math 2221

Intergovernmental institutions

Intergovernmental institutions are formed by governments of different countries that work together to achieve common goals. These institutions are based on cooperation between independent states, and decisions are made through negotiations and agreements between the participating governments.

Coalition governments

The United Kingdom has had several coalition governments throughout its history, most recently between 2010 and 2015. In the 2010 general election, no single party won a majority of seats in the House of Commons, resulting in a hung parliament.a coalition government is a type of government in which two or more political parties come together to form a governing coalition. The parties involved in a coalition government agree to work together and share power in order to form a stable government. Coalition governments can arise in countries where no single party has won a majority of seats in the legislature or in countries where it is traditional to form a coalition government. In some cases, coalition governments are formed as a result of a hung parliament, where no single party has enough seats to form a government on their own.

Single Member Plurality (SMP) systems

SMP systems, also known as First-Past-The-Post systems, tend to favor larger political parties. This is because SMP systems allocate seats to the candidate who receives the most votes in each constituency, meaning that smaller parties are often squeezed out.

Shadow cabinet

A Shadow Cabinet is a group of senior members of the opposition party in a parliamentary system who are appointed by the party leader to mirror and critique the government's cabinet ministers. Front benchers have a lot of power, backbenchers do not!

Mixed electoral system:

A mixed electoral system is a type of electoral system that combines elements of both a proportional representation system and a single-member district system. In a mixed electoral system, voters are given two votes: one for a candidate in a single-member district and another for a political party or coalition of parties.

Unicameral legislature

A unicameral legislature, as the name suggests, has only one chamber or house. The main advantage of a unicameral legislature is that it is simpler and more efficient. With only one chamber, it is easier to pass legislation quickly. In addition, unicameral legislatures are often more transparent and accountable since there is only one body to oversee.

Collective responsibility

Collective responsibility is a principle of government that holds all members of a cabinet or government responsible for decisions made by the group as a whole. In a system of collective responsibility, decisions made by the government are considered to be the decisions of the entire cabinet or executive, rather than the responsibility of individual ministers. This principle is based on the idea that a government must speak with a unified voice in order to be effective and maintain the confidence of the public. If individual ministers were allowed to publicly criticize government policies or decisions, it would undermine the authority of the government and potentially lead to confusion or instability.

Developed democracies

Countries that have institutionalized democracy and high level of economic development and prosperity.

Challenges regarding the future of the welfare state: Aging populations;

Developed democracies are experiencing aging populations, which places increased demands on healthcare systems and social security programs. This trend will continue in the coming years, leading to a reduction in the number of people of working age and an increase in the number of retirees who require support.

Semi-presidential systems

Directly elected president and indirectly elected prime minster share power. President helps set policy, while prime minister executes it. President also manages foreign policy.( france has semi presidential system)

Four nations in the UK

England, wales, scotland, northern ireland

Hereditary peers

Hereditary Peers: Hereditary peers are members of the House of Lords by virtue of their aristocratic title, which is inherited through their family line. Prior to 1999, all hereditary peers were entitled to sit in the House of Lords, but since then only 92 hereditary peers have been allowed to remain in the House of Lords through an arrangement known as the House of Lords Act 1999.

Two rounds of voting in France

In France, the two-round voting system is used for many elections, including presidential, legislative, and local elections.In this system, if no candidate receives a majority of the votes in the first round, which is usually held two weeks before the second round, a second round is held between the two candidates who received the most votes in the first round.

Relative deprivation

In political science, relative deprivation is a concept that is often used to explain political behavior, particularly in the context of social movements and collective action. The idea is that individuals or groups who feel relatively deprived or disadvantaged in comparison to others in society are more likely to engage in political action in order to redress this perceived inequality. According to the theory of relative deprivation, individuals who feel that they are not receiving their fair share of resources, opportunities, or rewards may become frustrated or resentful, leading them to engage in political action in order to achieve greater equality or social justice. This may take the form of protest movements, strikes, or other forms of collective action aimed at achieving political change.

