MCAT

What phase happens before G0 (where they don't divide) in the cell cycle?

G1

Rogers's concept of Incongruence

Gap between a person's actual self and ideal self.

Gesellschaft vs Gemeinschaft

Gesellschaft (society): where individuals are working towards the same goal, Ex. Company, corporation. Mnemonic: "sells" Gemeinschaften (communities): bonded by beliefs, ancestry, or geography

Chloric Acid

HClO3 (Strong Acid)

Current equation

I = Q/Δt

Iris affect on pupil

In the dark, the iris contracts to enlarge the pupil (pupil dilates). In the light, the iris relaxes to constrict the pupil. (pupil contracts/gets smaller)

Oxytocin (OT)

Increases the contractions of the uterus during birth and promotes the release of breast milk

Where does fatty oxidation occur?

Mitochondria

Sensitization

an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus

Bone marrow

Produces blood cells, leukocytes in the immune system through hematopoiesis

Energy of a capacitor

U = 1/2QV = 1/2CV^2

vitamin solubility

Water soluble: B, C Fat soluble: K, E, D , A

homodimeric

a protein made of 2 units of the same type/size

log 1 =

0

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

What inhibits the Krebs cycle?

ATP and NADH

What's the best way to denature a protein with disulfide bonds?

Adding a reducing agent

Which of these studies looked into attachment, comfort, and security as innate needs and the effects of maternal and social deprivation on development? Schrodinger's Cat Experiment Harlow monkey experiments Skinner's studies with pigeons Bobo Doll experiments

Ans. Harlow monkey experiments Exp. Schrodinger's Cat Experiment was a thought experiment illustrating principles of quantum mechanics. Bobo doll experiment studied the effects of observational and modeling learning. B. F. Skinner's studies with pigeons were an analysis of operant conditioning. Harlow monkey experiments

A Cuban-American man living in the United States has the dominant physical features of a black man. He speaks Spanish, prefers Latin foods, and listens to Latin music. His preferences are best defined through which of the following attributes? I. Race II. Ethnicity III. Culture I only II only II and III only I, II, and III

Ans. II and III only Exp. Ethnicity and Culture. Although one's dominant physical features are associated with race, this man's preferences are those of Latino ethnicity and culture. Ethnicity is a social construct that considers language, religion, nationality, and cultural factors. Culture relates to a group's way of life; the preferences listed in the question are examples of material and symbolic culture.

Which of the following are true of reaction rates? I. The overall rate law is determined by the fastest step of a reaction II. The presence of a catalyst will increase the number of molecules entering the transition state III. An increase in temperature will increase the rate of a reaction IV. Increasing the concentration of reactants will increase the rate at which products yield I+II+IV I +II+III II+III only II+III+IV

Ans. II+III only Exp. Overall rate law is determined by the slowest step of a reaction. The higher the temperature of a reaction, the faster the reaction rate. Normally, the greater the concentration of reactants, the faster the reaction rate will occur. However this is not true of zero order reactions! A catalyst will decrease the activation energy, and any decrease in activation energy will increase the reaction rate.

What is the most likely hormonal response immediately following a significant blood loss? Possible Answers: Decreased level of insulin Decreased level of ADH Increased level of ACTH Increased level of calcitonin Increased level of ADH

Ans. Increased level of ADH Exp. Blood loss results in a sudden and large drop in blood pressure due to the decreased fluid volume in the body. To compensate for this change, the body will attempt to increase fluid retention. This is directly accomplished by increasing the level of ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) that allows reabsorption of water in the kidneys. Therefore, increased ADH level is the best response.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is responsible for the retention of water in the body. In the kidney, ADH increases reabsorption at the collecting duct. Which of the following physiological responses will be most likely in a patient suffering from severe dehydration? Decreased secretion of ADH resulting in decreased blood volume Increased secretion of ADH resulting in decreased blood volume Decreased secretion of ADH resulting in increased blood volume Increased secretion of ADH resulting in increased blood volume

Ans. Increased secretion of ADH resulting in increased blood volume Exp. Determine the body's hormonal response to ADH in the case of a person suffering from dehydration. Dehydration is the result of a low blood volume, which leads to low blood pressure. To maintain homeostasis, the body will attempt to equilibrate by increasing blood volume, which in turn, increases blood pressure. Since ADH increases reabsorption of water from the filtrate to the bloodstream, the body is expected to secrete high levels of antidiuretic hormone, which will cause an increase in blood volume.

Which enzyme binding theory is better supported: lock and key or induced fit?

Ans. Induced fit Exp. Induced fit because it states that the active site is complementary only after binding initiates. Continual changes in conformation may occur. It has tighter bonding than the old lock and key method. The induced fit model of enzyme binding states that the substrate itself alters the enzyme active site. The substrate has induced a change in the shape of the enzyme, so they both change conformation. It's exergonic.

Which DNA is most affected by a mutation in ligase?

Ans. Lagging strand. Exp. Ligase seals the gaps between bases. DNA Polymerase synthesizes DNA in the 5' to 3' direction. The lagging strand contains more gaps and is not continuous.

Which vertebrate is likely to have the strongest and heaviest bone?

Ans. Land-dwelling animal Exp. Enhanced bone density would be required to withstand the load bearing activity that results from the impact of gravity.

What relative values of Km and Kcat would describe an enzyme with a high catalytic efficiency?

Ans. Low Km and high Kcat Exp. Kcat the turnover number, is equal to Vmax/[Et]. Catalytic efficiency is described by the specificity constant, which is kcat/Km.

A male gymnast is suspected for using anabolic steroids (i.e. testosterone) to enhance in his athletic performance. Which of the following would you expect to be decreased in his blood? Possible Answers: Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone Gonadotropin-releasing hormone only Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and luteinizing hormone Luteinizing hormone only Luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone

Ans. Luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone Exp. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone makes/secretes luteinizing hormone and FSH.

You are attempting to separate the components of a mixture using simple distillation. The mixture contains 4 different compounds: methane, ethanol, butanoic acid, and aldehyde. What is the order you expect the compounds to elute into the receiving flask (from first to last)?

Ans. Methane, Formaldehyde, Ethanol, Butanoic Acid Exp. Simple distillation separates based on boiling points. Lowest boiling point eludes first and highest boiling point eludes last.

SGLT1 is a symporter that can be found in the small intestine. Which macromolecule does it transport?

Ans. Monosaccharides Exp. SGLT1 transports sodium and glucose, a monosaccharide, across plasma membranes. Amino acids and nucleic acids are transported via primary active transport, while fats diffuse across the first membrane, and then are secreted into the lymphatics.

Myopia is a very common condition. What is myopia and which type of lens can correct it? Possible Answers: Farsightedness; concave (i.e. diverging) lens Farsightedness; convex (i.e. converging) lens Nearsightedness; concave (i.e. diverging) lens Nearsightedness; convex (i.e. converging) lens

Ans. Nearsightedness; concave (i.e. diverging) lens Explanation: Myopia is nearsightedness, meaning the focal length is too short. Nearsightedness means you can see close up, but not far away. This can be caused by too much refraction at the eye's lens or if the eyeball is too long. Myopia can be corrected using a concave (i.e. diverging) lens, which will increase the focal length as shown in the figure.

In type 1 diabetes, self-reactive T-cells erroneously attack and destroy pancreatic B-cells that display self-antigens. This autoimmune process is positive or negative selection?

Ans. Negative Selection Exp. Negative selection removes/destroys. Positive selection marks or picks something out.

Predict the consequences of a blood clot on the venous side of a capillary bed.

Ans. Net fluid flow in the direction of interstitial spaces will increase. Exp. Blood flows from arteries to capillaries and then to veins. If flow is blocked at the venous side, blood would accumulate in the capillaries. Thus, hydrostatic pressure would build up in the capillaries, causing a net increase in fluid flow into the interstitial spaces. The flow of fluid out of the capillaries would slightly increase the osmotic pressure. The fluid will be stuck in the capillaries more because it doesn't have a choice to go through veins. Interstitial space surrounds the tissues. Thus, fluid flow will increase in the capillaries.

Centrioles can be found in: A)Only eukaryotic cells B) Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells C) Only prokaryotic cells D) In eukaryotic cells and in prokaryotic cells undergoing genetic recombination

Ans. Only eukaryotic cells Exp. Centrioles help organize the mitotic spindle. Centrioles are found in centrosomes, which are organelles. Only eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles, so only eukaryotes can have membrane-associated structures such as centrioles.

Which hormone is required for milk secretion in women? Possible Answers: Prolactin Oxytocin Estrogen Luteinizing hormone

Ans. Oxytocin Exp. Oxytocin is responsible for milk secretion in women. Notice that prolactin is responsible for milk production, but oxytocin is responsible for milk secretion. Oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary and is responsible for contractions during pregnancy and milk secretion.

Which of the following statements concerning hormonal transport is true? Possible Answers: Steroid hormones are able to move freely through the bloodstream Pancreatic hormones are able to move freely through the bloodstream The thyroid hormones are able to move freely in the bloodstream All hormones require chylomicrons in order to move through the bloodstream

Ans. Pancreatic hormones are able to move freely through the bloodstream Exp. Peptide hormones are polar and can move freely through the bloodstream, while lipid soluble hormones require a carrier protein in order to move through the blood. Pancreatic hormones, glucagon and insulin, are peptide hormones. This means they can move through the bloodstream without a carrier protein. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and thyroid hormones are derived from tyrosine. Both of these hormone classes are lipid soluble, and require transport proteins to travel through the blood. The hormone-protein unit is known as a chylomicron.

In all cell types, the cell membrane acts to separate charge, and a localized buildup of charge on either side of the membrane creates a potential difference between the inside and the outside of the cell. This aspect of the cell membrane most closely mimics which of the following circuit elements?

Ans. Parallel plate capacitor Exp. Parallel plate capacitors: opposite charges congregate on two plates separated by a thin layer of non-conducting material called a dielectric

Which of the following increases as society transitions from being agricultural to being industrial? Population size Birth rate Adult mortality rate Infant mortality rate

Ans. Population size Exp. During the course of industrialization, birth rates and death rates of all kinds decrease. However, because the death rate falls more quickly, the overall population size increases.

A propanoic acid is deprotanated and joins with a potassium cation to form a carboxylic acid salt. What is the name of this salt compound?

Ans. Potassium propanoate Exp. When carboxylic acids are deprotonated to form an anion, "-ic acid" at the end of their name is replaced with "-ate". When they form a salt with a cation, that cation's name comes first in the name of the salt. Thus, a salt formed from propanoic acid and potassium is called potassium propanoate. When carboxylic acids are deprotonated to form an anion, "-ic acid" at the end of their name is replaced with "-ate". When they form a salt with a cation, that cation's name comes first in the name of the salt. Thus, a salt formed from propanoic acid and potassium is called potassium propanoate.

Which of the following is not a function of estrogen? Possible Answers: Triggers the onset of ovulation Increases fat storage Binds to a DNA hormone response element Promotes postpartum lactation

Ans. Promotes postpartum lactation Exp. Estrogen increases fat stores, develops female reproductive organs, and reproductive roles (such as promoting ovulation and preparing the uterine lining to support a fertilized egg). Although estrogen plays a role in the differentiation and formation of the milk duct system, following birth estrogen levels are dramatically reduced because high levels of estrogen inhibit lactation.

The pancreas produces what substances for the digestive system?

Ans. Proteolytic enzymes Exp. The pancreas produces several proteolytic enzymes, which are released into the small intestine where they are converted to their active forms of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase.

Which of these is NOT a trait of a minority (subordinate) group? A) Represent a small percentage of the population B) Involuntary membership in the group C) Awareness of unequal treatment of the group D) Treatment distinguished by physical or cultural traits

Ans. Represent a small percentage of the population Exp. Minority group is treated unequally, by physical or culturally identifiable traits. Membership in a minority group is involuntary and members of that group are aware of unequal treatment from the dominant group. Minority, or subordinate, groups do not refer to a numerical, or statistical, minority. A minority group is not a statistical minority, but a subordinate, subjugated, or less powerful group.

Which of the following is a binocular depth cue?

Ans. Retinal disparity Exp. Retinal disparity is like depth perception. Retinal disparity requires input from both retinas. (remember Plankton from sponge bob)

An enzyme is activated when its S44 amino acid residue is phosphorylated by a protein kinase. Which mutation would most likely cause the enzyme to remain in a constant state of activation regardless of phosphorylation?

Ans. S44D Exp. D is aspartic acid which is acidic and negative. Phosphate is negative, so if you added a negative amino acid it would not affect the activation.

What structure of a healthy human male would immotile sperm incapable of fertilization be found?

Ans. Seminiferous tubules Exp. the epididymis is the location where spermatozoa gain motility and fertilization capabilities. Therefore, immotile sperm that are incapable of fertilization may be found in the parts of the male reproductive system preceding the epididymis.

What organelle most resembles the Golgi apparatus when an intact eukaryotic cell is viewed under the electron microscope?

Ans. Smooth ER Exp. Both organelles appear to be membranes with many folds.

Holding a door open so that other people can pass through is an example of which type of symbolic culture? Belief Value Ritual Social norm

Ans. Social Norm Exp. Holding the door open for other people is an example of a social norm, which is the set of rules a group of people use to evaluate proper values and conduct.

The cell type in the male reproductive system that is most analogous to the female ovum is the:

Ans. Spermatozoon (aka spermatozoa) Exp. The mature ovum is the female gamete that has completed meiosis and contains the haploid number of maternally derived chromosomes. This makes it most analogous to spermatozoa, the mature male gametes that contain the haploid number of paternally derived chromosomes.

According to Freudian theory, where does self-identity develop? Sexual impulse The superego The ego The id

Ans. The ego Exp. The id controls impulses (sexual and aggressive) and is associated with instinctual behavior. The superego is involved in imposing morals. The ego mediates the two other constructs to form a balanced, realistic identity.

Which of these is NOT true of steroid hormones? Possible Answers: They cannot cross the cell membrane. They interfere at the level of transcription. They are derived from cholesterol. Their effects are long-lived. Their receptors are usually located inside the cell.

Ans. They cannot cross the cell membrane. Explanation. Because of their nonpolar nature, steroid hormones can easily cross the cell membrane. This enables the hormone to work with its receptor, commonly located inside the cell. Their effects are long-lived since they involve genetic alteration at the transcription level. This, however, also means that steroid hormones take longer than peptide hormones to produce a response.

In order to successfully accommodate for changes in depth of field, lens of the eye must perform which of the following functions when re-focusing on a closer object? Possible Answers: Tilt Rotate Thicken Flatten

Ans. Thicken Exp. When looking at objects that are close, the lens of the eye must "thicken" to accommodate changes in depth of field. This is done by contraction of the ciliary muscle, which allows the suspensory ligament to stretch. The lack of tension then allows the lens to draw up into its thicker resting state. If the vision is shifted to a far object, then ciliary muscles will relax, which increases tension on the lens via the suspensory ligament and causes it to "flatten." The lens does not "tilt" or "rotate."

The primary role of the parathyroid gland is: 1) To maintain metabolic homeostasis 2) To regulate serum calcium levels 3) To send hormonal signals to other endocrine organs 4) To receive hormonal signals from the hypothalamus

Ans. To regulate serum calcium levels Exp. The parathyroid gland does not send signals directly to other endocrine organs. Rather than metabolic homeostasis, the parathyroid is involved in calcium homeostasis.

Participants are more likely to report hearing a tone when viewing a picture of an object that produces a tone/sound. For example, a bell or phone. What type of processing explains this?

Ans. Top-down processing Exp. This processing is guided by our beliefs, ideas, and expectations already stored in the brain.

If a person's gallbladder is removed, the person should restrict the consumption of:

Ans. Triglycerides Exp. Gall bladder stores bile produced by the liver. The major dissolved components of bile are breakdown products of hemoglobin such as bilirubin and bile salts. The bile salts are amphipathic; that is, they have a hydophobic portion that is soluble only in fats and oils and a hydrophilic portion that is soluble in water. Bile salts allow dietary fats (and oils), which do not dissolve in the watery digestive juices, to form an emulsion of tiny droplets dispersed in the digestive juices. One end of a bile salt molecule associates with the fats and the other with the aqueous solution in the gut. The dispersion of fats in the aqueous digestive juices and aids digestion by making them available to digestive enzymes. Since triglycerides are hydrophobic fats, bile would aid in their digestion.

Between water and the hydroxide ion, which is the stronger nucleophile and which is the better leaving group? Water is the better nucleophile and leaving group. Hydroxide is the better nucleophile and leaving group. Water is the stronger nucleophile and hydroxide is the better leaving group. Water is the better leaving group and hydroxide is the stronger nucleophile.

Ans. Water is the better leaving group and hydroxide is the stronger nucleophile. Exp. Water is a good leaving group, but a weaker nucleophile than hydroxide. Hydroxide is a stronger nucleophile than water, but its instability in the ionic form makes it a worse leaving group.

which of the following cannot be oxidized to form a carboxylic acid? a. a primary alcohol b. an alkyl benzene c. a ketone d. an aldehyde

Ans. c. a ketone Exp. Secondary/tertiary alcohols and ketones cannot be a starting reagent to produce a carboxylic acid. This is due to valence limitations

what drives the first step of base-catalyzed keto-enol tautomerization? a. the acidity of the proton on the alcohol b. the ketone oxygen being protonated c. the acidity of the proton alpha to the carbonyl d. nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl carbon

Ans. c. the acidity of the proton alpha to the carbonyl Exp. First step in base-catalyzed keto-enol tautomerization is the formation of a carbanion. This is done by removing a proton from a carbon that is alpha to the carbonyl. Normally this proton is not removable, but when next to a carbonyl the electronegative oxygen helps.

The two primary factors that normally determine the level of blood pressure are:

Ans. cardiac output and resistance to blood flow Exp. Cardiac output (stroke volume x heart rate) determines the amount of blood pumped into the system by the heart per unit time. Resistance to blood flow is determined by the caliber of the small arteries, arterioles, and precapillary sphincters. Thus blood pressure equals total peripheral resistance times cardiac output, a relationship analogous to Ohm's law.

which of the following carboxylic acids will be the most acidic? a. CCl₃CH₂COOH b. CHF₂CH₂COOH c. CH₃CFClCOOH d. CH₃CF₂COOH

Ans. d. CH₃CF₂COOH Exp. F> Cl, fluorine has stronger inductive effects/EN

In Freud's theory of personality, the ___ is the mediator between the ___, the ___, and the conscious mind

Ans. ego, id, superego Id: Base urges of survival and reproduction, sexual Superego: The idealist and perfectionist Ego: Mediator between the two and the conscious mind. The ego uses defense mechanisms to lower stress

What cells release renin?

