used for things like jewelry and religious objects. 2) It took thousands of years for humans to discover that copper was contained in minerals and ores and to learn howto extract that copper -the earliest evidence dates to approximately 5000 BCE in the area around modern day 3) Serbia in Eastern Europe and Jordan in the Middle East. 4) This extraction is based on the process of smelting -no, not the little fish you find in the Great Lakes, but rather a method of heating and melting using coal. 5) Ancient peoples at this time discovered large quantities of copper containing ores -for instance, malachite, a type of copper carbonate. 6) While initially valued for its beauty when polished, at some point it was discovered that by heating this material in the presence of carbon (i.e.,in acharcoal fire, something miraculous happened -it transformed into the shiny red metal we know as copper!)

Industrial applications for diamonds

1) Roughly 80% of mined diamonds are used by industry (30 tons) 2) Most diamonds are not high enough quality for gemstones 3) Industrial applications mainly take advantage of its hardness Grinding, Polishing, Drilling & cutting

SiO2 glass coated plastic

1) SiO2 Materials Science is a glass manufacturer in Auburn, Alabama 2) Have developed a hybrid glass/plastic vial 3) $143 M grant from BARDA to scaleup

Famous and large diamonds

1) Star of Africa 2) Koh-I-Noor 3) Golden Jubilee 4) Hope

Large Scale production of Copper

1) The discovery of the reduction of malachite to pure copper opened the door for widescale production of copper metal, as it led to the discovery and use of many other copper-containing ores in the smelting process. 2) This led to the production of tools, agricultural implements, and weapons using this new metal. Unlike stone, copper was not brittle and could be cold-worked (that is, hammered) into a variety of shapes and forms. 3) Unfortunately, its chief advantage also was a disadvantage - while tools and weapons might not break, they would easily bend and deform, because of the softness of pure copper. We now know that this is because the yield strength of the pure metal is low, and plastic deformation will occur at fairly small stress and strain

Diamond specialties

1) The hardest 2) The strongest 3) Highest thermal conductivity? 4) Has the greatest optical transparency 5) The best electrical insulator 6) Has the highest melting point 7) Resistant to corrosion by acid or base 8) Amongst the most precious of gemstones

Glassmaking today

1) Uses sand, soda ash, lime as input materials 2) Melted glass forced into metal molds 3) Glass is annealed at lower temperature to remove stresses 4) Global market size is about $75 B

Gemstones

1) Valued for hardness, clarity, brilliance 2) Quality determined by the "four C's:" carats (size), cut, clarity, color 3) Global diamond jewelry market size: $76B Types of diamonds: Type IIa: 1) Almost free defects and impurities 2) "water white" 3) Most prized, expensive Type I: 1) 95% of natural stones 2) Contain nitrogen as point defects or aggregates Type IIb: 1) 0.2% of natural stones 2) Contains boron 3) substitutes for carbon

Eutectic Phase Diagram

1) While simple and straightforward, the Cu-Ni system that forms a complete solid solution is more the exception than the rule. 2) More typically, there is a limit to how much one element may be substituted for another in a lattice we call this limit the solubility limit. 3) The resulting phase diagram is more complicated because, unlike the Cu-Ni, it exhibits more than one solid phase. 4) Let's look at the example of copper and silver (Cu-Ag)

Discovery of Bronze

1) it was 3000 BCE and people were using pure copperfor jewelry trinkets agricultural tools and weapons 2) But the metal was so soft that it tended to deform easlily under small forces 3)It was time for a new discovery! 4) The term bronze refers to an alloys which are primarily (usually at least 80%) copper and another element or elements, including tin, arsenic, and phosphorus. 5) The discovery bronze was perhaps serendipitous, for instance from the smelting of ores that contained arsenic or tin

Moissonite and Diamond stimulants

1) single crystal form, SiC is clear, has a hardness rivaling diamond,and has brightness and sparkle exceeding even that of diamond, and can be made more cheaply. 2) For this reason, over the last 20 years or so it has been developed and marketed as a gemstone and as a diamond simulant. 3) Unlike other diamond simulants, like zirconia (ZrO2, which is not much more than a fancy glass), almost all of SiC's properties rival those of diamond, making it very difficult to tell the difference between the two (and leading to many scams by shady diamond dealers). 4) Silicon carbide is also an important industrial material for grinding, polishing, and cutting, and when used for these purposes is known as carborundum.