Royal assent

In the United Kingdom, Royal Assent is the process by which the monarch formally approves a bill that has been passed by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The granting of Royal Assent is a constitutional formality that is necessary for a bill to become law. After a bill has been passed by both Houses of Parliament, it is sent to the monarch for Royal Assent.

Challenges regarding the future of the welfare state: Income inequality

Income inequality: The rise of income inequality is putting increasing pressure on the welfare state. The increasing concentration of wealth in the hands of a small minority of people reduces the tax base and increases the demand for social assistance programs.

Life peers

Life Peers: Life peers are appointed to the House of Lords by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister. They are appointed for life and are not able to pass their titles on to their heirs. Life peers are chosen for their expertise in a particular field or for their public service, and they may come from a range of backgrounds, including business, academia, and the arts.

Mixed Electoral Systems:

Mixed systems combine elements of PR and SMP systems, and the specific effects depend on the specific design of the system. Generally, mixed systems can produce a mix of larger and smaller parties, with the balance between the two depending on the design of the system.

(PR) systems

PR systems tend to result in more political parties being represented in parliament. This is because PR systems allocate seats to political parties based on the proportion of votes they receive, rather than on a winner-takes-all basis.

Vote of no confidence

Parliaments typically retain the right to dismiss a prime minister by taking a vote of no confidence. In such a vote, the absence of majority support of the prime minister will bring down the government.

Prime minister's questions

Prime Minister's Questions (PMQs) is a weekly event that takes place in the House of Commons in the United Kingdom. It is an opportunity for Members of Parliament (MPs) to question the Prime Minister on current issues and policies, while doing this the must display strong oratorical skills.the Prime Minister sits in the front row of the House of Commons, and MPs are allowed to ask questions on any topic. The questions are typically about the government's policies and actions, and can be critical or supportive in nature.

Role and power of prime minister

Prime minister is the head of government(the most powerful head of government of any contemporary democracy), and the cabinet constitutes the government, as leaders of party they must maintain the support of MPs, appear in legislature weekly for a televised questioned period and display strong oratorical skills. Also must direct activity of the cabinet and smooth over differences amongs cabinet members.

Proportional representation

Proportional representation: used in some form by the majority of democracies around the world. It generally attempts to decrease the number of votes that are wasted.

Suicide terrorism:

Suicide terrorism is a form of terrorism where the attacker, also known as a suicide bomber, carries out a violent attack with the intention of causing as much damage and casualties as possible, while also sacrificing their own life in the process.

British commonwealth

The Commonwealth is based on a set of shared values and principles, including democracy, human rights, the rule of law, and the promotion of economic and social development. The organization provides a platform for member countries to work together on issues of mutual concern, such as climate change, trade, and security.The head of the Commonwealth is currently Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, who serves as a symbolic figurehead for the organization. However, the Commonwealth is not a political union and its member states are fully sovereign and independent.

House of lords

The House of Lords is the upper chamber of the United Kingdom's Parliament, which is composed of two houses, the other being the House of Commons. It is a non-elected, unelected body and its members, known as peers or lords, are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister or the House of Lords Appointments Commission. The House of Lords has several roles, including the scrutiny and revision of legislation passed by the House of Commons, as well as initiating and debating policy proposals. It also has a judicial function, with the Law Lords (now known as Justices of the Supreme Court) historically sitting in the House of Lords and making decisions on legal matters.

The speech from the throne

The Speech from the Throne is a ceremonial address given by the monarch or a representative of the monarch in a formal opening of a session of parliament. It is typically delivered at the beginning of a new parliamentary session, and outlines the government's legislative agenda and priorities for the upcoming session. In the United Kingdom, the Speech from the Throne is delivered by the monarch at the opening of each session of parliament. In other Commonwealth countries, such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, the speech is delivered by the Governor General, who is the representative of the monarch in those countries. The content of the Speech from the Throne varies depending on the priorities and policies of the government in power. Typically, the speech will outline the government's plans for legislation in areas such as the economy, social programs, foreign policy, and national security. The speech may also touch on other issues of national importance, such as climate change, healthcare, and education.