Ans. juxtaglomerular cells in the Afferent arterioles Exp. Juxtaglomerular cells are smooth muscle cells in the kidney. Renin converts the inactive angiotensinogen in the liver to an active Angiotensinogen 1. Renin raises blood pressure using juxtaglomerular cells.

Within one principal energy level, which sub shell has the least energy? s p d f

Ans. s Exp. least energy to most energy: s<p<d<f

Which of the following hybridizations does the Be atom in BeH2 assume? sp sp2 sp3 sp3d

Ans. sp Exp. The rule that sp3 is single bonds always applies to Carbon, but doesn't always apply to other atoms. Beryllium only has two electrons in its valence shell which is small.

Tetracycline is an antibiotic used to treat infections. It binds with bacterial ribosomes at the A site and inhibits the tRNA molecule from binding to the ribosome. What process is interrupted?

Ans. translation Exp. Ribosomes are responsible for translating mRNA into proteins. The "A" site of ribosomes is responsible for binding tRNAs charged with amino acids during translation (protein synthesis).

A glass rod is rubbed with a silk scarf producing a charge of +3.2 × 10-9 C on the rod. (Recall that the magnitude of the proton and electron charges is 1.6 × 10-19 C.) The glass rod has how many electrons added/removed?

Ans: 2.0 × 10^10 electrons removed from it. Explanation: +3.2 × 10 -9 C/1.6 × 10 -19 C = +2.0 × 10 10. This means that the rod has an excess of positive charge, created by removing a number of +2.0 × 10 10 electrons from the material, as it is not possible to add protons

Which experiment can be used to investigate the transcriptional regulation of the Cdkn1a protein? A. Assessing Cdkn1a mRNA levels by RT-PCR B. Assessing Cdkn1a mRNA levels by Southern blotting C. Assessing Cdkn1a protein levels by quantitative PCR D. Assessing Cdkn1a protein levels by Western blotting

Ans: A) Assessing Cdkn1a mRNA levels by RT-PCR Exp. Since it focuses on transcriptional regulation, the mRNA levels are assessed. RT-PCR is a molecular technique that measures mRNA levels of specific protein. RT-PCR is a variation of PCR, or polymerase chain reaction that has an added step of reverse transcription of RNA to DNA. Southern blot is a technique that analyzes genomic DNA and cannot be used to measure the transcriptional regulation of a gene.

Which amino acid will contribute to the CD signal in the far UV region, but NOT the near UV region, when part of a fully folded protein?

Ans: Alanine (Ala) Explanation: All chiral nonaromatic amino acids will contribute solely to the CD signal in the far UV region. Otherwise, aromatic side chains absorb in the near UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum, which has longer wavelengths, and hence lower energy.

Native PAGE separates based on what properties? A) Length B) Conformation C) Charges D) All of the above

Ans: All of the above Exp. Native PAGE: separate molecules by electrophoretic mobility, relying on length, conformation, and charge.

A hydrophobic amino acid would be found where in a protein?

Ans: Alpha helices within a membrane spanning domain of a protein Exp: Alpha helices are more commonly found in membranes than beta sheets.

basic (positive) amino acids

Ans: Arginine, Lysine, Histidine Reason: have pI above 6, a side chain with differing amounts of nitrogen, positive due to their Nitrogen groups

Which amino acids contribute most to the pI of a protein?

Ans: Arginine, Lysine, and Histidine Reason: These are the basic amino acids. The overall pI is determined by the pH of the side chains. Glycine's side chain is a hydrogen so it will contribute the least.

From where does the reactive oxygen species known as the superoxide anion (O2) originate?

Ans: As a naturally occurring byproduct of multiple body processes Explanation: Reactive oxygen species are a common cause of apoptosis and cellular damage. Superoxide is often utilized by the body to induce cell death, and destroy invading pathogens.

Question: Which of the following posttranslational modifications to a histone is most likely to open chromatin structure? A) Lysine methylation B) Lysine acetylation C) Lysine deacetylation D) Lysine dimethylation

Ans: B Lysine Acetylation Lysine acetylation neutralizes the positive charge on lysine, so it is less able to interact with the negatively charged phosphates of the DNA backbone. This opens chromatin structure and can lead to an increase in transcription. Makes it more acidic.

Question: At which point in a person's body is the hydrostatic pressure the greatest? A) Head B) Feet C) Aorta D) It is the same throughout the body.

Ans: B) Feet Exp. Hydrostatic pressure is P = pgh where "p" is density, "g" is gravity, and "h" is depth. If we consider the top of person's head as h = 0 and increase "h" going in the negative direction, then the person's feet will have the greatest value for "h". "g" and "p" are the same, so depth is the only consideration (choice B is correct). In other words, a blood cell in someone's foot feels the weight of all of the body's blood pushing down from above, whereas a blood cell in the top of someone's head feels very little from above as there are few blood cells above.

Which of the following is not a function of astrocytes? A) Hypoxia buffering B) Interstitial fluid monitoring for pathogens C) Structural support D) Barrier protection

Ans: B) Interstitial fluid monitoring for pathogens

What is the conversion of energy when connecting a battery in series with a resistor? A. Chemical to potential to thermal B. Chemical to electrical to thermal C. Electrical to chemical to thermal D. Potential to kinetic to electrical

Ans: B. Chemical to electrical to thermal Explanation: Batteries store chemical energy, which is converted to electrical energy as current flows through the circuit. At the resistor, the electrical energy is converted to thermal energy

Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system. What type of neuron releases it? A) Motor neuron innervating the biceps B) Afferent neuron innervating the heart C) Autonomic neuron innervating the heart D) Interneuron innervating the stomach

Ans: C) Autonomic neuron innervating the heart Exp: The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary muscle like the smooth muscle found in the heart, blood vessels, or esophagus. The sympathetics nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system.

Which of the following best represents a society in the final stages of demographic transition? A) A society who's death rates have dropped significantly but birth rates have not B) Children are supported by parents for a relatively short period C) The society has moved away from an agricultural economy D) Healthcare and sanitation have begun to noticeably improve

Ans: C) The society has moved away from an agricultural economy

The sociological concept of medicalization refers to the process in which: A) health care costs consume a growing percentage of a nation's overall economic output B) the medical profession reaches a consensus and establishes norms of professional conduct C) a problem becomes described in medical terminology and treated by medical professionals D) a society's population increases after improved medical treatments become more common

Ans: C) a problem becomes described in medical terminology and treated by medical professionals

Which of the following therapies is most likely to use desentization? A) CBT B) Psychoanalystic C) Humanistic Therapy D) All of the above

Ans: CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) Exp: CBT keeps exposing someone to a trigger. Psychoanalysis uses dream analysis. Humanism focuses on being your own individual and feel fulfilled.

Which of the following groups are considered the most intimate? A) Triad B) Dyad C) Tetrad D) Primary group

Ans: Dyad Exp: Dyads are the most intimate because the existence of the group relies on both individuals. If one person leaves the group, the group no longer exists. A triad is the most stable because even one person leaves there are still two members. Tetrads and above are unstable because of groupthink and group polarization.

What receptor are hormones likely to act on?

Ans: Enzyme linked receptors and G-protein coupled receptors Reason: Because these are unlike ligand gated since they rely on other outside factors for regulation.

What cellular conditions favor increased activity of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation?

Ans: High ADP Explanation: The major product of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation is ATP. Oxygen, ADP, and NADH are all important reactants for these processes. This is Le Chatelier's principle.

What causes duplex DNA with a certain (A + T):(G + C) ratio to melt at a higher temperature than comparable length duplex DNA with a greater (A + T):(G + C) ratio?

Ans: Increased π- stacking strength Explanation: G-C base pairs form stronger π-stacking interactions than A-T base pairs, thereby creating the most thermal stability

Coordinate covalent bonds with a ligand is what kind of reaction? A) Lewis base reaction B) Arrhenius base reaction C) Lewis acid reaction

Ans: Lewis base reaction Exp: Ligands are usually Lewis bases (act as an electron pair donor)

What process will result in an odd number of chromosomes? A. Binary Fission B. Meiosis C. Mitosis D. Fertilization

Ans: Meiosis Explanation: Meiosis results in haploid cells that can have an odd number of chromosomes.

Relative to FADH2, at what energy state does NADH enter the electron transport chain?

Ans: NADH enters the electron transport chain at a higher energy level than FADH2. Explanation: Entering at a higher energy state implies that a molecule has a higher potential energy, and more energy (electrons in this case) can be extracted from it.

The flow of sodium ions into neurons of the optic nerve during an action potential is associated with what free energy and entropy?

Ans: Negative Gibb's free energy and positive entropy Explanation: The negative Gibb's free energy is because the reaction is spontaneous. Movement of particles in an action potential from high to low concentration makes it positive entropy (increase disorder). All spontaneous change occurs with an increase in entropy of the universe. An action potential occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon

When the force of an object is zero, then the velocity is always what? A) 0 B) Positive C) Negative D) None of the above

Ans: None of above Exp: Zero force and acceleration can have velocity that is constant or zero.

_______ skeletal muscle fibers are slow-twitch and carry out oxidative phosphorylation

Ans: Red Exp: The red color is from myoglobin, which binds oxygen

Generation of Compound 3(OH) is the result of Compound 2 (double bonded O) undergoing:

Ans: Reduction Explanation: It was a reduction because an Oxygen with a double bond became an OH. This means the oxidation number went down. LEO says GER

A father walking through a dark room steps on legos with many sharp edges. What is the pathway that the resultant nerve impulse would take?

Ans: Sensory Neuron, Spinal Interneuron, Motor Neuron Reasoning: this sense would not reach the brain, it also would not involve cerebellum that focuses on refined movements not messy movements

Which of the following is used to separate two molecules if their boiling points differ by 25°C or greater? A) Simple Distillation B) Fractional Distillation C) Vacuum Distillation D) All of the above

Ans: Simple Distillation Exp: Simple distillation is for when the boiling points differ by 25° or more. Fractional distillation is for when the boiling points differ by less than 25°. Vacuum distillation can have higher boiling points over 150°C so the molecules can handle the pressure.

Steatorrhea is the presence of increased fat in feces. Which organ is least likely to be the cause of a patient's steatorrhea? A) Liver B) Small Intestine C) Pancreas D) Stomach

Ans: Stomach Exp: Fat is chemically digested by lipase, which is produced by the pancreas.

Why are triacylglycerols used in the human body for energy storage?

Ans: The carbon atoms of the fatty acid chains are highly reduced, and therefore yield more energy upon oxidation. Exp: Triacylglycerols are highly hydrophobic and therefore not highly hydrated. The fatty acid chains produce twice as much energy as polysaccharides during oxidation because they are highly reduced. The fatty acid chains vary in length and saturation.

If the amount of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, is increased, what would likely be the result in muscles?

Ans: Weakness of muscle movements Explanation: Low levels of acetylcholine would result in weakness or paralysis of muscles.

An individual is born with a mutation causing her to partially retain a form of fetal hemoglobin into adulthood. Compared to a normal individual, this person would exhibit:

Ans: increased oxygen binding to hemoglobin in the tissues Exp. Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin. Thus, it binds and holds oxygen more tightly. An individual with fetal hemoglobin would show increased oxygen binding to hemoglobin as a result.

Aldosterone acts on the kidney by:

Ans: increasing sodium absorption and potassium secretion in the distal tubule

In high doses, aspirin functions as a mitochondrial uncoupler. How would this affect glycogen stores? a. It causes depletion of glycogen stores. b. It has no effect on glycogen stores. c. It promotes additional storage of glucose as glycogen. d. Its effect on glycogen stores varies from cell to cell.

Ans: it causes depletion of glycogen stores Explanation: Mitochondrial uncoupler inhibits the production of ATP without affecting the ETC. Since the body must burn more fuel to maintain proton motive force, glycogen stores will be mobilized to feed into glycolysis.

The microglia arise from which embryonic layer?

Ans: mesoderm Exp: The majority of the brain comes from ectoderm. The exception is microglia that is part of the immune system from the mesoderm.

With some pain conditions there is an increase in the sensory area associated with pain perception. The occipital neuralgia this would present as remapping of what brain region?

Ans: parietal lobe handles the sensory input

The active site of DNA polymerase III is most likely to contain amino acids that have:

Ans: polar, positively charged side chains Explanation: It works with negatively charged DNA to create more DNA so it needs to be positive to catalyze the reaction.

Primary groups differ from secondary groups in that:

Ans: primary groups are formed of stronger bonds than secondary groups Exp: Primary groups have direct and close bonds between members, providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to its members. Secondary groups, in contrast, form superficial bonds and tend to last for a shorter period of time.

Generating ATP requires gene products from what?

Answer: An unequal contribution of genes from paternal and maternal DNA. Explanation: Mom and dad contribute equally to chromosomal DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is solely contributed to mom (More momma). ATP generation requires both.

A woman notices that her father has started to move his fingers in such a way that it looks like he is rolling something, despite nothing actually being there. She also notes slowed movement and a shuffling gait. Which neurotransmitter is likely to be present in decreased levels in her father's brain?

Answer: Dopamine Explanation: The symptoms indicate Parkinson's disease. This disease is caused by decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra.

How are antibodies passed down?

Antibodies can be passed from a mother to an infant through breast milk.

A hiker becomes lost and has no drinking water for 2 days. At the end of this time, which of the following changes in hormone production would be expected to be significant in this individual?

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) secretion would increase to enhance the permeability of the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the kidney to promote water reabsorption and excretion of more concentrated urine.

Interferons

Antiviral proteins that are a subset of cytokines secreted by T cells and infected cells. Signal nearby cells of a viral infection, and upregulate the activity of the entire immune response.

What has tissues exposed to the external environment?

Any tissues that contain a mucosal membrane: respiratory tract, GI tract, and reproductive tract.

James-Lange Theory

Arousal comes before emotion (Remember: A comes before E)

Functional attitudes theory

Attitudes serve four functions: 1) knowledge: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experience 2) ego-expressive: allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identity 3) adaptive: one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed 4) ego-defensive: protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong

How are neural signals carried by axons and dendrites?

Axons carry neural signals Away from the soma. Dendrites carry neural signals toward the soma. Soma is the nuclei of neurons.

How would high levels of insulin affect appetite? A) Appetite would increase. B) Appetite would decrease. C) Appetite would remain constant. D) Appetite would increase quickly, then decrease.

B) Appetite would decrease.

In nature, restriction enzymes are meant to protect: A) Humans from bacteria B) Bacteria from viruses C) Bacteria from other bacteria D) Viruses from bacteria

B) Bacteria from viruses

Researchers find that elderly individuals are slower at solving logic puzzles when compared to young adults. Which type of intelligence do elderly individuals likely have less of? A) Crystal B) Fluid C) Unrealized D) Hidden

B) Fluid is the correct answer. Elderly individuals have more crystallized intelligence, or intelligence about facts and things (i.e. wisdom). Younger individuals have more fluid intelligence, or problem-solving ability (choice B is correct; choice A is incorrect). Choices C and D are not types of intelligences.

When the Hutus began attacking the Tutsis during the Rwandan Genocide, a radio station began broadcasting racist propaganda, which described the Tutsis as cockroaches and calling for their extermination. What is the term used by Erik Erikson to describe this characterization of the Tutsis? A) Pseudo-kinship B) Pseudospeciation C) Tragedy of commons D) Reciprocal determinism

B) Pseudospeciation

Central tolerance

B-cell tolerance. B-cells (lymphocytes) with receptors against self-antigens are eliminated. The process where the body destroys immune cells that are reactive with antigens present on the bodies own cells.

Barr Body reactivation occurs before which phase?

Barr Body reactivation occurs before prophase 1 Explanation: Barr Body reactivation occurs in oogenesis Prophase 1, as one of the X chromosomes in the mother was deactivated when they were born. This causes the reactivation to allow for the possible chance for the child to inherit that X chromosome.

meritocratic

Based on ability and effort

Learning Theory

Based on the idea that changes in behavior result more from experience. This is social nurture. Children learn the language through operant conditioning. Language develops from reinforcement by parents and caregivers.

What kind of energy do a battery, current, or resistor have?

Battery has chemical energy, current has electrical energy and resistor has thermal energy.

lymph nodes

Bean-shaped filters that cluster along the lymphatic vessels of the body. They function as a cleanser of lymph as wells as a site of T and B cell activation. Whichever is closest to your cut, will cluster there.

Beta-amylase vs alpha-amylase

Both amylase types convert carbs/starches into simple sugars. Beta-amylase: cleaves polysaccharide chains and yields maltose exclusively Alpha-amylase: cleaves polysaccharide chains anywhere to yield short polysaccharides, maltose, and glucose

Superiori vs. Inferior colliculi

Both are in the midbrain. Superior colliculi: Receive and process visual information, "Mnemonic: you look super pretty" Inferior colliculi: Receive and process auditory information. Damage to the inferior colliculi would impede proper understanding of spoken (or auditory) language

Interactionist Theory

Both biological and environmental factors interact to determine the course of language development

fixed-interval schedule and fixed-ratio schedule

Both fixed-interval and fixed-ratio show: - in operant conditioning, almost no response immediately after the reward is given, but the behavior increases Reinforcement schedule: reinforces a response only after a specified time(interval) or number of responses (ratio) has elapsed

An image is only shown in the right eye. What side of the brain will it be processed?

Both hemispheres

______ stimulates the gallbladder to release bile into the biliary tree

CCK = Cholecystokinin

Wavenumbers for functional groups: Carbonyl (C=O), Carboxyllic Acid (COOH), Amide (NH), Alcohol (OH)

Carbonyl (C=O): Sharp Peak at 1,700 cm Carboxylic Acid (CCOOH): Broad peak at ~3,000 cm-1 and 1,750 cm-1 Amide (N-H): Sharp peak at ~3,300 cm-1 Alcohol (O-H): Broad peak at ~3,300 cm-1

Humanistic theory of personality

Carl Rogers. - Actively develop ourselves to reach our full potential. - Self-actualization. Self-motivated to improve. - Last stage of Maslow's. - Intervention is unique to the individual. Use a client-centered approach that is specific to that person.

Optic Nerve

Carries visual signals (neural impulses) from the retina to the brain. Converge from each eye at the optic chiasm. - Visual signals -> Rods/Cones -> Bipolar cells -> Ganglion Cells -> Optic Nerve -> Brain

When viewing an X ray of the bones of a leg, a doctor can tell if the patient is a growing child, because the X ray shows:

Cartilaginous areas in the long bones

Oxidoreductase enzymes

Catalyze redox reactions, during which H+ and O- are gained or lost, reduced is fewer bonds to oxygen/more to hydrogen, cofactors include NAD+ and heme, can catalyze both forwards and reverse reactions Ex. oxidases, reductases, peroxidases, dehydrogenase

Transferase enzymes

Catalyze the transfer of functional groups, such as the amino or phosphate group. Examples: Kinases are also transferases bc they catalyze the movement of a phosphate group with an ATP donor, Polymerases shift nucleotides.