The Age of Bronze

1)Although the first bronzes were alloys of copper and arsenic more commonlyknown alloys of copper and tin were used because the toxic effects of arsenic 2) Two common compositions are "classic" bronze (90% copper, 10% tin) and "mild" bronze(94% copper, 6% tin)

Corning's valor Glass

1)Superior chemical durability, reduced drug contamination 2) Reduced damage and breakage during transport 3) Low friction coating allows for faster filling and capping of vials 4) Aluminosilicate alternative to borosilicate glass 5) $204 M grant from BARDA to scaleup

Iron making in China

1000-650 BC from the west Chinese Iron makers used large amounts of forced air with large box bellows (now know as blast furnaces) large furnaces: increased CO and increased charcoal fuel (C) increased carbon diffusion into iron

Egyptians with glass

14th and 15th century BCE -Egyptians learn to coil molten glass cords around clay pots to form first glass containers

Titanium discovery

1791-William Gregor discovers an ore that consists of iron oxide and oxide of an unknown metal The ore he discovered was ilmenite, FeTiO3, and it is still today the primary ore of titanium 1795 -German chemist Martin Klaproth discovers Tiin the mineral TiO2 (rutile), but cannot isolate the metal 1896 Henri Moissan isolates a heavily contaminated titanium using an electric arc furnace 1910 -Matthew Hunter (General Electric and RPI) reduces ilmenite to TiCl4, then reacts this with Na in a furnace to isolate Ti 1930's -William Kroll replaces Na with Mg in the Hunter process, to produce titanium more cheaply This opens the door to more widespread use of titanium in aerospace market in the last half of the 20th century

Discovery of aluminum

1807-English chemist Humphrey Dacey decomposed aluminum oxide (Al2O3 using an electric arc The metal he produced was an alloy of aluminum and iron, of which the arc electrode was made 1824 -Danish chemist reacts aluminum chloride with potassium to produce pure aluminum Aluminum remained a novelty for several decades because of The difficulty in extracting it and the rarity of potassium 1886 -Charles Hall (USA) and Paul Heroult(France) simultaneously discover the extraction of aluminum from aluminum oxide using electrolysis 1889 -Austrian chemist Carl Bayer invents method for purifying the common aluminum-containing ore bauxite into aluminum oxide The Hall-Heroultprocess is still used today in Al manufacturing

Important points for aluminum

1856-price of gold is $19/oz; price of aluminum is $34/oz 1894 -price of aluminum is $0.5/lb 1900 -worldwide production is 7000 lbs 1940 -production increases for aircraft production in WW

Aluminum in automobiles

1901 Benz, 1917 Pierce arrow, 1961 Buick/land rover, 2015 ford

The Chalcolithic (Copper) Age

9000 BCE -discovery and use of native deposits of copper that occur in small quantities Mostly use for jewelry and small tools

Cast Iron

93.0% iron Melting 4.0% Carbon Controlled cooling 3.0% Silicon

Carbon steel

98.0% iron Melting water 1.0% manganese Water Quenching 0.5% Carbon Tempering 0.5% Silicon

Composite Materials

A composite material is a mixture of two different materials with different physical properties on the macroscale To be distinguished from a compound, or an alloy, in which substitution of elements occurs at the atomic scale Examples: Concrete -cement + aggregate Plywood -wood + glue Your arm! -bone + muscle

Copper recycling

A major industry

Precipitation of aluminum

Add about 4% copper to aluminum and quench from high temperature Freezes the structure as a solid solution of Cu in Al Subsequent heating causes Al2Cu precipitates to form These precipitates block dislocations, rendering the material very hard Approximate 100x increase in the yield strength!

Vulcanization of Rubber

Addition of sulfur at high temperature • "Cross-linking" of rubber molecules by sulfur • Causes shrinking without change in shape • Significantly hardens the rubber, makes it less vulnerable to deformation (decreased plasticity)

Dislocation

Allows for plasticity

Aluminum

Aluminum is the most abundant metal and third most abundant element (behind silicon and oxygen) on earth Soft, malleable (YS = 10 MPa) Low melting point (660 C) -can be easily cast Very light (density about 1/3 that of Cu and Fe) Highly reactive and its oxide is very stable difficult to find pure aluminum in nature difficult to reduce the oxide to pure metal "roasting" aluminum-containing ores and minerals in a charcoal fire does not result in reduction of oxides to pure metal by CO reduction Thus the ancients did not know about aluminum

Environmental concerns

Aluminum production uses 5% of US electricity output • Is a major contributor to carbon dioxide production Resource and environmental concerns 2Al2O3 + 3C 4Al of 3CO2 • Aluminum recycling is an important industry • It takes 95% less energy to recycle aluminum than to produce it

Amorphous and crystalline solids

Amorphous: no particular arrangement of atoms Crystalline: regular repeating crystal structure called a crystal lattice

fiber optics

Application: uses light to transmit information -internet, telephone, other high-speed telecommunications, cable TV, light guides 1) Relies on strand, or fiber, of glass comprised of inner glass core and outer glass cladding with different indices of refraction 2) Global market size is about $7B. About the size of a human hair 3)Typically used very high purity silica

Segregations of impurity atoms (V) and formation of iron carbides (Fe3C) results in unique microstructure

Art of making blades lost for hundreds of years. Damascene patterns produced only from wootz ingots from India that have appropriate impurity containing Ore. Only relatively recent times have metallurgists and blacksmiths been able to recreate the microstructure in the same manner.