Brexit

The UK held a referendum on its membership in the EU on June 23, 2016, in which 52% of voters chose to leave the EU, while 48% chose to remain. Brexit has had significant political, economic, and social implications for both the UK and the EU, and its effects are still being felt. The UK's departure from the EU has led to changes in areas such as immigration, trade, and regulation, and has sparked debates about the future of the UK's relationship with Europe and the rest of the world.

Effects of electoral system on political parties:

The electoral system used in a country can have a significant impact on the way political parties operate and the electoral outcomes they achieve.Proportional Representation

The main difference between intergovernmental and supranational institutions is the level of authority they have over their member states. Intergovernmental institutions rely on voluntary cooperation between independent states, while supranational institutions have the power to make decisions that are binding on their member states. Another difference between intergovernmental and supranational institutions is the degree of sovereignty that member states retain. Intergovernmental institutions allow member states to retain their sovereignty and make decisions independently, while supranational institutions require member states to give up some of their sovereignty in order to achieve collective goals.

The main difference between intergovernmental and supranational institutions is the level of authority they have over their member states. Intergovernmental institutions rely on voluntary cooperation between independent states, while supranational institutions have the power to make decisions that are binding on their member states. Another difference between intergovernmental and supranational institutions is the degree of sovereignty that member states retain. Intergovernmental institutions allow member states to retain their sovereignty and make decisions independently, while supranational institutions require member states to give up some of their sovereignty in order to achieve collective goals.

The political party system in the united kingdom

The political party system in the United Kingdom is based on a multi-party system, meaning that there are several political parties competing for power and representation in government. However, the two main political parties in the UK are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party.( form 90% of of popular vote The labor party was a main cause of the UK's democratization, the conservative party was part of the origins of the british welfare, liberal democrats is a significant political party)

The role of the monarch in british politics

The role of the monarch in British politics is largely ceremonial and symbolic. In the United Kingdom, the monarch is the head of state, but the real power is vested in the government, which is led by the Prime Minister.The monarch's main duties include opening and closing the Parliament, granting Royal Assent to bills passed by Parliament, and appointing the Prime Minister and other high-ranking officials. The monarch also performs ceremonial duties, such as attending state functions and receiving foreign dignitaries.

Rule of law

The rule of law is a principle that establishes the supremacy of the law over all individuals and institutions, regardless of their position or status.The rule of law is essential for promoting democracy, protecting human rights, and ensuring social and economic development. It helps to prevent arbitrary exercise of power and fosters a stable and predictable legal environment for individuals and businesses.

The push for Scottish independence

Used to be independent in 1707 until the act of union by scottish legislature despite widespread popular protest, the discovery of oil in the north sea in the 1960s and dissatisfaction with Thatcher's neoliberal economic policies in the 1980's led to the want for independence. Scotland lacks military to defend its sovereignty and it is linked to the UK, Scotland would also lose its economic support.

Bicameral legislature

a bicameral legislature has two chambers or houses. The two houses work together to pass laws. In a bicameral legislature, the upper house is often referred to as the Senate or House of Lords, while the lower house is known as the House of Representatives or House of Commons. the main advantage of a bicameral legislature is that it provides a system of checks and balances. The two houses can act as a check on each other, ensuring that no single body has too much power.

European unions

a group of nations that pool their sovereignty, surrounding individual powers in exchange for political, economic, or social benefits. This blurs the line between countries by forging tight connections, common policies, and shared rules that bind them together. This process is intended to increase local participation, efficiency, and flexibility by having local authorities manage tasks once handled at the national level.