Centrioles

Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal eukaryote cells only. Centrioles send out microtubules, which bind to kinetochores to pull chromatids apart.

differentiated

Cells with specialized characteristics that form from less specialized cells that divid and express specific genes

Cellulose vs. Amylose

Cellulose and Amylose are polysaccharide chains of glucose that only differ in the orientation of their glycosidic linkages. The subunits in cellulose are beta (1-4) linked and the subunits in amylose are alpha (1-4) linked.

signal transduction

Changes that convert a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell. The extracellular signal molecule (ligand) binds to the membrane receptor to cause the protein to change conformation. This creates an intracellular response.

Pheromones

Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals after they bind with chemoreceptors. Effect social foraging (animals searching for food together), and sexual behavior

Chemiosmosis

Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient An example of this would be the generation of ATP by the movement of H+ across the inner mitochondrial membrane

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development

Children are able to reach their highest potential when they are in the presence of skilled and knowledgeable instructors.

A man with type AB blood marries a woman with type O blood. What blood types might their children have?

Children have blood types A or B. Parents: Type AB: I^A I ^B Type O: ii

Electricity Equations to Remember

Chris Jumps Very Well And Cristian Shaver Jumps Well Amadeo Runs

cilia and flagella

Cilia propel fluid over cellular surfaces, and a flagellum enables a sperm cell to move

Does cis or trans have a higher boiling point?

Cis has a higher boiling point because it has stronger permanent dipoles and higher polarity. Cis also has a lower melting point. Mnemonic: sis is bipolar!

DNA replication occurs in what direction?

Coding strand of DNA is transcribed to template strand of DNA during replication. The coding strand runs in the 5' to 3' direction. It is transcribed into the template strand that runs in the opposite antiparallel 3' to 5' direction.

aggregate

Collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time but who have no other connection to one another Ex. The people gathered in a restaurant on a particular evening are an example of an aggregate, not a group.

outer ear

Collects sound waves; consists of the pinna (auricle), the external auditory canal, earlobe, and the eardrum (tympanic membrane). When the sound wave hits the tympanic membrane it will make it vibrate.

cDNA

Complementary DNA made by reverse transcription of mRNA. Because of eukaryotic mRNA splicing, cDNA contains no introns. cDNA is single stranded. The cDNA also codes for the protein, but does not contain introns like the unprocessed excised sequence. So, cDNA will have a shorter strand in gel electrophoresis.

lymphatic system

Composed of a network of vessels, ducts, nodes, and organs. Provides defense against infection. Network of vessels through which lymph drains from the tissues into the blood. No blood cells here.

test-retest reliability

Consistency when a measure is taken multiple times for the same test and the same participants. A high positive correlation between the first and second administration of a test.

Halogens

Contains nonmetals, 7 valence electrons in it's outermost energy level. Very reactive. Group 17. Very electronegative.

negative control

Control that gives no response. Used to identify the influence of external factors. Unconditioned media will need to be used. Ex. Operon off, repressor present.

autonomic nervous system

Controls involuntary actions of the glands and cardiac muscles. Involves efferent neurons. Its sympathetic division (SNS) is fight or flight; its parasympathetic division (PNS) is rest or digest.

How does gas temperature and volume impact the pressure?

Cooling the gas and increasing the volume both decrease pressure.

Light enters the eye through what pathway?

Cornea—> pupil—>aqueous humor—>lens—>vitreous humor—>retina(stimulation of rods and cones)—>bipolar cells—>ganglion cells—>optic nerve—> optic chasm—>optic tract—>LGN of thalamus—>visual cortex in occipital lobe

If a person were diagnosed with agoraphobia, then which of the following scenarios would best describe their behavior due to the disorder? Possible Answers: All of these Avoidance of using public transportation Continuously re-aligning writing utensils on their desk Fear of interacting with strangers Refusal to sit on a 3rd-story balcony

Correct answer: Avoidance of using public transportation

Which of the following is not a primary function of the extrinsic eye muscles? Possible Answers: Tracking moving objects Dilation of the pupils Convergence Saccadic eye movements

Correct answer: Dilation of the pupils Explanation: The extrinsic muscles of the eye are primarily responsible for the mechanical movement of the eyeball. The main movements of the eye are convergence during accommodation, saccadic movements, tracking, and maintenance of a horizontal position. Dilation of the pupils is dependent on intrinsic muscles of the eye.

Which of the following best represents a class of psychiatric disorders in which an individual knowingly fabricates or exaggerates illness in order to receive medical treatment, sympathy, or care? Possible Answers: Conversion disorders Hypochondriasis Factitious disorders Somatic symptom disorders

Correct answer: Factitious disorders Explanation: "Factitious disorders" are psychiatric or behavioral conditions in which an individual knowingly fabricates or exaggerates illness in order to receive medical treatment, sympathy, or care. Factitious disorders are distinguished from "hypochondriasis," "conversion disorders," and "somatic symptom disorders" in that the individual is consciously creating their symptoms, while in the other disorders listed they are not.

If an individual displays behaviors consistent with trichotillomania (i.e. hair-pulling), then he or she would be classified under which of the following behavioral disorder subsets? Possible Answers: Obsessive-compulsive spectrum Anxiety disorder spectrum Autism spectrum Bipolar spectrum None of these

Correct answer: Obsessive-compulsive spectrum Explanation: Trichotillomania is associated with irresistible urges to perform unwanted repetitive behavior, which falls under the obsessive-compulsive spectrum. Although the disorder may cause anxiety to an individual, it does not fit on the anxiety spectrum of behavioral disorders. The autism and bipolar disorder spectrums do not include behaviors or characteristics that are associated with trichotillomania.

range of correlation coefficient

Correlations can only range between 1 to -1.

Which of these questions would an individual ask during the secondary appraisal according to Lazarus and Folkman's Cognitive appraisal model? A) Is this encounter a threat to myself or a loved one? B) What are the possible benefits to my self-esteem from this encounter? C) How might I be challenged by this situation? D) Do I have the resources to deal with this?

D) Do I have the resources to deal with this?

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a bureaucracy? A) Rigidly defined work practices B) Requirement for officials to hold advanced degrees. C) Regular salary increases. D) Election by constituents.

D) Election by constituents.

What type of memory is habit learning and where in the brain is it located? A) He is learning a habit, a type of semantic memory, which is located in the neocortex. B) He is learning a habit, a type of episodic memory, which is located in the hippocampus. C) He is learning a habit, a type of explicit memory, which is located in the medial temporal lobe. D) He is learning a habit, a type of procedural memory, which is located in the basal ganglia.

D) He is learning a habit, a type of procedural memory, which is located in the basal ganglia.

During which of Piaget's stages of cognitive development would a child begin to understand the world through language? A) Formal operational B) Sensorimotor C) Concrete operational D) Preoperational

D) Preoperational

Which of these social factors has the most influence on a person's assessment of his or her own happiness? A) Gender B) Social status C) Income D) Volunteering

D) Volunteering

Common Carbohydrates

D-fructose, D-glucose, D-galactose, D-manose

What processes facilitates the high variability and diversity in antibody structure?

DNA Recombination

DNA cloning

DNA cloning introduces a fragment of DNA into a vector plasmid. A restriction enzyme cuts both the plasmid and the fragment leaving them with sticky ends which can bind.

DNA polymerase functions

DNA nucleotide addition, Mitochondrial DNA replication (S phase), DNA repair

Sanger sequencing

DNA sequencing - Selective incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication. - Target DNA is copied many times using PCR, making fragments of different lengths. - Fluorescent "chain terminator" nucleotides mark the ends of the fragments. - Determine the sequences of many relatively small fragments of human DNA - 3' end is negative hydroxyl, 5' end phosphate group

Recombinant DNA

DNA that has been formed artificially by combining constituents from different organisms.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA undergoes replication DNA transcription to mRNA RNA translation to protein

If there is protein myoglobin in the blood, this could be as a result of damage to what?

Damage to muscle or organs (such as the kidneys). This is because myoglobin holds oxygen in these body parts.

deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning, also known as top-down reasoning, refers to the use of general rules that become more and more specific based on previous conclusions that are drawn.

atrophy

Degeneration, decline, or wasting away of a body tissue/organ. Ex. Villi atrophy results in a decrease in the surface area of the small intestine, leading to a decrease in nutrient absorption.

The pH inside the stomach is very closely regulated. What is a major function for the pH in the stomach?

Denaturing proteins to allow for digestive processes

binocular cues

Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes. Ex: Retinal Disparity

Watson and Crick

Developed the double helix model of DNA.

Theory of Differential Association

Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws. "Monkey see, monkey do", the relationships you have matter and affect how you act

strain theory

Deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals

Resistors

Devices that apply resistance to a circuit to manage current. Resistors do not separate charge, but rather act to reduce current.

Types of Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus: hypoglycemia, high blood sugar(glucose), insulin is supposed to decrease BGL Type 1: pancreas fails to produce insulin, no insulin, autoimmunity (immune system thinks body's cells are foreign and destroys them), Symptoms: fatigue, weight loss, thirst, frequent urination Mnemonic: I= Insulin not made Type 2: chronic condition in which insulin receptors become desensitized and are not responsive to insulin, glucose is not able to enter cells, at first the body increases the amount of insulin made but eventually the body can't keep up and the pancreatic cells burn out, Symptoms: overweight or asymptomatic

methyl, primary, secondary, tertiary

Differ by the number of carbons bonded to it - Methyl: 0 carbons attached - Primary: 1 carbon attached - Secondary: 2 carbons attached - Tertiary: 3 carbons attached

Which of these mechanisms lead to differentiation? A) division during blastulation B) division at the the one cell stage C) division during gastrulation D) division at the 64 cell stage

Differentiation occurs when: A) division during blastulation C) division during gastrulation D) division at the 64 cell stage

insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep

Disruptive selection vs. stabilizing selection

Disruptive selection: two extreme phenotypes on a continuum are selected for. Stabilizing selection: Extremes of a trait (being very tall or very short for example) are selected against and an intermediary trait (like being average height) is selected for.

distinctiveness cues vs. consensus cues

Distinctiveness cues: extent that a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios. (Remember: that person is distinct from the rest, you personally do the same thing no matter the situation) Consensus cues: extent that a person's behavior differs from others

adaptive radiation

Divergent evolutionary pattern where many species evolve from a single ancestral species This happens when there is 1 species in many different environments.

diverging lens (concave) vs. converging lens (convex)

Diverging: thinnest in the middle causing light to spread apart, object is smaller/reduced, negative focal length, virtual Converging: bends light so that the light rays come together to a point, positive focal length

somatic nervous system

Division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Responsible for voluntary movement. Uses acetylcholine.

ventral roots vs dorsal roots

Dorsal roots: the back-facing side of the spinal cord that contains bundles of sensory, or afferent, fibers Ventral roots: the belly-facing side of the spinal cord that contain bundles of motor or efferent fibers

Monoatomic naming

Drop the ending of the name and add -ide. Ex. Hydride or Fluoride

Marijuana

Drug that acts as a stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen. Active chemical is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) which increases GABA (neural inhibitor) and dopamine (pleasure).

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, MDMA, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. This is done by promoting Ca++ efflux out of post-synaptic neurons.

Energy of a photon

E = (h)(f) - Frequency is v in units of Hz and plank constant is h= 6.6 x 10^-34 Js. - If the given frequency is 610 THZ, then that's converted to 610 x 10^12 Hz - Used with equation: c = fλ where c is speed of light

Photon energy equation

E = hf = hc/λ, where h = 6.62 × 10 −34 J ∙ s and c = 3 × 10 8 m/s the variable e is energy, the variable h is plancks constant and the variable v is frequency.

Why is DNA replication called semi-conservative?

Each daughter DNA molecule is composed of one parental strand and one new strand

How many pi bonds are there in a double and triple bond?

Each double bond contains 1 π-bond and each triple bond contains 2 π-bonds.

Ego-syntonic vs ego-dystonic

Ego-syntonic: Patient doesn't realize they have a problem, not harmful Ex. OCPD, personality disorders Ego-Dystonic: Patient realize it's a problem. Ex. OCD Mnemonic: Das a problem

Electric field equation

Electric field: E = Fe/q = kQ/r^2 where Fe is the magnitude of the force felt by the charge q, Q is the source charge magnitude, r is the distance between charges E initial/E final

Equations for electrochemistry

Electric field: E = Fe/q = kQ/r^2 Electric potential of a charge: V = kQ/r. Electric potential energy: U = k Qq/r = Vq. Units: Voltage (V), Charge (C), Electric potential energy(J), Distance in r (m), k is a constant (8.99 x 109 N m^2/C^2), Electric Field (N/C)

Which electrons have more potential energy?

Electrons infinitely far from the nucleus have more potential energy. - When electrons are excited they move to a higher energy orbital farther away from the atom. The further the orbital is from the nucleus, the higher the potential energy of an electron at that energy level. When the electron returns to a low energy state, it releases the potential energy in the form of kinetic energy. The electron is attracted to the nucleus, so it needs more energy to get further away from it

excited electrons

Electrons that have absorbed energy and have moved farther from the nucleus to a higher energy level. Photons are absorbed to excite electrons. Absorption of ultraviolet light by organic molecules always causes excitation of electrons.

empirical vs molecular formula

Empirical formula: simplified ratio (CH2O) Molecular formula: not simplified (C6H12O6)

Enhanced activity of what basic muscle type would be most likely to cause vasoconstriction?

Enhanced activity of smooth muscles in blood vessels would cause vasoconstriction.

Pepsin

Enzyme that breaks down proteins in the stomach, acidic Remember: PP -> Pepsin Proteins

Topoisomerase

Enzyme that functions in DNA replication and transcription, helping to relieve strain/tension in the double helix ahead of the replication fork to prevent supercoiling, unwinds DNA, can create a DNA fragment

Restriction endonucleases (enzymes)

Enzymes that cut the DNA. They are used in gene therapy, southern blotting, and DNA repair.

what are the types epithelial cells?

Epithelium composed of only a single layer of cells is called simple epithelium ( Ex. alveoli), while epithelium composed of more than one layer of cells is called stratified (Ex. esophagus) transitional epithelium: only in urinary system (bladder and ureter), switches between simple squamous and cuboidal. As the bladder fills with urine, cuboidal becomes squamous. It appears thicker and more multi-layered when the bladder is empty, and more stretched out and less stratified when the bladder is full and distended. simple squamous: round, flat, and have an irregular border; their function is usually to diffuse or filter substances across tissues cuboidal: as wide as they are tall, are cube shaped; they are usually found lining glands where they secrete substances columnar: taller than they are wide and function mostly in absorption, such as in the digestive tract

Non-disjunction

Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate. Most likely responsible for the failure of a gamete to receive a copy of a particular chromosome

How do sociologists differentiate the concepts of ethnicity and race?

Ethnicity classifies by culture, whereas race classifies by physical characteristics.

Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural relativism

Ethnocentrism assumes universal norms, whereas cultural relativism describes awareness of diversity

euchromatin vs heterochromatin

Euchromatin - uncondensed, most active portion in human genome (majority), available for transcription; naked DNA, loosely wound around histones, more exposed DNA Remember: Euchromatin Exposed Heterochromatin - not available for transcription; covered DNA; protein coat

endosymbiotic theory

Eukaryotes first formed by large prokaryotic cells engulfing smaller cells like mitochondria. Instead of being digested, the engulfed cells remained intact to make a symbiotic relationship.

Which of the following statements correctly describes the distinction between the exocrine and endocrine portions of the testis?

Exocrine glands secrete their products through ducts; endocrine glands release their products into the bloodstream

Pancreas

Exocrine role: produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct Endocrine role: secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to regulate blood glucose levels.

Exogenous vs. endogenous cues

Exogenous: external to goals we may have, distractions Ex. bright colors or loud noises Endogenous: internal knowledge, what you want to pay attention to

How is recognition of self vs. non-self by the adaptive immune system accomplished in humans?

Exposure of T cells to the body's own antigens in the thymus

Generalizability

Extent that lab results apply to a range of individuals not included in the study. External validity: extent that the results would generalize to other settings and populations.

Pseudospeciation

Extreme attempts to dehumanize other groups

Fab vs. Fc region

Fab region: includes the variable site and upper portion of the constant site, branches of the antibody, antigen binding Fc: the stem (lower part) of the antibody

True or False: The medications a patient's brother has tried for depression are irrelevant when deciding on a therapy for our patient.

False. If a family member was successful on a certain medication, it is more likely that the patient will be successful on that same medication.

saltatory conduction

Faster transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.

What does fasting do?

Fasting leads to glycogen breakdown and gluconeogenesis, then continued fasting leads to the production of ketone bodies by sustained fatty acid oxidation. Brain and nerve cells derive 2/3 of its energy from ketone bodies (damaging, elevated levels). βOHB is a component of ketone bodies, so levels of βOHB are elevated.

Buoyant force formulas

Fb = mg = ρvg - m: displaced mass, p: fluid density, v: object vol Density: p = m/v Density of water= 1 kg/L = 1000 kg/m^3 Higher temperature, density decreases Vol submerged object = displaced liquid When the object is floating/stationary: Buoyant force = force of gravity

What happens if the saturated solution of Fe(OH)2 at 150 degrees Celsius is reduced in temperature to 50 degrees Celsius?

Fe(OH)2 precipitates when the temperature drops. The lowered temperature also lowers the Ksp. This makes a saturated solution become supersaturated.

depersonalization disorder

Feeling like something is not real or that you have no control over what's going on while still retaining awareness that this is just a feeling is depersonalization

Kidney

Filters waste from the blood like urea, water, salt and proteins. Regulates: acid-base balance, blood pressure, water balance, and removal of nitrogen wastes - In the nephron, the reabsorption of protons and bicarbonate from the filtrate contributes to acid-base balance within the body - Secretion of renin from the juxtaglomerular cells helps regulate the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex (which regulates blood pressure, through its effects on Na+ reabsorption in the nephron); - Na+ and urea reabsorption in the nephron creates osmotic pressure within the medullary interstitium of the kidney and draws water from the filtrate into surrounding tissues - Excretion of nitrogenous wastes takes place due to the urea transporter, which removes urea from the interstitium and transports it back into the ascending loop of Henle.