Nickle based superalloy

Base metal phases is fcc nickel (gamma) • Can contain a high percentage of solid solution elements (Cr, Nb, Fe, Ti, Al...) • Precipitated second phase (gamma prime) • Typically fcc Ni3Ti or Ni3Al • Al or Ti at the cube corners, and Ni at the face centers

Precipitation hardening of Titanium

Because of the various forms of titanium and its alloys, and the dependence of solubility on temperature, there are a wide range of titanium alloys available • These can be alpha-phase alloys, beta -phase alloys, or alpha-beta alloys, which contain both phases at room temperature

Bessemer Process

Bessemer process once in wide use during the middle of 19th century was abandoned due to poor ductility and workability (due to N)

Superalloy for jet turbines

Biggest problem-CREEP Creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of persistent mechanical stresses Can occur when a material is exposed to high levels of stress (but still below the yield strength) for long periods of time at high temperature Unlike fracture, does not occur suddenly, but accumulates over time In a jet turbine engine, creep in the turbine blades can cause them to contact he casing and result in failure Creep depends strongly on grain structure of the material: it increases with decreasing grain size

Modern steel making the basic oxygen process (Austria, 1940)

Blows oxygen into molten metal from top, by lance or tuyeres reduces carbon to make steel • fast, cost effective • inexact compositions • steel scraps<2

Biotech Industry

Bone prosthetic bonding, surface modification, selection/evaluation/specification of material. Identification of manufacturing paths.

Andrew Carnegie's empire of steel

Born in Scotland in 1835, immigrated as a boy to the US Industrialized the Bessemer process Vertical integration -bring in raw materials on one end, output finished steel on the other One the 19th century "robber barons" Amassed a giant fortune -probably larger than that of Bill Gates or Jeff Bezos today (somewhere between $300-350 B Gave away nearly all of his money for philanthropy -libraries, universities, research institutions, etc.

Other glasses

Borosilicate glass:silica containing boron trioxide (B2O3) -this glass has a very low thermal expansion coefficient and is used in chemical glassware and bakeware Lead glass: contains silica and lead oxide (PbO) this glass has high refractive index, and thus is used for fancy glassware and optical equipment Aluminosilicate glass: the additive this time is aluminum oxide (Al2O3) this glass can withstand higher temperature, and is used in thermometers, furnaces, and lamps

Brass Applications

Brasses have huge numbers of applications, including decorative (because of its gold appearance), use in gears, locks, doorknobs, bullet casings, plumbing, and musical instruments electronic terminals

strengthening of aluminum

Can we make aluminum stronger? Solid solution strengthening -can be done by substituting Mg and Mn for Al in the lattice -limited improvement Precipitation hardening is a much better approach

Phases of solids

Carbon Hexagonal: 1) layered structure strong covalent in-layer bonding Weak Van der Waals bonding between layers Cubic structure: 1) strong covalent throughout

CVD process

Carbon-containing gas (usually CH4) is flowed into chamber. An energy source is used to "crack" the molecule into its constituent elements. Carbon deposits on the substrate and under the right conditions forms a diamond coating.

natural polymers

Cellulose- the most abundant polymer on Earth! • Wood • Cotton • Hemp • Long chain of glucose molecules strung together Important for making fibers, clothing, and paper Silk • Protein produced by thousands of insects and spiders • Consist of long chains of amino acid proteins • Used for building structures, entrapping prey • Valued by humans for the smooth texture, strength Rubber (latex) • Consists of polymerized isoprene • Extracted from many plants - main source is the Amazonian rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) • Very soft, elastic, sticky

Clay

Clay is a very fine-grained naturally occurring materialconsisting mainly of various silicon and aluminum-containing materials, which are capable of entrapping water molecules. When containing water, they develop plasticity (i.e., they can be deformed, unlike other mineral-like materials). Very commonly occuring and the first materials used by our ancestors.

Smectin clay in oil well drilling

Clay used to form impermeable "mudcake" layer between bore hole and reservoir and assist in filtering debris from oil and bringing it to the surface

Kaolinite

Consists of alternating layers of silicate and aluminum hydroxide Nominal structure, Tightly packed and used for gloss in porcelain

Smecitite

Consists of alternating layers of silicate and aluminum hydroxidewith intermediate layers of water molecules. Variable compositions containing Fe, Na, Ca in addition to Al and Si Undergoes significant swelling and shrinkage upon hydration and dehydration Main applications are in oil drilling, contaminant removal, filtering.