Revolution

a public seizure of the state in order to overturn the existing government and regime.( public plays a big role in seizing power, leaders, organizers and instigators are involved,the objective is to remove the entire regime.)

Head of state

a role that symbolizes and represents the people, both nationally and internationally, embodying and articulating the goals of the regime. Conducting foreign policy and waging war.( head of state duties, President, queen of UK, president of japan)

Cabinet

british cabinets have 20 minsters ( must be MPs) who are usually from the lower house but occasionally are members of the house of lords. ( make decisions to help government)

Parliamentary systems

can be found in most democracies around the world. PS compromise two basic elements: first; the prime minister and their cabinets(other ministers who make up the government) come out of the legislature; and second, the legislature is also the instrument that elects and removes the prime minister from office.

Head of government

deals with the everyday tasks of running the state, such as formulating and executing domestic policy, alongside a cabinet of ministers who are charged with specific policy areas( such as education or agriculture)

Single-member districts

electoral constituencies are SMDs, which means that each constituency has only one representative.

Margaret thatcher(conservative party)

first leader of an industrial democracy to experiment with neoliberal economic policies in an attempt to stem economic decline.( believed in free market economics, small government, and individual responsibility. )

Good Friday agreement

happened between Catholics and protestants in northern ireland allowed for the establishment of the northern ireland assembly,The Good Friday Agreement aimed to bring an end to the decades-long sectarian conflict in Northern Ireland, known as the Troubles, which had claimed the lives of thousands of people. The agreement established a power-sharing government in Northern Ireland, which includes both unionist and nationalist political parties, and created a number of institutions to promote cross-border cooperation between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.

Instant Runoff Voting (IRV)

is a voting system in which voters rank candidates in order of preference on their ballot. IRV is designed to ensure that the winning candidate has the support of a majority of voters. It also allows voters to express their preferences more fully, as they can rank candidates in order of preference, rather than being limited to choosing just one candidate.

Regime type and responses to terrorism

least likely to occur in an authoritarian setting and the crackdown would likely be swift and brutal. Possible to occur in a democratic system, variety of options to be heard and involved, might come from outside group or from disaffected at home, greater freedom brings greater vulnerability. Most likely to occur in a weak, unstable state, already a troubled setting ill-equipped to respond .

Supranational institutions

on the other hand, are organizations that have authority over member states, and their decisions can override national law. These institutions are based on the pooling of sovereignty by member states, and decisions are made by supranational bodies that represent the collective interests of the member states.

Direct democracy( republicanism)

public participates directly in governance and policy-making: historically found in small communities such as ancient Athens.

House of commons

referred to as the "lower" which represented the interests of the lower nobility and the merchant class.

Explanations for terrorism

terrorists believe that through their seemingly indiscriminate use of violence, all the dominant institutions can be shattered and remade.

Effects of terrorism

the effects of terrorism are harder to anticipate than the effects of revolutions.

Tony blair

the labor party sought to soften some of the harder edges of thatcher's neoliberalism while still embracing many of the policies executed by her and her conservative successors( represented a shift toward the center-left of British politics. Blair emphasized the importance of social justice, and his policies focused on investing in education, healthcare, and other social programs. He also played a key role in international affairs, particularly in his close relationship with the United States and his support for the Iraq War.

Magna carta

the magna carta became a royal promise to uphold feudal costumes and the right of England's barons. It set an important precedent by limiting the power of the English monarchs and subjecting them to rule of law.

Presidential systems

the president and legislature members serve for fixed terms, typically between four and seven years.

Judicial review

the principle of judicial review allows the courts to review the lawfulness of decisions made by public authorities, including the government, local authorities, and other public bodies. It helps to prevent public authorities from acting unlawfully and provides a means of redress for individuals and groups who have been adversely affected by government decisions.

Success of terrorism

we define success as getting states to change their policies to be more in line with what the terrorists want. The very nature od targeting civilians appears typically to signal states that terrorists cannot be bargained with or satisified.