Broadbent's early selection theory

Filters what you don't want to hear prior to assigning meaning. Sensory register-> selective filter -> perceptual process (assigns meaning) -> conscious

first trimester of pregnancy

First 3 months of pregnancy, major organs such as the brain & spinal cord begin to develop, most important time to be safe. Heart will begin to beat

How do you tell the order of reactants in a rate law?

First Order: doubling the concentration of X causes the reaction rate to double Second Order: doubling the concentration of Y causes the reaction rate to quadruple Rate of reaction: K= [X][Y]^2

low-carb diet

Forces body into ketosis. Stored fats broken down for energy (raised ketone levels which alters body's PH). Without oxaloacetate, your liver mitochondria turn the extra acetyl-CoA into ketone bodies (Ex. Acetone, Acetoacetate). You run low on oxaloacetate without carbs.

nonconservative forces

Forces that its work depends on the path. Eg: friction.

Reproductive isolation

Forces that stop 2 organisms from having offspring Pre-zygotic: - Prior to formation of the zygote (genetic material of both organisms) - Temporal/Habitat Isolation: night/day or place. - Behavior Isolation: mate selection, how you attract a mate - Mechanical Isolation: mouse can't mate with elephant Post-zygotic: - Zygote mortality: zygote can't mature to offspring - Hybrid inviability: forms offspring w/ high mortality rate that doesn't become an adult - Hybrid steriality: offspring can become a full adult, but it can't mate

Hess's Law

Formula for standard enthalpy change. total ΔH = ΔHproducts - ΔH reactants Gasses in their standard state (Ex. O2) are not included

Ear soundwaves

Frequency = pitch Amplitude = intensity

afferent neurons

From the senses to the brain, Afferent neurons enter the spinal cord through the dorsal root, carrying signals from the body to the brain Remember: "SAME DAVE" Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent Dorsal Afferent Ventral Efferent

The conversion of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate which is is one of the final steps in gluconeogenesis. It's catalyzed by what?

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase because it involves the loss of a phosphate group so the enzyme should have phosphatase activity.

bystander effect

The greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help. Diffusion of responsibility.

What are ways that cells connect to each other?

Gap junctions: tubes create a connection, transport of water and ions to and from. Spread electrochemical signals made by action potentials in the nervous system (neurons) and in cardiac cells that make your heart beat (Intercalated discs) Mnemonic: Gap charGed Tight junctions: cell membranes are connected, but the contents of each cell are not connected in any way. Impermeable layer in between the cells. This watertight seal is used in places with fluids (bladder, intestines, kidneys). Mnemonic: Water tight Desmosomes: attach with cytoskeleton to help with structural support. Allows for water and solutes to flow freely. Body parts that experience high stress (skin, intestines). Desmosomes are very flexible. only at a single location. Mnemonic: S for stretch, stress, skin

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium ion channels are confined. Help propagate or speed up the action potential signal. Aka Saltatory conduction

Condensation

Gas to liquid

imprinted genes

Genes that are expressed either the maternal or paternal (only one sex, X orY linked)

How to determine what has the highest priority on a chiral carbon?

The highest atomic number has the highest priority

how does the ideal temperature for a reaction change with and without an enzyme?

The ideal temperature is generally lower with a catalyst than without.

How does the inner mitochondrial membrane differ from the outer mitochondrial membrane?

The inner mitochondrial membrane is less permeable and lacks cholesterol.

electrochemical gradient

Gradient of potential energy that determines in which direction K+ will flow spontaneously

gram positive vs gram negative bacteria

Gram-positive: have simple cell walls with a thick layer of peptidoglycan, purple (more dye goes through the thick layer to stain it) Gram-negative: more complex cell walls, less peptidoglycan, which is located between 2 membranes. More resistant to antibiotics, red

transition metals

Groups 3-12, 1-2 electrons in the outer energy level, less reactive than alkali-earth metals, shiny, good conductor of thermal energy and electrical current, high density, lots of different oxidation numbers (ability to lose e-), can bind to water molecules with hydrogen bonds, can form hydration complexes with water

What are the stomach cells and what do they secrete?

HCl + Pepsinogen -> Pepsin (degrades proteins) Parietal cells: secrete HCl (for stomach acidity, stimulates chief cells, kills bacteria) Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen (-gen is inactive), pepsinogen is the "chief" zymogen of the stomach Mucous cells: secrete mucin coating, prevent ulcers, prevent degradation of the stomach, bicarbonate rich mucous protects stomach's wall from acid G Cells: secrete Gastrin, trigger stomach motility and cholecystokinin release

Strongest absorption spectra

Has to both absorb over a long length of spectra and have a tall height(amount of absorption). A tall height or amount is more important that a long length across.

Which of the following chemical species is NOT isoelectronic with a neon atom? A) He B) F- C) Mg2+ D) Na+

He

temporal lobe

Hearing (Remember: Tempo)

Enthalpy

Heat (H) of a system at constant pressure

TRPV1

Heat (thermoceptor) and pain(nociceptor) stimulated, Transient receptor protein; ion channel stimulated by protons: H+ Ca++

constructive interference

The interference that occurs when two waves combine to make a wave with a larger amplitude

In a Lineweaver Burk Plot, the enzymes that have a plot with the higher/steeper slope will have what Km and Vmax values?

High Km value and low Vmax

What is associated with an increase in left ventricular musculature (hypertrophy)?

High systemic blood pressure (hypertension)

What phase have the highest and lowest entropy (disorder)?

Highest entropy: gas Lowest entropy: solid

Elastin

Highly coiled, can stretch/recoil, in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue, similar to collagen

Ball and socket joint

Hip and shoulder joints, permits the greatest range of motion and allows for 360o of rotation in most cases.

Brain's limbic system

Hippocampus, Amygdala, Thalamus, Cerebellum, Hypothalamus (Remember: HATCH)

The posttranslational modification of some of the eukaryotic cell's most abundant proteins is thought to affect the ability of those proteins to condense DNA into 30‑nm fibers. Given this, these proteins are most likely:

Histones

sensory memory

Holds sensory information for a short time of a few seconds or less - Iconic: what you see, <0.5 sec, Visio-spatial - Echoic: auditory, 3-4 sec, phonological loop

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Hormone released from small intestine (duodenum) in response to fats. Effects: - Bile release from the gallbladder - Increase enzyme flow/pancreatic juice in the pancreas - Slows stomach (GI) motility. - Promotes satiation - Contraction of muscle in wall of gallbladder and relaxation of hepatopancreatic sphincter

Charge density of an ion

The larger the charge on each individual atom will make it have a greater charge density. For example, CaS has individual charges of Ca+2 and S-2. The HCl has individuals charges of H+1 and Cl-1. This means CaS has a larger charge density.

Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia: low blood sugar usually resulting from excessive insulin or a poor diet, patients should treat this by eating frequent meals high in glucose (High amounts of insulin means low levels of glucose) Remember: Hypo means low and gly means glucose

Which of the following can be determined from thin layer chromatography results? I. Number of components in the mixture II. The identity of the components III. Polarity of components

I. Number of components in the mixture III. Polarity of components

intelligence quotient (IQ)

IQ = (mental age / chronological age) * 100 with normal distribution where 68% of people lie between the scores 85-115

large intestine

The last section of the digestive system, where water is absorbed and the remaining material is eliminated from the body.

If blood pressure is low, what hormones will be released?

If blood pressure too low: Renin-angiotensin pathway: Kidney (JGA cells) release renin, triggers formation of angiotensin II, which stimulates aldosterone release, to raise blood pressure. Aldosterone (aka mineralocorticoid): Adrenal glands release aldosterone, causes kidney (distal tubules) reabsorb more Na+, which causes more water reabsorption. ADH (made in hypothalamus, stored in pituitary): causes more water reabsorption in the kidney tubules, raising blood pressure. High levels also cause vasoconstriction.

If everyone's income increases, then what would happen to the absolute poverty and relative poverty?

If everyone's income increases, the absolute poverty declines (less people will fall below the absolute poverty line) and the relative poverty stays the same (the comparison between rich/poor won't change).

How do you tell if it is deprotonated (-)/protonated (+) based on the pI and pH values?

If pKa or pI < pH then it is deprotonated/negative. If the pKa or pI > pH, then it is protonated/positive. This adheres to a cation-exchange column.

Positive or negative feedback

If the individual is adding a stimulus, event or occurrence, then that is positive feedback (ex. spraying a dog). If the individual is taking away something, that is a negative feedback (ex. no gameboy).

How do redox reactions affect oxygen bonding?

If the number of bonds to oxygen is increasing, then oxidation is occurring. If the number of bonds to oxygen is decreasing, then reduction is occurring.

If your blood osmolarity is higher/lower than normal, your body reacts to replace this water loss by releasing ADH

If your blood osmolarity is higher than normal, your body reacts to replace this water loss by releasing ADH ADH leads to increased water resorption by your kidneys Osmolarity goes down and blood pressure goes up

Types of Immunoglobulins (Ig)

IgA: protects infants IgD IgE: allergy IgG: most antibodies in the blood, highest ozonization and neutralization, very specific, comes after a few days of infection, long term immune response,vaccine IgM: initial, produced first when invaders come, main Mnemonic: A Dog Eats Great Meals.

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Impacts the Kidneys Increased water Retention and Reabsorption Increase blood pressure Increases permeability of collecting ducts Increased volume, decrease osmolarity (osmoles/vol) High levels cause vasoconstriction. Stored/Secreted from posterior pituitary

implicit vs explicit memory

Implicit - retention independent of conscious recollection, Procedural (skills and tasks), emotional reflex Explicit - memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare, episodic, experiences and events, Semantic (facts and concepts)

Paternalism

In healthcare, paternalism is when doctors think they always know best. A policy of treating subject people as if they were children, providing for their needs but not giving them rights.

vestibule

In the ear that has hair cells sensitive to movement, affects balance/orientation, send impulses down auditory nerve to be processed by the brain

pulmonary alveoli

In the parenchyma of the lungs at the terminal end of the respiratory tree. Air sacs. Bronchioles terminate at the alveoli Allows gas diffusion/exchange to occur and the exchange of CO2 for O2 in the bloodstream O2 is breathed into alveoli then is exchanged with CO2 that was in the blood. This CO2 will be exhaled out. Hollow cavities at the end of the respiratory tree Increases surface area of lung For exhalation to occur, Alveolar pressure must be higher than atmospheric pressure.

In translation elongation, the new tRNA enters the ribosome at the

In translation elongation, the new tRNA enters the ribosome at the A site The growing polypeptide chain is transferred from the P site to the A site to meet the new tRNA Before leaving the ribosome, the tRNA stops in the E site. The order of sites for the tRNA is A-P-E

Incomplete dominance vs. codominance

Incomplete Dominance- 2 traits are blended together, but are partially expressed Codominance- both traits are fully expressed and neither dominates.Mnemonic:codominance=cow

Glucocorticoids (cortisol)

Increase blood glucose levels (esp. during stress), which cause weight gain/fat storage and insulin secretion.

What increases/decreases gene expression?

Increase gene expression: enhancers, gene duplication, histone acetylation, DNA demethylation Decrease gene expression: histone deacetylation, DNA methylation

A prolonged fast

Increase in glucagon (a hormone formed in the pancreas which promotes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver) caused by lots of enzyme phosphorylation and dephosphorylation

Relationship between glucagon and glucose

Indirect relationship. Glucagon levels are high when glucose is low.

Ideal gas

Individual molecular volume and intermolecular forces are negligible. There are no attractive forces between molecules, so we assume particles do NOT interact.

Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning, also known as bottom-up reasoning, uses specific details to find commonalities and arrive at a general conclusion for the final result.

ACE inhibitors lower blood pressure: how?

Inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme, which disrupts the production angiotensin 2 from angiotensin 1. Angiotensin 2 is a hormone that raises BP.

initiation and elongation

Initiation is attaching RNA polymerase to promoter, elongation is transcribing DNA. They help transport charged tRNA molecules into the ribosome and advance the ribosome down the mRNA transport.

abducens nerve (CN VI)

Innervates the lateral rectus muscle of the eye

Dyssomnias

Insomnia: inability to sleep Narcolepsy: spontaneous sleep during random times Sleep apnea: inability to breathe while sleeping

What facial expressions are evaluated by the insula, amygdala, or basal ganglia?

Insula: recognizes feelings of disgust Amygdala: recognizes feelings of fear Basal ganglia: recognizes feelings of anger

Intergenerational mobility vs. Intragenerational mobility

Intergenerational Mobility: the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next. For example, a father worked in a factory while his son received an education that allowed him to become a lawyer or a doctor. (Remember: Son is INTERested, ew son, nExt generation is intErgenerational) Intragenerational Mobility: the social movement of individuals within their own lifetime

cell cycle

Interphase - G1: Decide if it's time to divide. Make organelles. Cell becomes fully committed to the cell cycle. Growth. Gene transcription and protein translation. - G0: A cell will enter this phase if it doesn't need to divide. Muscles and nerves in the brain don't copy themselves and are stuck in this phase. - S: DNA is replicated/copied. Makes homologs. Uses DNA Polymerase - G2: Check, repair (Mismatch repair of DNA occurs during G2 phase using the genes MSH2 and MLH1) - G2/M checkpoint: ensure there is no DNA damage that occurred during S phase. (Ex. cancer suppressor genes, p53) Mitosis (PMAT) and cytokinesis

Light moving across mediums

Into a slower medium: arrow moves towards the perpendicular (Mnemonic: STD) Into a faster medium: arrow moves away from the perpendicular If the right side slows down first, light moves towards the right (and vice versa)

Introns vs. exons

Introns: remain IN the nucleus Exons: Exit the nucleus, EXpressed

Index of refraction vs speed of light

Inverse relationship. Lowest index of refraction will have light travel at the fastest speed. For example, air has fast speed of light and low index of refraction.

Peristalsis

Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.

Amygdala

Involved in your fear responses and memory. Remember: Picture a scary wig (rhymes with "myg") with dollars in the hair (similar to "dala").

Isoelectric focusing vs. traditional Electrophoresis

Isoelectric focusing uses a gel with a pH gradient that encourages a variable change

How does an increase in pH from 4 to 7 affect proton concentration?

It adds 3 units of pH. This would be adding a pH concentration of pH = -log[H+] so it is 10^3 = 1000

In high doses, aspirin functions as a mitochondrial uncoupler. How would this affect glycogen stores?

It causes depletion of glycogen stores

Narcolepsy

It involves a loss of muscle tone and suddenly falling asleep (sleep attacks) in response to an emotional trigger.

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

It's in the thalamus. It receives input from the retinal ganglion cells. It receives information from the optic tract and sends it to the occipital cortex. It's responsible for knowing where things are, shape, and movement.

Kinetic energy equation

KE=1/2mv^2

cultural capital

Knowledge, skills, education, and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with differences in social status

What processes occur in the mitochondria?

Krebs cycle, Electron Transport Chain (ETC), and Oxidative phosphorylation

nativist theory

Language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity. The tools to learn languages are biologically ingrained in us.

corpus callosum

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them Damage here causes split brain personality "cuerpo come together"

Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates)

Large carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides (Ex. starch, glycogen, cellulose, amylopectin)

ATP synthase

Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP. On the plasma membrane of bacteria and inner mitochondrial membrane in human cells. Driven by a flow of hydrogen ions down a concentration gradient

Diaphragm

Large, flat voluntary skeletal muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing. It contracts to inhale.

What batteries have the lowest energy density (energy to weight ratio)?

Lead-Acid batteries

How do lenses vs. mirrors react to light?

Lenses refract light at an angle that depends on the wavelength, whereas mirrors reflect light of all wavelengths at the same angle.

brain stem function

Life sustaining functions: 1. control heartbeat 2. breathing 3. blood pressure

The lagging strand of DNA has a higher rate of mutation because

Ligase lacks proofreading ability while connecting Okazaki fragments

optics

Light (mirrors, lenses, color, astronomy)

Retina

Light sensitive layer of the eye; contains rods and cones, light into electrical signals sent to the brain

Light vs. heavy chains

Light: each antibody has 2, made of a Variable (Vl) and a Constant (Cl) Heavy: each antibody has 1 variable region (Vh) and 3 constant regions (Ch1,Ch2,Ch3) -Disulfide bonds hold the light and heavy chain together. -Disulfide bonds also hold the 2 heavy chains together which bend at the hinge region. - Heavy chains form the backbone of the antibody, and are attached to light chains via covalent bonding

Weak Linguistic Determinism

Linguistic structure influences but does not determine the context of everyday encounters.

What kind of genes lead to the least amount of recombination?

Linked genes

__________ digests fats, but its function is not to emulsify fats. This is the job of ______________.

Lipase is involved in the digestion of fats, but its function is not to emulsify fats. This is the job of bile.

strong reducing agent

Lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) is a strong reducing agent. It reduces anything to produce an alcohol

Path for bile salts

Liver, gall bladder, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), liver

strongest bond

London dispersion < Dipole-dipole < Hydrogen bond <Ion Dipole< Ionic bond (highest entropy)

High values of Km represent

Low affinity enzyme substrate complexes (because low more substrate must be present, the high Km binds less)

Inflation of the lungs is accomplished through what pressure change?

Lower(negative) pressure pumping action Remember: Exhalation uses higher pressure so the gas wants to go into the lower pressure atmosphere.

How is testosterone produced?

Luteinizing hormone acts on Interstitial cells to produce Testosterone. Mnemonic: Males get LIT

During which phase are DNA repair mechanisms least active?

M phase

Equation to solve for the concentration or volume of the concentrated or dilute solution

M1V1 = M2V2

Macula densa cells sense concentrations of what?

Macula dense cells in the distal convoluted tubules don't sense enough salt, so they tell the juxtaglomerular cells to raise blood pressure.

Bile pathway

Made in Liver -> Common Hepatic Duct -> Cystic Duct -> Stored in Gallbladder (bile will then be released from gallbladder by CCK hormone that makes bladder contract) -> Cystic Duct -> Common Bile Duct -> Duodenum (bile secreted into GI tract) -> ileum in small intestine (bile salts/fats are absorbed) -> back to liver

Tubulin

Makes up microtubules, polar dimer that helps with cell division. Polarized pathway for Intercellular transport. Positive end of tubulin is away from the nucleus. Negative end is towards the nucleus.

Testosterone

Male sex hormone, anabolic steroid Produced by the testes in men and ovaries in women with a small amount produced by the Adrenal Cortex

What is digestible by humans and made of only one type of monosaccharide?