Single crystal nickle superalloy turbine blades

Creep can be eliminated if grain boundaries are eliminated, i.e. if the part is made as a single crystal Pratt and Whitney developed single crystal nickel superalloy turbine blades using directional cooling

synthetic rubber

Development driven by sources of natural rubber during WWI and WWII • Can be made from isoprene, like natural rubber • Also other monomers derived from petroleum, such as styrene and butadiene • Superior to natural rubbers in thermal stability and resistance to oils • Developments in US led by four large tire manufacturers BF Goodrich, Goodyear, Firestone, and Uniroyal

14 Bravais Lattices

Different repeating patterns

advantages/disadvantages of composites

Disadvantages: Complex fabrication process Cost Advantages: Tailorable properties Directional properties Complex shapes High strength Light weight

Titanium in aerospace

Engines, landing gears

Nickel in magnets

First developed in 1931 • Fe containing Al - Ni - Co • Strongest magnet until the development of rare earth Nd-Fe-B magnets in the 1980's • Still used for specific applications, like high temperature

One component phase diagram for carbon

For a one-component phase diagram, the composition isconstant (in this case it's always 100 % C) Thus the phase diagram is a two dimensional plot of pressure versus temperature Solid solid phase transformation-graphite converts to diamond at specific high temperatures and pressures using this Carbon has one of the more interesting phase diagrams, because of the transformation of graphite to diamond. Most elements just are that interesting -they do not change crystal structure upon heating or with an increase in pressure -they just eventually melt (solid-liquid phase transformation).

Gold

Gold , like copper can occur in its native state and in fact this is the most common appearance, as veins in quartz or as gold "nuggets" Gold was in fact most likely discovered even earlier than copper It quickly became valued for its extreme malleability (ability to hammer into very thin sheets beauty and inertness against chemical attack and oxidation Though silver can also occur in its native state, it was not discovered in that from by the ancients It took until 3000BCE for the ancients to develop the process of separating silver from other ores, typically as an impurity in the mineral galena (PbS) This process was highly inefficient, with one ton of Pb ore yielding but a pound of silver

Gold for electrical

Gold does not have the lowest electrical resistivity of the metallic elements - both copper and silver are better conductors However, because of its corrosion resistance and lack of formation of an oxide, it is the preferred contact material Its softness is problematic for contacts that must be made and remade repeatedly This is overcome by the use of alloys of gold with other metals, in particular silver (electrum, again)

Limitations of HPHT

HPHT synthesis is slow and expensive: 1) Can produce large gem-quality diamonds -but expensive! 2) Used to make vast quantities of industrial-grade diamonds - 1,000 tons/year, most being type I yellow diamonds CVD has several limitations: 1) Reaction rates 2) Temperature - limits the number of substrates 3) Crystal quality 4) Many applications require smooth layers of diamond, not individual crystals 5) However, CVD products are on the market and the technology is maturing

1st glass making discovery

Important discovery #1 addition of soda (that is, NaCO3) lowers melting point to 800 C, but renders a glass soluble in water Sodium carbonate was known to and used by the Egyptians in the delta of the Nile river Sodium ions are incorporated interstitially as "modifiers" that break up the connected silica network -yield lower melting point, lower viscosity glass Unfortunately, the resulting "sodium silicate" glass is soluble in water, which means it won't hold your pop for too long

2nd glass making discovery

Important discovery #2 addition of lime (CaO) to the soda-silica mix stabilizes the glass in aqueous solution Lime was also easily available to early glass-makers in the form of limestone In this "lime-soda glass", calcium ions bond readily to oxygen, thus strengthening and stabilizing the structure Various compositions of lime- soda glass are manufactured today and account for 90 % of all plate (window) and container (bottle) glass worldwide

The General Electric HPHT process

In 1954, at GE Research, Bundy, Strong, and Hall made the first synthetic diamond using the "belt" process 1) 10 GPA 2) 3000 C

basic oxygen process

In modern times, large consumptions charcoal (incomplete burning of wood) as fuel and reducing agent for iron smelting has taken a toll on forests of industrialized countries

Vulcanized rubber

Increased hardness increased elasticity and decreased plasticity, • Rubber hoses, gaskets, seals, tires, shoes, toys, etc. • Example of the curing of an elastomer, an irreversible process

What is glass?

Inorganic solid exhibiting covalent or ionic bonding Usually (but not always) transparent or translucent Hard, brittle, electrically insulating Impervious to most chemicals Lacks crystallinity Example: SiO2 makes quartz crystal, and quartz glass

High C concentration decreases the melting temperature

Iron alloy can now be cast! pig iron - crude cast iron directly taken from furnace and to be used later

Cast iron or high carbon steels

Iron with high C is hard, but can be brittle! ~500 BC, the Chinese removed excess C from surface: cast iron heated to 800-900 degrees C in presence of air oxygen combines with C in Fe and forms CO(g) The Chinese and Mediterranean people eventually achieved similar iron products, but from opposite directions % C in Fe Mediterraneans Chinese added C (carbonize) shape by hammering, solid state diffusion into surface without melting able to cast removed C able to mass produce

Iron blooms and discovery of wrought iron

Layering of Iron with charcoal heated to high temperature Carbon monoxide (CO) from burning of charcoal reacts with Iron ore (iron oxide), producing CO2 and reducing the oxide to pure iron Resulting product, called a bloom, contained both a spongy iron and slag (mostly silicon oxide and other rocklike remnants) bloom was repeatedly hammered at high temperatures to remove slag and compact the iron to purify iron, now known as wrought iron liquid phase not needed!