Maltose (Remember MMM: Maltose Men Monosaccharide)

Mass composition

Mass composition is calculated using grams. The grams of one molecule divided by the grams of the total molecule.

mechanical vs chemical digestion

Mechanical- broken down by moving, pushing, churning, breaking, separates molecules of a substance, without changing its chemical properties. Ex. bile Chemical- uses chemicals and enzymes to break down food, breaks intramolecular bonds and changes the "identity" of a substance. Ex. lipase or amylase(breakdown carbohydrates into simple sugars) in mouth, brush border enzymes in the pancreas, pepsin (breakdown proteins into amino acids)

mediator vs moderator

Mediator: the reason for this effect. The causal result of the independent variable and causal antecedent of the dependent variable. Mnemonic: Mediator is in between. It mediates. Moderator: Influences the strength of the relationship between two variables. There is a relationship but it is stronger for some subgroups than for others. are the variables linked in the same way for everyone in every situation? ex: gender, age, etc.

alpha decay

The loss of two protons and two neutrons. This decreases the atomic number by 2 and the mass number by 4. - Alpha decay is the lowest energy radioactive decay. The emitted particle moves relatively slowly, and can be stopped by something as thin as a piece of paper.

Mesoderm

Middle germ layer Develops into: - Muscles - Bones - Circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems. - Connective tissue, notochord, kidney, gonads - Ex. Scapula in your shoulder, embryonic heart, muscle, kidney, skeletal muscle, and microglia Mnemonic: meso = muscle

An increase in the intracellular calcium [Ca+2] above homeostatic levels will result in what?

Mitochondria plays a large part in apoptosis. High levels of calcium will cause the mitochondrial membrane to depolarize (+) and become permeable. It will release pro-apoptotic factors into the cytosol.

vision correction

Mnemonic: Need Medical Doctors For Helping Children Nearsightedness Myopia treated with a Diverging (biconcave) lens. Farsightedness Hyperopia treated with a Converging (biconvex) lens.

Reciprocal-determinism

Model proposed by Bandura, which asserts that an individual's behavior affects the environment where the behavior happens and the environment affects how that behavior is expressed.

How does the number of subunits impact an enzyme?

More subunits have a higher affinity for the substrate

Hyperpolarization

Movement of cell membrane potential away from rest potential to become more negative (-) with potassium (K) or Cl. Inhibitory-postsynaptic potential.

Chemotaxis

Movement of macrophages to a chemical signal. Chemotaxis uses cytokines and chemokines to attract macrophages and neutrophils to the infection.

In what direction are peptides synthesized?

N -> C terminal direction by using condensation reactions in the ribosome

ammonia

NH3 (weak base)

What is the equivalence point on a graph of pH versus the amount of titrant added to a solution?

The magnitude of the slope of the graph is greatest at the equivalence point.

Neural tube cells vs. Neural crest cells

Neural tube cells form the spine and brain. The formation of the neural tube during neurulation divides the embryo in two symmetric halves. Neural crest cells are derived from the ectoderm and will form the peripheral nervous system.

If something is meant for translation of proteins with memory and learning, then it will be located in

Neurons in the brain.

Adiabatic

No heat transfer (Q=0)

Null Hypothesis

No significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error. There is some other explanation.

innate immune system

Nonspecific barriers that impede pathogens from entering the body or multiplying; Internal and external barriers. Keep bad things out. General disease protection and has no recognition of specific particles or diseases Ex. skin, GI tract, stomach acid, respiratory tract, eyelashes, cilia, mucous, bile, inflammation, saliva, sweat, tears, natural killer cells

Coordination Number (CN)

Number of adjacent ions (or atoms) surrounding a reference ion (or atom)

universal donor blood type

O negative

poor leaving groups

OCH3, OH, F, NH2, H

semantic network

Organization of information in the brain by linking concepts with similar characteristics and meaning.

middle ear

Ossicles containing 3 tiny bones ("MIS": Malleus, Incus, Stapes) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Pathway of pressurized sound waves into the ear

Outer ear 1) Pinna(outer ear) 2) Auditory canal 3) Tympanic membrane (eardrum, vibrates) Middle ear 4) Ossicles: 3 smallest bones, (malleus, incus, stapes) *MIS Inner ear 5) Oval Window (pushes the fluid to the cochlea) 6) Cochlea (hair cell, sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses) 7) Round window 8) Organ of Corti (membrane in the cochlea that makes sure the fluid goes the same direction) 9) Auditory cortex of temporal lobe Remember: "PIN a Tail On the Oval Couch. Round orange couch amazing"

ectoderm

Outer primary germ layer Develops into: - Skin and Nervous System (CNS and PNS) - Brain, lens of the eye, mammary sweats glands, skin, hair, neural crest-> Schwann cells, adrenal medulla, melanocyte cells Mnemonic: Ectoderm has a "C" for CNS

Which participant in the electron transport chain has the greatest attraction for electrons?

Oxygen

Total pressure exerted by a fluid at a specific depth

P = P0 + pgz P0: atmospheric pressure p: density of the fluid z: depth

Boyle's Law

P1V1=P2V2 at constant temperature

potential energy formula

PE=mgh (mass x gravity x height)

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

PROKARYOTES 1. Unicellular: Bacteria and blue-green algae 2. No nucleus; nucleiod region with single circular DNA; single chromosome; 3. Smaller 4. Cell wall in all 5. Ribosomes (30 & 50S) 6. No membrane-bound organelles 7. Transcription and Translation in cytosol 8. Divide by Binary fission EUKARYOTES 1. Unicellular or Multicellular: protists, fungi, plants & animals 2. Nucleus; consist of mutiple chromosomes 3. Bigger 4. Cell wall ONLY in fungi & plants 5. Ribosomes (40 & 60S) 6. Membrane-bound organelles like the mitochondria 7. Transcription in nucleus; Translation in cytosol 8. Divide by Mitosis 9. RNA Splicing BOTH 1. Cytoplasm 2. DNA 3. Cell membrane 4. ribosomes 5. Activities of living things 6. Repressor molecules that bind DNA at promoter sites and regulate transcription.

What are the different types of personality disorders?

Paranoid PD: extreme distrust/suspicion of others Histrionic PD: attention-seeking Dependent PD: constant need for reassurance Antisocial PD: disregard the rights of others Borderline PD: instability in relationships, mood, and self-image Narcissistic PD: grandiose sense of self-importance and need for admiration

axial skeleton

Part of the skeletal system that consists of the skull, rib cage, hyoid bone, and vertebral column

Postmenopausal women receiving estrogen and progesterone therapy will most likely experience what side effect?

Periodic menstruation will resume

borderline personality disorder

Personality disorder characterized by lack of stability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion; impulsivity; angry outbursts; intense fear of abandonment; recurring suicidal gestures

Phagocytosis vs. Pinocytosis

Phagocytosis : Cell eating. Brings full, undissolved or insoluble molecules into the cell. Can be highly specific. Pinocytosis : Cell-drinking. Engulfs dissolved ions and other solutes in the liquid medium surrounding the cell. Not specific to what is carried in. Mnemonic: "Pint of liquid"

Photoopic, mesopic, and scotopic vision

Photopic vision: at high light levels. Mesopic vision: at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones. Scotopic vision: at very low light.

How to determine the bond angle

The more lone pairs on the central atom imply -> a smaller bond angle

In a titration graph,

PkA1 comes first at the halfway from the starting point and the steepest part, pKa2 is halfway between the other two, the last equivalence point comes at the steepest second part

Lysine, Lys, K

Polar, basic, positive charge, hydrophilic

Oxyanions name

Polyatomic anions that contain oxygen. More oxygen: -ate Less oxygen: -ite

polygyny vs polyandry

Polygyny = man w/ multiple wives Polyandry = women w/ multiple husbands "Andry is Andrea"

A student adds Taq Polymerase, nucleotides, and primer to a test tube. What procedure are they most likely going to do next?

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

appendicular skeleton

Portion of the Skelton that attaches to the axial skeleton. Bones of the shoulder, pelvis, and upper and lower extremities

What does a positive potential inside the cell trigger?

Positive potential inside the cell triggers the voltage-gated sodium (+) channels to inactivate and the voltage-gated potassium (-) channels to open. As potassium (+) leaves the cell, the restoration of (-) charges is called repolarization. If this continues, the efflux of K+ can hyperpolarize the neuron.

tight junctions

Prevent solutes from leaking into the space between cells via a paracellular route, but do not provide intercellular transport

primary vs secondary deviance

Primary: no big consequences Secondary: more serious consequences

quantum numbers

Principal (n): energy levels, 1,2,3,... Ex. 5d is 5 Azimuthal (l): s=0, p=1, d=2, f=3 Ex. 5d is 2 Magnetic (m): range of -l to +l, where l is azimuthal Spins (s): spin of -1/2 or +1/2 Mnemonic: "n is number, l is letter, m is max/min of l, s is spin"

proactive interference vs. retroactive interference

Proactive interference: Something you learned in the past impairs learning in the future. Earlier information interferes with later information. Ex. New password learning - prior pw learning impairs ability to learn Retroactive interference: Memorizing new information causes forgetting of older information. Later information interferes with memory for earlier information. Ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address

sexual dysfunction

Problem occurring during any phase of the sexual response cycle that prevents the individual or couple from experiencing satisfaction from the sexual activity

Implicit memory includes which types of memory?

Procedural and emotional

Prokaryotic DNA vs Eukaryotic DNA

Prokaryotic DNA lacks nucleosomes Eukaryotic DNA has telomeres Prokaryotic DNA is replicated by a different DNA polymerase

Differences in translation between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotic mRNA - Start: formylmethionine (fMET) - Shine-delgarno sequence: site ribosome binds to - Transcription and translation happen at the same place in the cytosol Eukaryotic mRNA - Start: methionine (MET) - Transcription in the nucleus, translation in the cytoplasm Needed in eukaryotes to prevent mRNA degradation by enzymes: - 5' cap: made of Guanine (G), site ribosome binds - Poly-A-Tail: made of many Adenine nucleotides, long

Proline residues can be located where?

Proline residues can create kinks/bends in either the start of an alpha helix, the bends of a beta sheet, and in transmembrane domains.

Promiscuity vs Polygamy

Promiscuity is many:many "Remember: Promiscuity like the song Promiscuous" Polygamy is one:many

Which of the following atoms would have the shortest carbon-carbon bond? Butane Propyne Ethylene Hexene

Propyne because it has a triple bond which has the shortest carbon-carbon bond.

Actin

Protein that makes up the thin microfilaments and myofibrils in skeletal muscle, most abundant protein in eukaryotic cells, major component of cytoskeleton, polarized

retrograde transport

Protein translation principally occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The proteins are then transported to the Golgi apparatus for post translational modification, processing, and packaging for proper localization. Retrograde transport would reverse the motion and return the protein to the ER.

What protein property is best for UV spectroscopy?

Proteins contain aromatic groups in certain amino acids

Antibodies

Proteins that attach to antigens, keeping them from harming the body. Antibodies are specific to 1 antigen. They label antigens for targeting by other immune cells. They have two heavy chains and two light chains. Antibodies can cause agglutination by interacting with antigen. Agglutination is adhesion/clumping.

pH vs pKa

Protonated: pH < pKa Deprotonated: pH > pKa Buffer zone: pH = pKa

proximal movements

Proximal movements come from the edge of the body and move toward the center of the body. Ex. Afferent neurons

Milgram Experiment

Psychological experiments on obedience. Electrical shocks to incorrect answers; learners were paid actors (confederates). Tested whether someone would harm another person just because an authority figure told them to. Mnemonic: "a milligram of a drug will shock someone"

punishment or reinforcement

Punishment wants to decrease a behavior. Reinforcement wants to increase a behavior. (reward) Mnemonic: both of these are action words so they are related to a behavior you perform

What does pyridinium chlorochromate act as?

Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) is a weak oxidizing agent. It will stop oxidizing at the aldehyde

Bernoulli's Equation

P₁+ 1/2 ρv₁² + ρ g h₁ = P₂ + 1/2 ρv₂² + ρ g h₂ Sum of the pressure energy (P = pgh), kinetic energy per volume (K.E. = 1/2 m v²), and potential energy per volume (P.E. = mgh) remains constant

volume flow rate equation

Q= vA Q: volumetric flow rate v: flow velocity A: vector area

Ester

RCOOR -oate

citric acid is a weak tropic acid that acts like what in a solution?

The multiple acidic protons in citric acid allow it to be an effective buffer over many pH ranges.

hemiacetal

Reactants: aldehyde + alcohol, Single carbon bonded to two oxygens, one of which is part of an -OH and the other part of an ether (ROR). Glucose can form a hemiacetal after it cyclizes. Differ only at the center carbon. The hemiacetal carbons of α-D-glucose and β-D-glucose have opposite absolute configurations.

Real or virtual images

Real images: converging light rays, always inverted. Objects that are reflected by concave mirrors or convex lenses have real images. Virtual images: diverging light rays, not inverted. Objects that are reflected by convex mirrors or concave lenses, or are within one focal length of a concave mirror or convex lens, have virtual images.

Cognitive memories that decline with age?

Recall Processing speed Divided attention Episodic memory

Reliability and Validity

Reliability: consistency, many responses at around the same number Validity: accuracy, correct response

Telomeres

Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. They prevent essential DNA from being lost during replication. In humans, they are TTAGGG. Has high G-C content.

mast cells (immature) and basophils (mature)

Respond to injury or infection by releasing cytokines and granules that contain chemicals (such as histamine) that promote inflammation. Histamine: cause blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood flow and cell trafficking to the area of infection. Basophils: In allergic responses, releasing histamine and heparin during an inflammatory response. Does NOT perform phagocytosis Mast cells: in mucous membranes and connective tissues. Astrocytes are derivatives of mast cells. Cytokines: messenger service, alerting other immune cells, like neutrophils and macrophages, to make their way to the area of infection.

What happens to the K+ and Na+ channels at different stages?

Resting potential: voltage-gated K+ channels and the voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed. After a triggering event, the voltage-gated Na+ channels open and cause further depolarization (+) of the membrane by allowing Na+ to flow into the cell. The voltage-gated K+ channels are closed. After the membrane reaches its peak potential, the membrane repolarizes by returning near its resting potential. Repolarization phase: voltage-gated K+ channels open, voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed.

Which of the following combinations might yield the necessity of blood transfusion for a new born baby? Possible Answers: Rh-positive mother and Rh-negative fetus Rh-negative mother and Rh-negative fetus Rh-negative mother and Rh-positive fetus Rh-positive mother and Rh-positive fetus

Rh-negative mother and Rh-positive fetus Explanation: Mom needs to be universal acceptor which is AB positive. Rh factors are surface proteins found on red blood cells. An Rh-negative mother can be exposed to Rh-positive blood from the fetus in her first pregnancy. Without administration of Rh(o) D immunoglobulin during the delivery of her first baby, the mother can develop antibodies to Rh so that during her second pregnancy, the maternal antibodies will cross the placenta and attack the red blood cells of the fetus if it is Rh-positive. The attack on fetal red blood cells will require blood transfusions for the fetus.

What is the difference in sound processing for right vs. left ear?

Right ear responds more to speech and logic. Left ear is more tuned in to music, emotion and intuition. Sounds captured by the right ear will primarily be transmitted to the left side of the brain for interpretation and vice versa.

neglect syndrome

Right parietal lobe lesions that leave a patient completely inattentive to stimuli to her left, including the left side of her own body. Neglect syndrome occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention.

rods vs cones

Rods: low sensitivity to detail, night vision, don't detect color, more rods than cones (dim, no color), rhodopsin changes shape retinal (cis/bent-> trans/straight), found in the periphery of the eye, Rods have slow recovery time Cones: sensitive to color and detail, best in bright light/daytime (detail, color), fovea is also involved in color, fovea centralis is capable of the highest degree of visual acuity, cones have fast recovery time

Role strain vs role conflict

Role strain - when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status. Ex. a student has lots of work in lots of different classes (Mnemonic: Strain Single Status SSS) Role conflict- one role interferes with another; conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, Ex. a husband has an anniversary and plans with friends on the same day

If the magnitude of charge were increased from +Q to +2Q, what would the field lines look like?

The number of arrows around the charge would double.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER - Make proteins (for export usually) - Glycosylation: proteins in it's lumen, where it folds and is tagged with a (usually carbohydrate) molecule. Marks the protein for transport to the Golgi. - Continuous with the nuclear envelope - Helps cells specialize and allows for greater complexity in the organism. - Ribosomes on the ER are the site of protein synthesis such as transmembrane proteins - Post-translational modification such as making of disulfide bridges happens here. - Ex. G-Protein-Coupled-Receptors Smooth ER - Detoxify - Liver has lots of SER - Makes lipids and steroids. These are fat-based molecules used in energy storage, membrane structure, and communication (as hormones) - Remember: Smoothies make Liquids

If something interfered with DNA replication, in which phase of the cell cycle would cells tend to be arrested?

S phase (where DNA Replication occurs)

SNOW DROP mnemonic

S= southern blotting -> DNA= D N= Northern Blotting -> RNA = R O= nothing W= western blotting -> protein = P

Specific gravity equation

SG = p obj /p water - where p is density - Specific gravity will also tell you how much of a floating object (with uniform density) will be submerged in water. For ex, a specific gravity of 0.7 indicates that 70% of the object will be submerged while 30% of the object remains above the level of the water.

Which is the more likely pathway for a substitution reaction at a tertiary carbon, within a haloalkane? SN1 SN2

SN1. A tertiary carbon is one with 3 other carbons attached, making it rather bulky. Because steric hindrance contraindicates SN2, go with SN1.

Sample A and sample B have the same number of carbons. If sample A has more calories than sample B, what can be concluded?

Sample A has more calories because it is more saturated (less bonds, more Hydrogen)

Bonds in secondary and tertiary structures

Secondary structure: hydrogen bonds between backbone amide protons and carbonyl oxygens. Tertiary structure: disulfide bridges, hydrophobic effects

adrenal glands

Secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress. It produces steroids.

Epinephrine (adrenaline)

Secreted by the adrenal medulla; increases heart rate and blood pressure and dilates airways (sympathomimetic). It is part of the body's "fight or flight" reaction.

gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)

Secreted by: Vagus nerve endings in the stomach Action: Increased Gastrin release

Deindividuation refers to a psychological state that results in non-normative behavior when a person is in the presence of a group. Which of the following typically decreases during the process of deindividuation? Self efficacy Self awareness Superego Self esteem

Self awareness

Roger's 3 components of self-concept

Self-image: view we have of ourselves Self-esteem: how much value/respect we place on ourselves Ideal self: what we wish to be

sperm pathway

Seminiferous tubules, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Duct, Nothing, Urethra, Penis (SEVEN UP)

What is the only sense that does not go through the thalamus?