Nickel

Like titanium, nickel has a high melting point and resists corrosion However, it does not offer any large advantages from a strength point of view, and it is as heavy as iron It has mainly been used as an alloying element (an minority component additive to another metal) or as a coating More recently, it has played an important role in the development of rechargeable batteries

The Bessemer (Great Britain, 1850) converter process involved air blown upward through molten pig iron in pear-shaped vessel

Low cost of the Bessemer process revolutionized the manufacture of steel in Europe and America.

Copper apps

Machinery, Building construction, consumer products, transportation equipment and electronics

synthetic polymers

Made by polymerization of various hydrocarbon molecules derived from petroleum, for instance: C-C Ethane C=C Ethylene C-C-C Propane C=C-C Propylene With different functional side groups: H Polyethylene plastic bags Cl Poly vinyl chloride plumbing pipes CH3 Polypropylene plastic containers Benzene polystyrene Styrofoam Fluorine Teflon

Bonding in Solids

Many of the properties of solids, whether they are crystalline or amorphous, are determined by how the atoms comprising them are bonded together. Four types: Ionic, Covalent, Metallic and Van Der Waals

Uses of polymers

Mechanical engineering, medical, footwear, toys/sports etc.

De Havilland Comet issues

Metal fatigue near the windows

Advanced Composites

Metal matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites, polymer composites

Titanic issues

Microscopic brittle fractures that are consistent with high temperatures in the Atlantic

Polyethylene

Most common plastic today • Over 100 million tons annually • High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) • Water bottles • Flexible plastic tubing • Plastic lumber • Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) • Packaging • Plastic bags • Juice and milk cartons

Broad generalities

Most metals are crystalline for instance (titanium jet blade, polycrystalline frying pan) Ceramics and glasses can be crystalline or amorphous (polycrystalline aluminum oxide baseplate for electronics, amorphous stained glass window) Polymers plastics are typically but not always amorphous (organic solar cells, stylish plastic footwear)

Copper mining

Mostly from ores these days instead of native

Natural vs synthetic vs simulant

Natural- pure, nitrogen doped, Boron doped REAL DIAMONDS! Synthetic- all colors REAL DIAMONDS! Simulant- Cubic Zirconia (ZrO2) is an imposter, SiC is a very good impostor NOT REAL AT ALL!

Nickel in batteries

Nickel-Cadmium: Rechargeable First developed in 1899 Contains toxic cadmium Nickel metal hydride: Replaces Cd with another alloy About 20% of rechargeable batteries in 2010 Nickel in lithium batteries: 2nd generation EV batteries use up to 50% by weight N Increased energy density, lower cost compared to Co

The first glasses

Obsidian: Black translucent glass originating from volcanic eruptions, Used prehistorically mainly for tools and weapons Fulgarite: Formed when lightning strikes sand Trinitite (not first or natural): Formed July 23, 1945 at the first atom bomb test in Alamogordo, NM

Rise of rome with gold

One of the great empires in history, Rome actually manufactured very little. It made heavy use of gold, not only for jewelry and ornamental Uses,but as a medium of exchange for goods. Roman gold largely originated from the Rio Tinto mines in Iberia (present-day Spain) The mines of Rio Tinto are still in operation today With the pressure to produce more and more gold, Roman mines developed sophisticated chemistry for its extraction in minute quantities of ore, including extraction from mercury

Gold industry

Only about 10% of the gold produced today is used by industry (outside of jewelry and monetary applications) Demand for bold for various applications Its primary use is as a conductor in electronic integrated circuits for use in phones, computers, and other electronic-based devices

Silver in Industry

Over one third of the silver used in the US is for applications in electronics This is due to its very high electrical conductivity Silver inks and pastes are used extensively for electrical contacts and electrical pathways in solar cells Silver is also heavily used in solders, dental alloys, and as a component of tableware, and of course in jewelry

Packing Factor

P= total atom volume/unit cell volume= AucVA/Vuc Auc= number of atoms in the unit cell Va= Volume per atom Vuc= Unit cell atom

Kaolinite in paper production

Paper consists mainly of plant fibers that have been dried and pressed. Kaolin (white china clay), dyes, and other chemicals added to the process to improve paper quality and appearance

Extended defects

Point defects are defects that are confined to a single atom or lattice site. That are many types of defects that extend beyond a single atom, and are, no surprisingly, called extended defects. One example is a line defect, or dislocation

Mechanical properties of polymers

Polymers: thermoset, thermoplastic, elastomer Ceramics and metals: Brittle material, necking

ionic bonding

Positively charged nucleus containing neutral atoms and positively charged protons, surrounded by negatively electrons. Example: LiF, NaCl, KBr, Csl etc.

Stonehenge History

Prehistoric monument: dates to 3000 BCE (Neolithic) Ring of standing stones Each stone 25 tons Much speculation: Burial ground? Astronomical observatory? Religious/ritualistic site? How were the stones moved? Where did the stones come from?

Methods of synthesis for diamonds

Pressure-High Temperature (HPHT): 1) Apply high temperatures and pressures to graphite 2) Uses liquid metal (Fe) to catalyze the reaction Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): 1) Diamond is grown on a Si substrate 2) Carbon in gas phase is activated by heat or plasma 3) Reaction occurs at 1000-1400K in excess H2 gas 4) Most economical method for industrial application

silicon carbide

Properties like high thermal conductivity, high melting point, hardness, chemical inertness, etc, all tend to go hand in hand because they depend on the same fundamental attributes of a solid such as strong bonding and light atom masses. In terms of these properties we can make a hierarchy of several Compounds: Diamond - king of the hill, as we have seen! Cubic Boron nitride (BN) - does not exist in nature, difficult to synthesize Silicon Carbide (SiC) - does not exist naturally, not too hard to make! Aluminum Nitride (AlN) Gallium Nitride (GaN) Interestingly, unlike diamond, SiC does not occur naturally on Earth. Its occurrence on earth was first found in 1893 by the French chemist Henri Moissan, as small crystallites in the Diablo Canyon meteorite crater in Arizona. SiC have been referred to as "moissanite" in his honor.

Steel-making methods 100AD-present

Puddling Bessemer process Blast furnace Open hearth method Basic oxygen process

History of glass-making

Pure silica (SiO2) melts at 1723 degrees C -a temperature not achieved controllably in a furnace until the 18th century! The first artificial glass materials date from about 3000BCE in the area near Syria, Mesopotamia, and Egypt Peoples living at that time did not know how to achieve such temperatures

Titanium alloys

Pure titanium has two phases beta (bcc) above 882 degrees C alpha (hcp) below 882 C Aluminum is an "alpha-stabilizer" Raises the alpha-beta transition temperature Vanadium is a "beta-stabilizer" Lowers the alpha-beta transition temperature

Discovery of heat treatments

Quenching" rapid cooling of red-hot carbonized iron into cold water: • hardens work piece to extent of brittleness • quenched swords and tools could crack or shatter Tempering: short-time reheating of previously quenched steel to ~600 degrees C • restores some ductility and relieves brittleness • might lose some hardness

grain boundaries

Regions between grains of a polycrystalline material. When this occurs the material is said to be monocrystalline, or a single crystal. These little crystallites are called grains, and the interfaces between them are called grain boundaries.

Covalent Bonding

Sharing of electrons between two constituents and the tendency to seek the most stable and lowest energy arrangement.

Silver History and production

Silver occurs rarely in native form Usually contained in ores such as argentite (Ag2S) and galena (PbS) The mineral galena (PbS) can contain up to 2% silver Smelt the ore to convert sulfide to oxide Reduce the oxide to extract pure lead, containing silver Reoxidize the Pb, evaporating it to separate from the silver (cupelattion) One ton of lead would yield one pound of silver

Single Crystals

Single crystals, while not all that unusual, are not all that commonly occurring in materials. If you are making a material in the laboratory, you have to go through a very painstaking process to yield a single crystal. (Single crystal of Si for chips and blue sapphire from Madagascar)

Stainless Steel

Steels in which other elements (Cr, Ni, V, W) are added to provide certain properties Can produce further strengthening and hardening via solid solution or precipitation mechanisms Addition of chromium allows for hard Cr2O3 oxide layer to form on surface, passivating the steel -"stainless steel" Hundreds of different variations and compositions for specific purposes

Diamond Location

Tend to be located in the oldest parts of the continents, known as cratons.

Cu-Ni phase diagram summary

The Cu-Ni system is a nice illustration of an isomorphous binary phase diagram -both copper and nickel form in the fcc lattice structure, and one can be freely substituted into the other over the entire composition range:

Gold in Mercury

The Romans used the reverse process- distillation (boiling off) of the mercury to leave behind the gold

Stone Ages

The Stone Ages: Paleolithic -Old Stone Age (2.5 mya-0.010 mya) Mesolithic -Middle Stone Age (0.010 mya-0.008 mya) Neolithic -New Stone Age (0.008 mya-0.003)

Crystals

The atoms are positioned in a periodic arrangement called the crystal lattice. Smallest repeating unit is called the unit cell.

Iron Belt

The iron belt is along the northern temperate zone, and major coal deposits follow

Nickel in coins

The jefferson Nickel is 75% copper and 25% nickel Cost of manufacturing a nickel: - 3.46 cents in 2003 - 10.09 cents in 2012 - It is now illegal to melt nickels (and pennies) US Mint is seeking alternative cheaper material to use for the nickel: Must have similar hardness, conductivity, density, etc.

O-rings in the challenger

The o-ring sealing the booster became so hard that it could not seal.