Sense of smell

Organ of Corti

Sensitive element in the inner ear that transduces mechanical sound vibrations into nerve impulses It prevents backflow It can be thought of as the body's microphone Main sensory organ of hearing Contains hair cells, which are sensory receptor cells capable of responding to changes in pressure of the fluid of the inner ear.

gel filtration chromatography (size- exclusion)

Separates by size. Larger molecules elute first. Thus, the non-denatured proteins will elute first since they maintain their structure.

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Seven defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

Fertilization

Sexual reproduction where male and female reproductive cells join to form a zygote 1) Sperm binds to zona pellucida 2) Acrosome (enzyme on sperm) leaks out to digest the zona pellucida 3) Cortical granules don't allow other sperm to bind (blocks polyspermy) 4) Fusion of genetic material

frameshift mutation

Shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide. Thus, the amino acid sequence will be longer or shorter.

7 ± 2 Rule

Short-term memories are limited in capacity to approx seven items. The less number of items, the more likely a person is to remember.

What R-group side chains are most likely to react with each other?

Side chains with similar polarity are more likely to react

cooperative process

Sigmoidal curve indicates a cooperative process occured. Positive cooperative binding: substrate binding increases affinity for subsequent substrates. Negative cooperative binding: substrate binding decreases affinity for subsequent substrates. Non-cooperative: substrate binding has no effect on affinity, hyperbolic shape.

Types of Interferons (INF)

Signaling proteins made/released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses. Virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their anti-viral defenses. Types of cytokines. Alpha (a) Type I: causes a more inflammatory response, rapid kinematics, most likely to cause a fever Beta (B) Type II: less inflammatory response, slower kinematics Gamma (y) Type III: least inflammatory response, slowest kinematics

Gestalt law of pragnanz vs. Gestalt law of proximity

Similarity: items similar to one another grouped together Pragnanz: reality is reduced to its simplest form in our perceptions. Proximity: tend to group things by spatial relatedness Continuity: lines follow the smoothest path Closure: objects grouped together are seen as a whole. Mind fills in missing information Symmetry: the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point.

sin/cos trig needed

Sin (θ): 0° = 0 30° = 1/2 45° = √2/2 60° = √3/2 90° = 1

leading vs lagging strand

Since DNA is antiparallel and synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction: Leading strand: (made on 3' to 5' strand) is synthesized continuously, requires only one primer Lagging strand: (made on 5' to 3' strand) is synthesized discontinuously - Okazaki fragments, requires many primers

Precursor of cholesterol synthesis

Since cholesterol is a lipid, the precursor is acetyl-CoA

What conformation do six-membered rings (Ex. pyranose) prefer?

Six-membered rings prefer the chair conformation

isoelectric point

The pH value at which the amino acid exists as a zwitterion (electrically neutral). pI = (pKa1 +pKa2) /2

What do the actin and myosin do during contraction?

Sliding filament model: 1) Neuronal impulses cause the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum within muscle cells. 2) Calcium binds to troponin, a molecule that along with tropomyosin, blocks the binding sites for myosin on actin molecules. 3) Calcium binding to troponin causes a shift in the troponin/tropomyosin complex, revealing the binding site for myosin. 4) Myosin then binds to actin, causing a conformational change in myosin and slides the actin filament relative to myosin. 5) ATP binds to myosin, causing it to detach from actin and "recharge" (rebend again). 6) If another binding site is available on actin, myosin will bind again, and slide the actin filament even further. - During contraction, bridges between actin and myosin form, break, and re-form. This leads to a shortening of muscle sarcomeres.

Okazaki fragments

Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.

Extraversion

Sociable, outgoing

Weak reducing agent

Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) - Can't reduce carboxyllic acids - Can only reduce aldehydes, ketones, and acids to alcohol

What are the primary factors in determining resting membrane potential of a neuron?

Sodium and potassium

Cocci (coccus in plural)

Spherical bacterial cells that reproduce by dividing into two, Small circular organisms arranged in chains

Demographic Transition Model

Stage 1=Low growth (high birth/death rates), Stage 2=High Growth (improve healthcare/nutrition/wages to have low death rates), Stage 3=Moderate Growth(Improve contraception/womens rights, become industrial) Stage 4=Low Growth. A country moves from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates through time.

pluripotent stem cells

Stem cells that can become almost all types of tissues and cells in the body.

Strong acid

Strong Acid: highest Ka and lowest pKa . - 1.0 is a high Ka value so its a strong acid - Weak acids have a Ka between 0-1 range but closer to 0. It is usually from 10^-2 to 10^-14. A pH lower than pKa has a high [H+] concentration/is protonated. Ka is also known as ionization constant pH is directly related to pKa, low pH is low pKa (Remember: if it starts with a p it is directly related pH down= pKa down=Ka up)

Acids and Bases

Strong acids (one way arrow, reaction goes to completion, completely dissociates, 1:1 ratio): H2SO4 (Sulfuric Acid), HI (Hydroiodic acid), HBr (Hydrobromic acid), HNO3 (Nitric acid), HCl (Hydrochloric acid), HClO4 (perchloric acid), HClO3 (chloric acid) (remember: SO I Brought NO CLean CLothes) Weak acids: acetic acid (monoprotic, conjugate base is weak bc of negligible acidity), formic acid, HF, HNO2, phosphoric acid (H3PO4), ammonium ion (NH4+), sometimes have -COOH but never just -OH Neutral: water, ethanol, hexane, CCl4 Weak bases: ammonia (NH3), CH3NH2 (Remember: Cristian H Natali H), HPO4 Strong bases pH 9-10: NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2, Ca(OH)2

Na2Cr2O7 and sulfuric acid act as what kind of reagent?

Strong oxidizing agent that can turn an alcohol into a carboxyllic acid that is decanoic

splicesosome

Structure that removes introns from the pre-mRNA

ping pong mechanism (double displacement reaction)

Substrate binds to the enzyme and releases a product before the second substrate binds to the enzyme. At the end of the reaction the enzyme MUST be found in its original form and not consumed. - No ternary (complex with 2 substrates and 1 enzyme) complex can be formed

Km

Substrate concentration at 1/2 Vmax!! (when half the enzyme's active sites are bound), larger Km means less affinity the enzyme has for a substrate [S]

blood pathway through heart

Superior and inferior vena cava -> right atrium -> tricuspid valve -> right ventricle -> pulmonary valve -> pulmonary arteries -> lungs (pick up oxygen) -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> bicuspid/mitral valve -> left ventricle -> aortic valve -> aorta -> arteries -> body * blue is deoxygenated blood from the body * pink is oxygenated blood from the heart

Superior vena cava vs. Inferior vena cava

Superior vena cava: 2nd largest vein in a person, returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from the upper half of the body. (arms and head) Inferior vena cava: largest vein in a person, returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from lower half bodily parts below the diaphragm.

dissociative disorder

Symptoms: disruptions in consciousness, memory, identity, or perception. People detach during trauma and cannot remember said trauma. Remember: Dissociative Disorder = Detachment

How do you find the Km of the graph?

Take the inverse of the x intercept then negate it. -1/Km

What is the only physical factor that can change the numerical value of the equilibrium constant Keq?

Temperature

What affects the speed of a gas particle?

Temperature, molar mass, and kinetic energy all affect the speed of a gas particle. The volume does not.

What affects the rate of reaction?

Temperature, surface area, concentration, catalyst (activation energy), frequency that reactants collide.

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

Temperature: 273 K (0 C) Pressure: 1.00 atm = 760 mmHg= 100,000 Pascals Volume: 22.4 L/mol

What are the receptors for temperature, pressure, pain, and position?

Temperature: thermocepter Pressure: mechanoreceptor Pain: nociceptor Position: proprioceptor

temporal vs spatial summation

Temporal: one presynaptic neuron releases multiple neurotransmitters over a period of time and trigger an action potential. The integration of postsynaptic potentials that occur in the same place—but at slightly different times. Remember: Temporal= tiempo = different times Spatial: Excitatory potentials from many neurons trigger an action potential. The integration of postsynaptic potentials that occur in different locations—but at about the same time

Which of the following describes the orbital geometry of an sp^3 hybridized atom? A) Linear B) Trigonal Planar C) Tetrahedral D) Octahedral

Tetrahedral

If the Na+/K+ ATPase was inhibited,

The 2 K+ in the cell decreases, while the 3 Na+ increases. The net solute inside the cell would increase causing water to come into the cell. This would result in the cell swelling and possible lyse.

Why can an ion be responsible for color?

The color arises because (Ex. nickel(II) ion) has partially filled d orbitals. The electrons in the lower energy d orbitals absorb visible light to move to the higher energy d orbitals.

Myosin

The contractile protein that makes up the thick filaments of muscle fibers, contracts muscles

In [Cu(NH3)4]2+, the subscript 4 indicates which of the following?

The coordination number of Cu 2+

How to remove biological activity from a hormone?

The amino terminus must be destroyed. Thus, there must be a hydrolytic cleavage site near the amino terminus. This causes a break to the primary structure.

DNA replication

The copying of DNA. DNA unzips into two parts and splits with the cell. Each side of the DNA strand attack to matching nucleotides to create 2 exact copies. It is important in puberty and other times of growth as it is the reproducing of your cells.

The individual cells making up a tissue differ from single-celled organisms such as Paramecium in that only the latter: A. reproduce by mitosis. B. have subcellular organelles. C. are capable of extended independent life. D. can metabolize nutrient molecules.

The answer to this question is C because only the Paramecium, and not tissue cells, can survive independently for an extended period of time. Both Paramicium and tissue cells divide by mitosis (A), have subcellular organelles (B), and can metabolize nutrients (D), but are not capable of extended independent life.

Divided attention

The ability to attend to multiple items at once, or "multitasking."

What carboxylic acid will be more acidic?

The acidity of carboxylic acids is significantly increased by the presence of highly electronegative functional groups. Their electron-withdrawing effect increases the stability of the carboxylate anion, favoring proton dissociation.

Citric Acid Cycle Steps and Mnemonic

"Can I Keep Selling Stickers For Money Officer?": For Citric Acid Cycle Citrate Isocitrate Ketoglutarate Succinyl-CoA Succinate Fumarate Malate Oxaloacetate

bond order equation

# of bonds/ atoms attached to the center atom

Types of enzymes

(LILHOT) 1) Affect the bonding of molecules: Ligases, Isomerases 2) Cleave molecules: Lyases, Hydrolases 3) Shuttle things around: Oxidoreductases, Transferases

Situational vs. Dispositional Attribution

- *Situational*: Explains behavior in terms of something outside of behavior (EX: I'm late because of traffic or weather.) - *Dispositional*: Explains behavior in terms of the persons character/personality (EX: friend's late to pick me up - she must not care about my time and is a crappy person)

Prophase

- 1st and longest phase of mitosis - Chromosomes become visible - DNA and chromatin condenses - Nucleolus disappears - Centrioles separate then migrate to opposite poles - Microtubules and mitotic spindles form

osmolarity of blood

- 300mOsm - Total molarity of dissolved particles that cannot pass through the blood vessel wall - When you're really hydrated you decrease the osmolarity because you now have a lower solute concentration due to water influx. - If you're dehydrated your kidneys will try to keep most of what little water you have by increasing the reabsorption of water compared to solutes, and therefore increasing the osmolarity of your urine (glucose and AA's are completely reabsorbed, unless you're a diabetic and have excess glucose in your blood, in which case you would end up excreting 'sweet' urine). Blood osmolarity is determined predominantly by Na+ and Cl-. Blood osmolarity too low → aldosterone, reabsorb Na+. Cl- follows. Kidney tubules' secretion and reabsorption regulates osmolarity.

pheremone

- A chemical released by one animal that affects the behavior of another animal in the same species. - mating and fighting

Parkinson's disease

- A disorder of the central nervous system that affects movement, often including tremors and low dopamine. - Deterioration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra region.

GABA

- A major inhibitory (depressant)neurotransmitter. - Brain stabilization. - Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia. - Inhibit nervous system. - Ligand-gated channels. Ex. alcohol and antidepressants like barbiturates/benzodiasepines increase GABA activity

Distillation

- A process that separates the substances in a solution based on their boiling points. - Purifying a liquid by a process of heating and cooling. - Low boiling point (less something can dissociate) will evaporate first in a distillation column and will be isolated first.

Microfilaments (actin filaments)

- Actin and myosin - Cell motility - In muscle cells for contraction and amoeba - Cytoplasmic streaming in plants - Actin polymerization (lengthens), actin depolarization (shorten) - Moves macrophages that do endocytosis - In the heart

Body's response to stress

- Activation of sympathetic nervous system - Release of cortisol which begins in the hypothalamus which stimulates the anterior pituitary then the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland.

humoral immune response

- Adaptive immunity - Activation of B cells - Production of antibodies - Defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids. - Uses B cells to make antibodies or cell-mediated (t-cells)

Serotonin

- Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. - Undersupply linked to depression. - Increased levels of serotonin is linked to Bipolar Disorder.

preoperational stage

- Ages 2-7 of Piaget's theory - Egocentric: Inability to understand the perspective of others. - Uses language, but doesn't know the mental operations of concrete logic - Understands object permanence but not conservation.

Functionalism

- All parts of society must fulfill their function/role for the society to be in a normal state - An individual unable to perform his role in society is a dysfunction - Latent (unexpected positive) functions can sometimes become manifest (intended functions with positive effects) functions

law of independent assortment

- Alleles of 2(or more) different genes separate independently of one another in meiosis - Allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene. Ex. Pea color vs. pea shape

Calcium channels

- Allow neurotransmitters to be released - Typically closed voltage gated ion channel (opens when neuron is positive) - Calcium binds to SNARE proteins to change their conformation. Proteins will then bring vesicles closer to presynaptic membrane. - This allows neurotransmitters to undergo exocytosis and exit into synaptic cleft. - Neurotransmitters bind to postsynaptic neuron (can cause sodium channels to open/stimulate postsynaptic neuron or potassium gates to inhibit) - 1 neuron can form many synapses

ungated channels

- Always open - Ion channels are responsible for maintaining resting membrane potential - Ex. potassium channels

immunoglobulins

- Antibodies - Activate the immune response such as IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM - Secreted by plasma cells (mature B cells) in response to an antigen. - Made of 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains connected by disulfide bonds. - Variable region (where the antigen binds, always changes to bind to antigen), and a constant region. - Connects to the epitope of the antigen. The variable domain binds to the epitope. Epitope can activate a B cell (usually with the help of a T cell)

dendritic cells

- Antigen-presenting cells - In the tissues, skin, inner mucosal lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. - Common points for initial infection, they can identify threats and act as messengers for the rest of the immune system by antigen presentation. - Bridge between the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. - Ingest some bacteria and present it to the T cells. T cells attack it with the correct MHC. Then, they clone themselves to create effector and memory T cells. This is clonal selection.

types of social support

- Appraisal support: help someone realistically reappraise a stressor, changes the way they think about it - Tangible support: give something physical/tangible, like food or financial assistance - Informational support: person is provided with information - Emotional support: give them warmth, care, nurture

arteries and veins

- Arteries carry blood away from the heart; veins carry blood to the heart. - Since arteries take blood to the body, they are oxygenated and the color red. High pressure, so the blood that would come out if you cut yourself will leave very quickly. (Ex. Oxyhemoglobin). *Exception*: pulmonary artery takes blood away from the heart to the lungs, but is not yet oxygenated Remember: Arteries Away

skeletal muscle

- Attached to tendon/bone or aponeurosis - Voluntary - Multi-nucleated - Striated - Fastest and longest, straight Ex. running

Huntington's disease

- Autosomal dominant - Forgetfulness and irritability - Carriers are aware

Tay-Sachs disease

- Autosomal recessive - Leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. - Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor/mental performance - More likely for someone to be diseased in an inbred population. - Carriers are unaware so inbred population affects this disease more

vestibular system

- Balance, in the inner ear (semicircular canals) - Responds to gravity and keeps people informed of their body's location in space. - Semicircular Canal: full of endolymph, when we rotate the endolymph fluid shifts, balance - Detect the direction our head is moving, can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving, the strength of rotation. - Otolithic organs (utricle and saccule) help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning. In these are CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate) crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel. If we go from lying down to standing up, they move, and pull on hair cells, which triggers AP.

inactive X chromosome

- Barr body - Can replicate. - More condensed - One of the last chromosomes to replicate. - Not highly transcribed. - During embryonic development

structural poverty

- Based on the concept of "holes" in the structure of society rather than poverty due to the actions of the individual. - Macro‐level labor market and demographic conditions put people at risk of poverty. Poverty that is derivative of the way that we have structured our economy. - Blame society/government for poverty. Remember: based on structure of society not the people

labeling theory

- Behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. - Depends on what's acceptable in that society. - Deviance is socially constructed through reaction instead of action - No behavior is inherently deviant on its own

What brain waves in an EEG do people who are very alert have?

- Beta waves in the EEG - High cortisol levels - Functions in the prefrontal cortex and the reticular formation. If a disconnect occurs here, the person will be in a coma. Remember: Boom boom Beta high energy

What is pulmonary arterial blood like?

- Blood in the pulmonary artery is lower in oxygen, higher in CO2 and has a lower pH than arterial blood in the aorta. - Blood in the pulmonary artery, unlike blood in other arteries, is the same as venous blood. It has passed through the tissues of the body where it has given up oxygen and taken on CO2. It has been pumped through the right side of the heart from the veins and headed for the lung where it will become oxygenated and will dispose of its CO2 load. - Venous blood is lower in pH than arterial blood due primarily to the CO2 it carries.

Thalamus

- Brain's sensory switchboard - Located on top of the brainstem; - Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla, relays information from the body to different areas of the brain for processing. - Damage to thalamus can have a risk of coma. - Sense of smell is the only sense that bypasses the thalamus (Remember: THALamus TELls ur body (directs information, limbic system)

Glycogenolysis

- Breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver - Two main enzymes in glycogenolysis are glycogen phosphorylase and debranching enzyme - Difference between glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis is that glycogenolysis involves the formation of glucose molecules from a glucose source (glycogen), while gluconeogenesis forms glucose from non-glucose sources, molecules that are not made up of glucose

How does carbon dioxide (CO2) affect the blood pH?

- CO2 in the bloodstream lowers the blood pH - As CO2 combines with water, it forms carbonic acid, making the blood acidic. - When CO2 levels become excessive, a condition known as acidosis occurs (pH of the blood becoming less than 7.35)

How does muscle contraction occur?