Meteoric Iron

The only occurrence of native iron (i.e., elemental iron) on Earth Typically is alloyed with nickel Used by humans as early as 4000 BCE Iron makes up roughly 5% the earth's crust, and is the 4th most abundant element Iron can be found on the surface vs. mining (Cu) Iron minerals include hematite and magnetite

Microstructure

The story of materials science is to understanding microstructures in solids and how to manipulate them in certain properties.

Categorization of synthetic polymers

Thermoset: polymeric chains rigidly cross-linked to form a rigid three dimensional structure Once hardened, cannot be reversed Epoxies, adhesives, etc. Thermoplastic: Chains are not chemically interconnected Tend to be soft, ductile Can be heated and remolded Elastomer: Slight cross-linking Vulcanized rubber is an example

Titanium 2 facts

Titanium is second to none in terms of the strength to density ratio! • Also possess superior high temperature properties

Gold as basis for money

Today we do not use gold as money, but rather paper currency and electronic credit The gold standard is a monetary system in which paper currency is directly convertible into gold - in other words, gold backs the value of money No country today uses the gold standard as a monetary system. Rather, the value of money is not based on any physical commodity but is allowed to vary against other currencies on foreign markets. The US abandoned the gold standard in 1933. Today's system is a fiat system, in which government decrees that paper currency must be accepted as a means of payment And of course the government can print as much money as it wants to try to control inflation or deflation, improve the economy, and increase employment Although the US government operates on the fiat system, it still holds a tremendous amount of gold - in fact, about 261,498,926 oz of gold bullion in official US Gold reserves. Gold bullion from the US Mint in West Point, NY However, there is currently about $1.99 Trillion in paper currency in circulation today

Mesolithic

Tools featured: polished surfaces crafted into points Use of bone and wood in stone

Modern HPHT Process

Uses cubic arrangement of anvils, but still requires high pressure and high temperature

Phase of a Material

We are used to talking about the four phases of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma 1) But we can also distinguish phases within the class of solid materials! 2) A phase in a solid is a physically homogeneous state of matter, where the phase has a certain chemical composition, and a distinct type of atomic bonding and arrangement of elements

Nickel in stainless steels

We have already talked about chromium additions to steel to make stainless steel, a corrosion resistant metal Addition of nickel allows for more flexibility in properties, including weldability, ductility, and rendering the steel nonmagnetic About 2/3 of all nickel production is used for alloying in stainless steels nickel addition to stainless steel converts the crystal structure from body-centered cubic to face-centered cubic, which gives rise to most of the useful properties of these alloys

Van Der waals bonding

Weak bonding that can occur between atoms or molecules due to so called dipole interactions. No tendency for transfer of sharing of electrons. Can't occur because electrons are too tightly bound. Polymers can exhibit this.

Titanium

While not as abundant as aluminum and iron, titanium is found extensively in minerals, and is the ninth most abundant element in the Earth's crust Very high melting point (1668 C) Density about half that of Cu and Fe Because of the high melting point of its ores, titanium was not known to the ancients Like aluminum, it is a "modern" metal, discovered only recently

Why bronze and not Iron?

Why bronze and not iron? Iron -4th most abundant element on Earth Melting point of 1538 C -too high for the ancients! (remember SiO2?) HOWEVER, by 1500 BCE, Trade routes interrupted, and Sn supplies (for bronze) cut Bronze Age ends due to lack of raw materials Once again, likely by serendipity, a new discovery was made! Iron ores were likely present during the smelting of copper, and it was this process that resulted in the first production of iron

Majestic plastic bag

Worldwide usage:5 trillion bags -160,000 bags per second Average time of usage: 12 minutes Average time to break down in the environment: 1,000 years Less than 1% of bags are recycled Each ton of recylcledbags saves the equivalent of 11 barrels of oil We use globally approximately 100 million tons of plastic a year About 10 % of this plastic ends up in the oceans

Forms of Iron and steel

Wrought iron (0-0.2%), or low-carbon steel Nearly pure iron Ductile, yield strength comparable to bronze High melting point (>1500°C) Medium Carbon (0.2-2.0 %) Steel Very strongandhard High melting point (>1400°C) Cast Iron (2-4%) high carbon steel Low melting point Brittle Can be cast, but not forged (i.e., worked by hammering)

Wrought Iron

Wrought("worked") iron is a very low carbon content (less than 0.08%) pure iron, containing up to 2% of slag inclusions Presence of slag gives wrought iron a unique fibrous appearance Because of low carbon content, wrought iron is malleable and not particularly hard - about as strong as bronze It was used for many centuries, and is the iron of the traditional blacksmith

X-ray fluorescence

XRF: Method of chemical analysis Measures x-rays emitted from materials that have ionized electrons Typical XRF pattern: Peaks at specific energies Correspond to specific elements Can be used as "fingerprint" analysis of composition

Metallic Bonding

a bond formed by the attraction between positively charged metal ions and the electrons around them. Usually a sea or cloud of electrons and positively charged metals are involved.

India produced the best swords and daggers with their wootz (later Damascus) steel

all pieces of wrought iron or sponge iron placed together with wood chips and leaves in small clay crucibles and heated in air-blast enhanced fires carbon from plant material evenly penetrates iron and provides homogeneous iron-carbon steel techniques kept secret later versions of hammer-welded alternate layers of iron and steel

Modern uses of bronze

bearings and bushings, springs, sculpture, plumbing fittings, Architectural

medieval way of making iron

bloomery

Ceramics uses today

building construction with cement concrete application, tile and brick, bathroom fixtures Industrial apps: silicon nitride engine parts, silicon carbide abrasives, artificial bone implants CERAMICS ARE NOT JUST OXIDES Functional ceramics: ZrO2 oxygen sensors Used to control air-fuel ratio in an internal combustion engine, Zirconium oxide is a ceramic Contains oxygen vacancies (empty lattice sites) This allows oxygen to diffuse through the material at high temperature. Resulting concentration gradient produces a voltage at the output that depends on the oxygen pressure.

Teflon

fluoroethylene, of PTFE • Invented at DuPont in 1938 • Hydrophobic - repels water and water- containing particles • One of the lowest coefficient of friction materials known • Used as a lubricant in industry, insulation for wiring, as a coating in medical procedures • And in frying pans!

Superalloys

group of nickel, iron-nickel and cobalt alloys used in jet engines. excellent heat resistant properties and retain their stiffness, strength, toughness and dimensional stability at temperatures much higher than the other aerospace structural materials good resistance against corrosion and oxidation when used at high temperatures in jet engines. are used in engine components such as the high-pressure turbine blades, discs, combustion chamber, afterburners and thrust reversers.

Titanium in biomedical ways

implants, joints, biocompatibility, biostability

Copper why?

it is 1000 times less abundant than iron and 1400 times less abundant than aluminum? Two main reasons: 1) It is one of the few metals that will occur in pure concentrated form (one of the so-called native metals) -this led to its first discovery around 9000 BCE 2) The process of extracting it from minerals (by what is known as smelting) can be done at fairly low temperatures -this led to its widespread use around 5000-6000 BCE Iron -around 3000 years later aluminum-around 5000 years later

Where else do we find iron?

lodestone compass, iron deficiency, hemoglobin etc.

The open hearth process uses a shallow furnace and air is blow over horizontally (Germany/France 1865)

more controllable than bessemer reduced nitrogen content very slow process

Plastic comes from

mostly oil

Types of composites

particle reinforced, fiber reinforced, structural

Today, iron reduced from ores in big blast furnaces

pre-heated air blast injected through nozzles (tuyeres) near bottom of furnace to achieve high-Temps •more efficient fuel, "coke" (from coal), and limestone (CaCO3) flux used.

Large scale and cost effective production of iron and steel products in China lead to agriculture and industry

resulted in settlement of nomads, increase in population but politics prevented trading outside of China Iron - symbol for strength, power, and will Iron goods traded virtually everywhere (weapons, tools)

Batteries

seeing how they failed requires crystallography, chemistry, fracture etc.

Aluminum in aircraft

spruce body (wright brothers), junkers day 1 metal body and boeing 737 80% aluminum

Paleolithic

stone tool evidence going back 3 years or more hand axes, scrapers, arrow tips, spears

Chinese in 100AD (English 1874) developed puddling

strirring of carbon rich iron to allow oxygen air to react with and reduce the carbon in the melt to yield steel

point defects

substitutional impurities, vacancy, self interstitials and impurity interstitials are what defects can be seen. purity substitutions in metals can produce strengthening. Impurities in semiconductors are used to control electrical conductivity. Vacancies and impurities in crystals and gemstones can give rise to color.

Density of solids from atomic parameters

total atom mass/unit cell volume=AucMA/VucNo Auc= number of atoms in unit cell Ma= atomic mass of atom Vuc= Unit cell volume No= The constant- 6.022 x 10^23 atoms mol^-1

Styrofoam

trade name of Dow Chemical for a type of polystyrene polymer for home insulation • The white "Styrofoam" we associate with food and drink containers is a different form of polystyrene • Not biodegradable and is largely being replaced in container applications • The world's largest manufacturer of polystyrene containers is the Dart Corporation, located in Mason, MI

Neolithic

use of tools for processing wild grains: sickle blades, mortars. Stone vessels for cooking, storing Tools for agriculture Natural materials as well: Obsidian shell and bones ground materials pigment grass fibers stones jade/greenstones

Bronze vs Brass

we see that while brass has more robust mechanical properties compared to pure copper, its yield strength is quite a bit less than that of Sn for a similar copper of substituted impurity

Metallurgy

working on a design team to identify most effective material/ alloy choice for all of the parts used in a sub-assembly. Overseeing casting trials, identification of proper heat treatment and failure analysis.