- Calcium is stored/secreted from sarcoplasmic reticulum to mediate muscle contraction - Calcium binds to troponin leading to conformational change in tropomyosin - This exposes the myosin sites of actin

Mitochondria

- Cellular respiration and energy production - Self-replicating and have their own DNA Outer-mitochondrial matrix: - made of lipid bilayer permeable to small molecules, has pyruvate (glycolysis product), pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC), Krebs Citric Acid Cycle Inner-mitochondrial matrix: - low pH/acidic, ETC, not permeable bilayer, has cristae folds(increase SA),

Decarboxylation

- Chemical reaction that loses a carboxyl group by the removal of CO2. - Decarboxylation occurs with β-keto acids and β-dicarboxyllic acids. This is because they can form a cyclic transition state that allows the loss of carbon dioxide and a hydrogen transfer. - Both decarboxylation and tautomerization

Olfaction

- Chemical sense of smell - Scent molecules (benzenes) reach the olfactory epithelium deep in the nasal cavity - Scent molecules (benzene) contact receptor cells on the G-protein coupled receptor on the nerve at this location, which project an action potential to the olfactory bulbs of the brain - From there information travels to the olfactory cortex and the limbic system. - Odor -> GPCR -> G protein -> Ion Channel -> Action Potential -> activate a mitrate/tufted cell in the glomerulus -> brain - The pathway for olfaction goes from the olfactory bulb to either the amygdala or the piriform cortex. From there the signal is transmitted to the orbitofrontal cortex.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

- Childhood stages of development - Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital - When the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. - Conflict in each stage must be resolved or fixation can occur. Fixation is when lifelong conflict occurs and libido energy is stuck/fixated at a certain psychosexual stage. Libido is a natural energy source that fuels the mind and impulse. Mnemonic: "Old Aged People Love Grandchildren"

Chymotrypsin

- Cleaves at the C-terminal of amino acid - Cuts amino acids: Phe, Trp, Tyr

Where does each of the following types of enzymatic inhibitors bind? A) Competitive B) Uncompetitive C) Noncompetitive

- Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of enzymes. - Uncompetitive inhibitors bind just to the enzyme-substrate complex, and this doesn't necessarily occur at the active site. - Noncompetitive inhibitors bind an allosteric site.

ETC complex names

- Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase): transfers high energy e- from NADH to ubiquinone - Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase): oxidizes succinate to form fumarate, transfers high energy e- from fadh2 to ubiquinone (reduced) - Complex III (Cytochrome C reductase): high energy e- from ubiquinol (qh2) to make cytochrome C reductase - Complex IV (Cytochrome C oxidase): forms water

object conservation (Piaget)

- Concrete operational stage - Child can notice that the same amount of liquid stays the same even in different cup shapes/sizes

test cross

- Crossing an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual - Used to determine if an organism with a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous.

aphasia

- Damage to Broca's area: expressive, impairing speaking, unable to form coherent words or speech - Damage to Wernicke's area: receptive, impairing understanding of language, speak a nonsensical stream of words with the fluidity and intonations of regular speech. - Conduction aphasia: axons connecting Broca's and Wernicke's is damaged so people can't repeat what's been said. This is damage to the arcuate fasciculus: a structure relaying information between Broca's and Wernicke's areas

DNA sequencing

- Determines the order of nucleotide bases in a gene or DNA fragment 1) PCR amplifies the sequence 2) Add dideoxynucleotide (ddNTP) to terminate the elongation, can have fluorescent labels 3) Gel Electrophoresis to separate strands by size

Examples of strong oxidizing agents

- Dichromate (Cr2O7 -2) - Hot Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) - Jones reagent (CrO3, H2SO4 with acetone)

Bile

- Digestive juice - Made/secreted by the liver - Stored in the gallbladder - Breaks down fat into fatty acids. - Fat emulsification: increase the surface area of fats in the small intestine by grouping them into small clusters. Done by bile salts. Turn fats into micelles to be absorbed in the ileum.

ionotropic

- Direct effect on ion flow (fast and brief) - Ions flow through the receptor - When neurotransmitter has a direct effect on ligand gated ion channels in postsynaptic cell

Mixed inhibitor

- Do not bind to active site - Bind to enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex with unequal affinity - Binds reversibly

secondary active transport

- Doesn't use ATP as an energy source - Coupled to ion - Diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.

Downfield Proton NMR

- Downfield on NMR is an increased number on the left side - The protons(H+) are near very electronegative groups Ex. CHF3

Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)

- Effect of roles on behavior. - Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. - Study ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty and prisoner's mental breakdowns. - Showed situational attribution, deindividuation (numbers for prisoners instead of names), internalization, and cognitive dissonance.

Bladder

- Elastic, hollow, muscular organ - Temporarily stores urine - Special epithelium (transitional epithelium) can squish to accommodate storage of large amounts of urine. - Urine gets peed out of the bladder through the urethra.

restriction enzymes

- Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides - protect bacteria from viruses - bacteria has restriction enzymes and viruses don't

availability heuristic

- Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory - What comes to mind quickly - Based on examples - If instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Cartilage

- Extracellular connective tissue - Has Collagen (fibrous proteins) and Elastin (elastic proteins) that give strength and flexibility - Avascular (no arteries or veins) - Aneural (no nerve cells)

buoyant force

- F = pVg - Upward force exerted on an object in a fluid. - To float, the buoyant force must equal the gravitational force. - The floating equation (Fb=Fg) is pgv = mg. Since, gravity is on both sides it cancels out.

capillary action (capillarity)

- Fluid appears to "creep up" a solid material and seemingly defy gravity. - Movement of water in/out of your cellular structure that deposits vitamins, nutrients, and vital blood plasma. Without this flow, your body's cells would not rehydrate and vital communication between your brain and body would slow. - Adhesion: molecules in the fluid are more attracted to the solid material than other molecules in the fluid

Psychoanalytic Therapy

- Focuses on how unconscious conflicts in childhood shape behavior - Ex. free association, dream analysis

Gluconeogenesis

- Formation of glucose in the liver - Liver: site for glycogen storage and carbohydrate metabolism - Uses amino acids and lactate to produce glucose for glycolysis - The reverse of glycolysis - Anabolic (builds something up) - Occurs during periods of fasting, starvation, low-carbohydrate diets, or intense exercise

synapse/synaptic cleft

- Gap between neurons - space between axon terminal of one cell and the dendrites of the next - space between the cell(s) sending the signal [the pre-synaptic cell] and the cell(s) receiving the signal [the post-synaptic cell(s)] - The common chemical doesn't physically touch. Electrical synapse actually touches - The synapse includes the pre- and post-synaptic membranes as well as the cleft. The cleft is just the space between these membranes.

Episomes

- Genetic materials, DNA molecule found separate from original genetic content of an organism - Self-replicatory - May interact or be imbedded in genome Prokaryotic: Plasmids that can integrate into the genome of the bacterium, usually circular Eukaryotic: episomes are only found as viruses

E. Coli

- Gram negative bacteria - In the colon - Function: digestion, vitamin production - The appendix is continuous with the colon so that bacteria can move between these two structures. - A ruptured appendix would allow E. coli into the abdominal cavity, which could cause infection.

Eosinophils

- Granulocytes target multicellular parasites. - Secrete a range of highly toxic proteins and free radicals that kill bacteria and parasites. - The use of toxic proteins can cause tissue damage, so activation is highly regulated. - Only make up 1-6% of the white blood cells, - In the thymus, lower gastrointestinal tract, ovaries, uterus, spleen, and lymph nodes.

Asch Line Experiment

- Group of Actors - Task is to match the left line with the same line on the right - Actors go in order and all say the same wrong answer with the subject at the end - Subjects often change their answer to the wrong majority in order to conform

operon

- Group of genes that operate together and are all under the control of the same promoter. - When an operon is transcribed, all of the genes on the operon are on the same mRNA. - Operons occur in prokaryotes, but not eukaryotes. In eukaryotes, each gene is made on individual mRNAs and each gene has its own promoter.

bicarbonate ion

- HCO3 - Buffer in human blood that keeps the blood pH at 7.4 - Makes the blood more basic - Peeing it out makes blood more acidic. - Reabsorption makes blood more basic.

Dopamine

- Happy neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. - Schizophrenia have high levels of dopamine. - Parkinson's (difficulty walking/talking) have dopaminergic neurons that are destroyed (can't feel pleasure).

Lysosomes

- Has digestive enzymes that break down or hydrolyze the worn out cell parts/viruses - Breaks down to individual amino acids - Protein destruction - pH = 5 (instead of the usual cell ph of 7). This low pH acts as a safety net in case the lysosome bursts in the cell.

cardiac muscle tissue

- Heart - Involuntary - Striated (has lines/stripes) - Cells divide and converge - 1 or 2 nucleus per cell - Intercalated disks are branched

vasodilation

- Helps endotherm animal keep cool or get rid of heat - Widening/dilation of the diameter of a blood vessel. - Increases blood flow to both the muscle during exercise and the skin during blushing. - Allows heat to escape from the surface of the body into the environment. Helps the disproportionate movement of blood (and heat) to the surface of the body.

vasoconstriction

- Helps endotherm animal keep warm - Reduces blood flow to help retain heat - Reduces heat transfer by constriction (decreasing the diameter) of superficial blood vessels. - Increases blood pressure. Increases resistance. - Important in maintaining blood pressure during a hemorrhage (escape of blood from ruptured blood vessel) - High levels of ADH/vasopressin cause vasoconstriction.

smooth muscle tissue

- Hollow organs (intestines, digestive tract) - Blood vessels (arteries, veins) - Involuntary muscle that is the slowest - Spindle shaped w/ 1 nuclei - Short tapered cells, but no striations(stripes). - In charge of vasoconstriction

Progesterone

- Hormone made by the ovaries and adrenal glands. - Acts with estrogen to start the menstrual cycle. - Peaks a week after ovulation(most fertile), highest at the Luteal phase(after ovulation). - Estrogen establishes endometrium longing. Progesterone protects it for pregnancy.

tritium

- Hydrogen-3 isotope - Has one proton and 2 neutrons - Wants to react with the least charged atom because it is inert (inactive) and has many neutral neutrons - Ex. Tritium labeling would react at the Carbon, not the nitrogen site of a molecule.

Trypsin

- Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds - Breaks down proteins - Cleaves at the c-terminal of lysine and arginine - In the duodenum of the small intestine (basic pH)

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

- In matrix of the mitochondria for Eukaryotes - In cytosol for prokaryotes - Generates energy by oxidizing acetyl coA - 2 acetyl coA + oxaloacetate -> citric acid (loses 2 C as CO2). - Cycle repeats with the second Acetyl CoA. - For each Acetyl CoA, the Krebs Cycle produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2. - Products: Malate, Succinate, and α-Ketoglutarate

Schlemm's canal

- In the eye - Maintains the pressure of aqueous humor, draining excess into the bloodstream. - If this canal is blocked, then pressure increases and the patient can develop glaucoma (blindness common in elderly).

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

- In the mitochondria. - Electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttles the high-energy electrons from the Krebs cycle to convert ADP into ATP. - Uses cytochrome C for redox reactions to transport electrons. Cytochrome C can be released in the cytosol to trigger apoptosis. - O2 has the highest reduction potential because it is the last electron acceptor of ETC.

ganglion cells

- In the retina - Neurons that receive electrical impulses from the bipolar cells - Form the optic nerve. - First thing that light hits in the eye - Located nearest to the inner surface (closest to the vitreous body) of the retina

fetal circulation

- In the umbilical cord, there are more arteries than veins. - Foramen ovale: only shunt that connects two chambers of the heart. - Ductus venosus: only shunt that bypasses the liver. - In the earliest stages of development, the heart doesn't exist. - Later, the right side of the heart receives oxygenated blood and the left side receives deoxygenated (left has less O2)

long-term potentiation

- Increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. - Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory in the hippocampus. - Connections between neurons strengthen. An example of synaptic plasticity (the ability for synapses to change their strength)

Drug route of entry

- Ingestion: slowest, Ex. Alcohol - Inhalation: more addictive, Ex. Nicotine - Injection: most addictive, fast, Ex. Heroine - Transdermal: through the skin, Ex. Nicotine patch - Intramuscular: Ex. Flu shots, EpiPen

Endoderm

- Innermost germ layer - Digestive and respiratory system - Ex. intestines, lungs, liver, bladder lining, pancreas - Epithelial lining of the digestive tract, stomach, colon Mnemonic: endoderm is inside, I'LL

Down Syndrome

- Intellectual and physical disability caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). Total of 47 chromosomes. Risk is higher if mom carries the translocation or if she is older. Causes: - Nondisjunction: chromosomes don't split apart - Robertsonian translocation: part of two different chromosomes switch, hybrid with 2 long arms

Motor proteins

- Interact with cytoskeleton for cell motility, myosin - Two motor proteins (kinesin and dynein) move in opposite directions along beta subunits -Dynein moves towards the nucleus, while kinesin moves away (Remember: Dyne-in or Karry-out)

Hemoglobin

- Iron-containing protein in red blood cells - Carries oxygen for delivery to cells - 4 subunits where each O2 binds to hemoglobin - Positive cooperative binding so once the first O2 binds each subsequent has an easier time binding (friendly), S-shaped - Bohr effect: lots of CO2 and H+ make it harder for hemoglobin to bind oxygen

spleen function

- Largest lymphatic organ in the body - Blood reservoir, disintegrates old red blood cells, and produces lymphocytes and plasmids, filters blood, helps the immune system - high concentration of B and T cells.

primary structure

- Linear sequence of amino acids make a polypeptide chain - Covalent peptide bonds that are resonance stabilized (planar, can't rotate).

Robertsonian translocation

- Long arms of two acrocentric chromosomes (chromosomes 13-15, 21-22) become joined (stuck together) to a common centromere - Result: chromosome with 2 long arms and usually another chromosome with 2 short arms (lost by the end of meiosis). - Carrier is healthy, but his child could either have the normal or translocated chromosome (baby could have 3 copies (trisomy) of one of those chromosomes) - Baby with trisomy will likely miscarry/die

Hippocampus

- Long term memory - More excitatory NMDA (glutamate) neurotransmitter receptors that are good for learning, memory, and long term potentiation. (Remember: "hippo-compass": picture a hippo who is lost and can't remember how to get home, so he's using a compass.)

B cells (B lymphocytes)

- Made in the bone marrow (main reservoir of hematopoietic stem cells) - Create antibodies for isolating and destroying invading bacteria and viruses. (adaptive immune system) - In the lymphatic system, naive B cells encounter an antigen, which starts the maturation process for the B cell. - B cells each have millions of distinctive surface antigen-specific receptors that are inherent to the organism's DNA. - When a naive B cell encounters an antigen that matches its membrane-bound antibody, it quickly divides in order to become either a memory B cell or an effector B cell, which is also called a plasma cell (makes antibodies).

T cells

- Made in the thymus - Produce substances that attack infected cells in the body. - Can kill cancer - Part of the humoral response. - Recognition of self vs. non-self by the adaptive immune system in humans occurs through exposure of T cells to the body's own antigens - Locate and kill cells that contain antigens bound to MHC-I proteins - Increase the activity of immune cells (such as B-cells and macrophages) through the release of chemical messengers called cytokines - MHC: membrane-bound surface receptor proteins on antigen-presenting cells, like dendritic cells and macrophages. Attaches to the engulfed infected cell and brings it to the surface of the cell - MHCI: attracts cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ T-cells), on all nucleated cell types - MHC II: attracts helper T cells (CD4, alarm of immune system), limited to antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells.

Schwann cells

- Make myelin in peripheral nervous system - Originate from the neural crest embryonic layer, thus they are part of the ectoderm (CNS and skin) - Make myelin for only 1 segment of 1 axon - Contain gangliosides.

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

- Makes copies of a DNA segment using DNA polymerase. - Denaturation to separate 2 strands with heat - Primer annealing (primer binds) and extends - Taq polymerase: from a heat tolerant microorganism, adds nucleotides - Reaction takes place by thermal cycling with repeated heating and cooling cycles that let the enzyme act specifically and replace the helicase. - Each cycle doubles the amount of DNA.

Conflict Theory

- Marx theory - power struggle where groups are in competition - Domination not conformity - Race, gender, and class are the most prominent conflicts. - competition among social groups for limited resources - A conflict theorist would likely reference social stratification to analyze class based disparities.

Gamete

- Mature haploid male (sperm) or female germ cell (ovum) - Can unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.

fMRI (functional MRI)

- Measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. - Measures which structures are more active because they require more oxygen - Finds the relative amounts of oxygenated/deoxygenated blood

metabotropic

- Membrane receptors in neurons that initiate formation of second messengers when bound with ligand indirect effects on ion flow • Conformational change transmits information across the membrane • Biochemical cascades can affect many processes • Last longer, slower response - Amplification with 2nd messenger so effects can be larger/widespread - Neurotransmitter binding activates second messenger - G-protein coupled receptors

Law of segregation

- Mendel's law - Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis, so only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete - When an organism makes gametes, each gamete(egg/sperm) receives just one gene copy, which is selected randomly.

cognitive dissonance

- Mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values - This discomfort is triggered by a situation in which a person's belief clashes with new evidence perceived by the person. - An unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs Mnemonic: dissonance is a discomfort

micelles

- Micelles are small aggregates of soap. - Interior can dissolve nonpolar molecules. - The overall structure is water-soluble. - Soaps are salts of interior long-chain hydrocarbons with outer carboxylate head groups.

Symbolic Interactionism

- Micro issue - Interactions with others and their opinions influence how a person perceives himself. Ex. language - People behave based on what they believe/are told not just what is objectively true. - People actively contribute to their perception of their surroundings. - Stereotypes mean different things to the individuals within the group being stereotyped than to outsiders. Subjective interpretation of social structures - how labels affect perception and create prejudice

cyclothymic disorder

- Mild form of bipolar disorder where a person has mood swings for some years that go from mild depression to elevated mood and excitement. - Some psychotic episodes. During manic episodes, they will have delusions of grandeur, racing ideas and speech, distractibility and high-risk behaviors. Sleep and eat less often during these episodes.

information processing model

- Model says our brains are similar to computers. - We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions. Input -> process -> output - Doesn't describe where things happen in the brain. - bottom-up or stimulus driven model. - Model assumes limited storage capacity and the brain has limited capacity for attention. - The information-processing model assumes serial processing, but the brain has parallel processing.

bipolar disorder

- Mood disorder with both manic and depressed episodes. It's highly heritable. - Increased levels of norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain - Treatment: Lithium is a mood stabilizer

Neutrophils

- Most abundant white blood cell - First cells to arrive at an infection, fast, in the blood - Phagocytosis. - Self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days. - Granulocytes because they have granules in their cytoplasm that are very toxic to bacteria and fungi. Cause them to stop proliferating or die on contact. Mnemonic: Neutro is Number 1

Macrophages

- Most versatile phagocytes that can leave the circulatory system by moving across the walls of capillary vessels. - This allows macrophages to hunt pathogens with less limits. - Release cytokines to signal/recruit other cells to an area with pathogens. - In Tissues

gene flow

- Movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population - Alterations in the composition of a gene pool due to migration of individuals between different populations.

Doppler effect

- Moves towards you: blue shift: the frequency seems to be higher than it really is. - Moves away from you: red, observed frequency seems lower than it really is, negative on top "Mnemonic: Red is a negative warning sign to move away and hopefully is a small/minor issue"

Neurons

- Nerve cells with soma (nucleus) that carry information via electrical signals called action potentials - Electrical synapses connect directly because electrical signals cannot travel through a gap. Chemical synapses need the synaptic cleft so that chemicals can be secreted by one neuron and taken in by the next. - Limit the rate action potentials fire by hyper-polarization at the end of an action potential. - Flow of sodium into the neuron depolarizes the membrane in the first phase of an action potential. - Action potential is initiated when the axon hillock reaches the threshold potential.

Dendrites

- Neuron's branching extensions - Receive messages from other cells and conduct impulses toward the cell body. - Contain specialized proteins and occupy most surface area of cell body. - Dendrites usually receive excitatory signals that cause depolarizations (+)

complementary immune system

- Non-cellular component of the innate immune response. - Signaling cascade of many proteins that tag pathogens for destruction in a process known as opsonization. Tags recruit phagocytes to destroy the pathogens.

Depolarization

- Occurs when the voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, allowing Na⁺ to rush into the cell and depolarize it. - Membrane potential becomes more positive. - Opposite of hyperpolarization. - Only place cells can depolarize themselves is the sinoatriul (SA) node in the right atrium of the heart - Excitatory postsynaptic potential - Na+ or Ca2+

Interneurons

- Only found in the CNS - Connects the sensory inputs and motor outputs (connects neurons) - most numerous class of neurons

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)

- Only in eukaryotes - Regulate immune system, sense of smell/taste, visual, behavior, and mood - Proteins bind GTP (active) and GDP (inactive) - Indirectly activate protein kinase enzymes - Do not have enzymatic activity themselves - Increase cyclic amp (cAMP) - Types of G proteins: Gs, Gi, Gq - Upon binding, GPCRs undergo a conformational change. This releases a G-protein by exchanging a low-energy GDP for a high-energy GTP. - G-protein activates the secondary messenger (cAMP or IP3) to start a "cascade" of reactions in the cell. Secondary messengers amplify the hormone effect. G protein-coupled receptors detect molecules outside the cell then activate internal signal transduction pathways and cell responses - The 1st messenger ligand initiates the 2nd messenger and the cascade response

parasympathetic nervous system

- Part of autonomic nervous system - Calms body after stress - Allows body to rest, reactivates long-term energy storage processes, decreases breathing rate, uses acetylcholine

sympathetic nervous system

- Part of autonomic nervous system - Prepares body for action in challenging or threatening situations - fight or flight - Increase blood pressure (increased urine production bc of the increase in BP), dilates bronchioles, increase pupil diameter, release of hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, uses acetylcholine, decreased digestion (opposite of rest and digest duh) - Decreased salivary output, Pupil dilation, Increased heartbeat - inhibits peristalsis (movement of food) and secretion of digestive enzymes - Increases BGL - Dilates blood vessels that supply the deep muscles and internal organs, which aids nutrient delivery

adaptive immune system (acquired immunity)

- Passive or active immunity in which antibodies to a particular antigen are already present in the body - Uses B cells and T cells that are lymphocytes - These cells are made from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, in the bone marrow. - Activated by exposure to pathogens - Uses an immunological memory to learn about the threat and enhance the immune response accordingly. - - Much slower to respond than the innate immune response, which is primed and ready to fight at all times. - Humoral (responds to things already in the body, uses B cells, makes antibodies) or cell-mediated (t-cells)

concrete operational stage

- Piaget's stage of cognitive development - About 6/7-11 yrs - Think logically about concrete events - Consider the perspective of others. - Feelings for others, conservation, and math

formal operational stage

- Piaget's theory, (age 12), people think logically about abstract concepts

optic chiasm

- Point where the optic nerves from the nasal side of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain - Defect here results in loss of temporal visual in both eyes - Nasal side of both eyes cross. All axons leading from the temporal side DO NOT CROSS the optic chiasm.

ependymal cells

- Produce cerebrospinal fluid which physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber - Line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord, have cilia that beat to promote circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid.

Histones

- Proteins around which DNA is tightly coiled in chromatin. Come together with DNA to make nucleosomes. - Highly conserved across species. - Histone core is an octamer. Exterior has many positive side chains. - Histone proteins H4, H2B, H2A, and H3 are basic and consist primarily of Arginine, Histidine and Lysine ( the Basic Amino Acids). These are also positive. - Posttranslational modifications that alter the charge on histone proteins affect their ability to condense DNA.

Q cycle

- Q Cycle is the process by which electrons travel from QH2 to cytochrome C - Located in complex III of the ETC - 2 electrons shuttled from a molecule of ubiquinol (CoQH2) near the intermembrane space to a ubiquinone (CoQ) near the matrix - another two molecules are attached to heme groups reducing two cytochrome c's (group with iron and sulfur helps this) - increase the gradient of the proton motive force across the inner mitochondria membrane

genetic drift

- Random change in allele frequencies that occurs by chance. - Can cause traits to be dominant or disappear from a population - More likely with small populations - Ex. Bottleneck effect, Founder effect, sudden death, or migration

Tautomerization

- Rearrangement of bonds in a compound - Usually by moving a hydrogen and forming a double bond (reducing) - Alpha hydrogen (hydrogen attached to alpha carbon) must be present

Hypothalamus

- Regulate body's metabolic processes (thirst, osmolarity in blood, hunger and body temperature) - Regulates homeostasis - Regulates autonomic nervous system - Govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland - Emotion and reward. - Uses tropic hormones with negative feedback - In the forebrain - Sleep cycle and circadian rhythm Remember: "hypo- the-llamas"

Insulin

- Released by the pancreas and reduces blood sugar - Help the cells use glucose. Brings glucose into cells. - Decreases blood glucose level - Increases glycogen and fat storage - Activated when BGL increase - Requires a second messenger system bc it's a peptide hormone and can't move through the membrane

Glycolysis

- Releases the energy (ATP and NADH) of glucose - Glucose (6C) is broken to 2 molecules of pyruvate(3C) - In the cytosol - 3 irreversible steps in glycolysis: hexokinase; phosphofructokinase; pyruvate kinase.

Ego

- Self-identity. - Mediator between the id and superego. - Uses defense mechanisms to lower stress. - Conscious and unconscious. - Perceptions, thoughts, judgements. - Seeks long-term gratification - Understands that other people have needs and that being selfish can hurt us in the future "Mnemonic: judge"

Algorithms

- Series of steps that are followed to solve a particular problem. - Algorithms are guaranteed to arrive at a correct solution, but may be extremely time-intensive and laborious. Ex. trying every possible number combination for a password

Leptin

- Signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used - Made by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite. - Obesity is associated with a deficiency or lack of response to leptin

Retrovirus

- Single-stranded RNA viruses reproduce themselves prior to being inserted by using reverse transcriptase. - Transcribes RNA into DNA - Carries it's own transcriptase prior to insertion that copies viral RNA - This DNA is then incorporated into the host DNA. - Ex. HIV

Glucose

- Six-carbon sugar. - Circulates in the blood - Major source of energy for body tissues. - When its level is low, we feel hunger. - Large and polar, so it must use facilitated diffusion. - Glucose is an aldohexose (1 aldehyde, 6 carbons). It is one of a group of 16 stereoisomers with 4 chiral centers.

epithelial cells

- Skin cells that cover the outside of the body and line the internal surfaces of organs - Make up exocrine and endocrine glands - Cells for secretion and respiratory tract - Ex. proximal convulated tubule in the kidney

Social anomie

- Society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. - Weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior. - Can lead to uncertainty in social situations and result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups. - To resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms.

Where would the sodium pump be more active? Why?

- Sodium pump would be most active in the loop of Henle located in the kidneys. - Loop of Henle: where Na+ is reabsorbed from the filtrate moving through the nephron. Mechanism where the kidneys concentrate urine.

Ultrasound

- Sound waves with frequencies above the normal human range of hearing - Longitudinal (not transverse bc it is a sound wave ) - Wavelengths produced are incapable of propagating in a vacuum

Myoglobin

- Stores oxygen in muscle cells and organs - Hyperbolic saturation curve because it only has 1 heme group and can't cooperatively bind

D- and L- configurations

- Sugar enantiomers, mirror images, - Opposite orientation of side functional groups - EN on right is D, EN on left is L - L is preferred or liked - COO- is always on top with R group on the bottom - D- amino acids are poorly recognized by other species

Bureaucracy

- System of government where most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives. - Rigidly defined work procedures, officials must have advanced degrees, and there are regular salary increases. - Division of labor, hierarchy, written rules/regulations, impersonality (unbiased/cold), and employment based on qualifications. Talented people keep getting promoted.

Golgi apparatus

- System of membranes - Modifies and packages proteins for export - Packs proteins from the rough ER into membrane-bound vesicles which then go to the cell membrane - Tag proteins to be secreted from the cell, fuse with the cell membrane, or be digested in the lysosome. Remember: mailroom of the cell

Centromere change in location for a chromosome

- Telocentric - Acrocentric: centromere is located near one end of the chromosome and not in the middle - Submetacentric - Metacentric "ThAt'S Me"

What will happen as the salt bridge becomes depleted?

- The cell will stop running due to the increasing counter-voltage. - Charge will accumulate and result in a counter-voltage large enough to prevent the redox reaction from occuring. The current will stop.

What occurs during normal inspiration of air in mammals?

- The diaphragm contracts and pulls downward, causing air to enter the lungs. - Elevation of the rib cage to increase the volume in the chest cavity - Reduction of pressure in the pleural cavity - Contraction of the external intercostal rib muscles to help the chest expand

How to change the direction of an endothermic reaction?

- The reaction is endothermic if the delta H given is positive because heat is coming in. - Decreasing the temperature of the reaction will favor the reactants. - Increasing temperature will favor the products.

base rate fallacy

- The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information. - Using stereotyped, misleading factors instead of real statistical information to come to conclusions. Ex. if you work at a stroke center you will think the percentage of strokes is higher than it actually is (Remember: base is your bias)

appraisal theory of emotion

- Theory by Lazarus. Stress arises less from physical events but more from the appraisal of them. - Primary appraisal: assess the risk, demand, personal threat, and challenge. - Secondary appraisal: evaluates possible outcomes, feelings, and perceptions associated with the stressor. It appraises one's ability to successfully cope with the stressor.

Pharynx

- Throat - Passageway for food to the esophagus and air to the larynx (voicebox) - Where oral cavity and nasal cavity connect

Moving a protein across an electrophoresis gel requires what pH?

- To get a protein to move across the electrophoresis gel, the pH has to be set at a number higher than the given pl of the protein. - If the pH is equal to pI, then it will be neutral and not move. - If the pH of the buffer is above the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole). Gel works for a negative DNA that runs towards the positive pole. Smallest size runs farther/faster than larger size.

founder effect

- Type of genetic drift - Few individuals become isolated from a larger population and form a new population whose gene pool composition is not the same as the original population. - Change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population Mnemonic: Founders of a new population

Endocrine

- body's "slow" chemical communication system - set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, (Ex. the secretion of insulin and glucagon) - feedback loops of the hormones - hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems

Cadherins

- calcium-dependent glycoproteins that hold similar cells together - In intercellular junctions on stationary cells - Responsible for structure of tight junctions in cells - Join cell membranes - Attach to other cadherins - Remember: Calcium dependent Adhering of cells

Natural selection

- environment is selecting the best heritable genetic traits - traits that help an organism survive are more likely to be passed down to offspring - evolution is driven by natural selection - selects for traits that will have high fitness (survival and reproduction) - To evolve by natural selection and become a general characteristic of the species, the genes that cause a trait will most likely occur if those individuals produce more offspring than do individuals without them. - populations evolve not individuals - survival until reproduction

fecundity

- fertility and fruitfulness - High fecundity: organism produces more offspring. - how easily and often an offspring can produce offspring - Asexual reproduction: how quickly cells divide and increase population size, low diversity (bacteria, protists, archaea) - Sexual reproduction: how well an organism can mate with another to birth offspring, for both male/female, high diversity - Related to natural selection bc high fecundity is selected for

EEG (electroencephalogram)

- finds electrical activity in the neurons by positioning electrodes over the scalp - measures total electrical field in brain as waves - used to study sleep and unusual brain activity (Ex. sleep, seizures)

Aprocrine glands

- inguinal and axillary - activate at puberty - scent - other type of sweat that smells different

α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

- inhibited by succinyl CoA and NADH - inhibited by low levels of ATP and activated by high levels of ADP and calcium ions - Converts α-ketoglutarate to Succinyl-CoA - Releases CO2 and NADH

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

- language structures thought - ways of looking at the world are embedded in language Mnemonic: Saber world, language affects how you know the world

Radiowaves

- longest wavelength and the least energy/frequency - travel farther = penetrate deeper into the cochlea.

implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

- memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience - procedural: actions like riding a bike - priming: previous experiences

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

- obsessions and compulsions - Obsessions: recurrent thoughts, fears, images, or impulses. - Compulsions: recurrent, irresistible actions such as counting, hand washing, or systematically arranging things - decrease in serotonin levels - generally present in childhood (age 10-12) or in early adulthood (ages 18-22)

equation for pH

- pH= -log[H+] - Example: -log10^-7 = -(-7) = 7 - 14 = pH + pOH

altruistic punishment

- people are willing to incur personal costs to punish free riders - Encourages in-group cooperation. - Shows that there are checks on power. - Enforces of social norms.

Inbreeding

- people in a population will selectively have offspring with a certain smaller group within that population - Reasons: religion, culture, preference, usually geographical barriers - Common ancestors, but don't have to be close relatives - Ex. Tay Sachs (gangliosides aren't properly digested and instead accumulate in cells, causing toxicity. Misfunction in lysosome.)

PET scan

- radioactive glucose is injected (more invasive) - active cells use more glucose - Diagnose diseases and cancers Mnemonic: "PET SAT: structure activity tumor"

palindromic

- reading the same backwards and forwards - same when read from 5' to 3' on one strand and 5' to 3' on the other, complementary, strand - 5'-CGATCG-3' is considered a palindrome since its reverse complement 3'-GCTAGC-5'

MEG

- records magnetic fields made by electrical currents in the brain - better resolution than EEG - rarely used because it's a large machine with special shielding

intermediate filaments

- structural support - resists mechanical stress (like mattress springs) - only one that is permanently stable (not dynamic/changing) - keratin and neurofilament

Neuroplasticity: potentiation and depression

- the ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment - potentiation: strength of info flowing in nervous system increases - depression: opposite of potentiation, decreased responses of cells in nervous system, less action potential, less neurotransmitters or decrease in # of postsynaptic receptors

Yerkes-Dodson Law

- the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases - There is an optimal level of arousal. - Mnemonic: person yells Yeehaw when aroused by public. - Peak performance for complex tasks is at moderate arousal. - Peak performance for simple tasks is at high arousal.

wobble position

- third position/letter of the codon, - evolutionary development that protects against mutations in the coding regions of DNA - mutations in this position tend to be *silent or degenerate* so no change in the amino sequence

Action Potential (AP)

- travel down one neuron as an electrochemical cascade - inward positive (Na+) charge ions into axon, depolarized. Depolarized makes you more sensitive to feelings. - Hyperpolarized is more negative and inhibits action potentials. You have no sensations. - triggered at cell body -> move down the axon -> end at axon terminal (filled with neurotransmitters) -> Calcium come in cell -> neurotransmitters released to synaptic cleft -> neurotransmitters bind to receptors on target cell - Action potential opens voltage gated calcium channels. Ca+ flows into the nerve terminal. - a massive momentary reversal of a neuron's membrane potential from about -70 mV to about +50 mV

Manifest function vs latent function

-Manifest: intended positive effect -Latent: unintended positive effect

SN2 reaction

-bimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions - only 1 step (concerted reaction), prefers primary -nucleophile attacks the compound at the same time as the leaving group leaves -Nucleophile actively displaces the leaving group in a backside attack. Nucleophile must be strong & substrate can NOT have steric hinderance -concentrations of substrate & nucleophile have role in determining the rate --> rate = k[Nu][R-L] -Position of the substituents around the substrate carbon is inverted

Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

-children watched an adult kick inflatable toy -when children were allowed to play in the room, they inflicted similar violence on doll - Observational performing is not the same as learning - can be used to teach individuals to avoid behavior

kinesin and dynein

-motor proteins associated w/ microtubules - have 2 heads -at least 1 head remains attached to tubulin at all times •Kinesins align chromosomes •Dyneins involved in sliding movement of cilia & flagella •Both important for vesicle transport •Kinesins bring vesicles toward + end of microtubule & dyneins bring vesicles toward - end - axonal transport in nerve cells shuttle things from soma-> axon -> synaptic terminal

Kinsey scale

0 to 6 scale of sexuality 0 being solely heterosexual 3 being bisexual 6 being exclusively homosexual

rooting reflex

0-4 months. Stroking their cheek. The infant will turn the head to the same side as the cheek that is stimulated. This reflex is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation to suckling; by turning the head, the infant is able to find the mother's nipple and attach itself.

grasping reflex

0-6 months. Place an object in the infant's hand. They will tightly clasp their hand around the object.

sucking reflex

0-7 months. Place an object in the infant's mouth or stroke the roof of their mouth. The infant sucks on the object. This is an unconscious reflex that becomes a conscious response later in infancy and maturity.

neuron pathway

1) Dendrite: receive messages from other cells, brings them into the soma 2) Soma: cell body w/ nucleus 3) Axon hillock: initiate the signal, sums up the signal to decide if it's inhibitory/excitatory 4) Axon: has myelin (prevents crossing of signals or loss of signals), myelin sheath (maintain electrical signal), nodes of Ranvier (breaks in myelin that speed it up) 5) Nerve terminal: releases neurotransmitters

SYMLOG (system for multiple level observation of groups)

1) Dominant vs. Submissive 2) Friendliness vs. Unfriendliness 3) Instrumentally controlled vs. Emotionally expressive

cellular respiration

1) Glycolysis: breaks down glucose using 2 ATP, eventually makes 2 pyruvate and 2 ATP 2) Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDC): pyruvate to acetyl coA in mitochondrial matrix 3a) Fermentation: if there is no oxygen present this occurs, produces lactic acid in humans (may cause cramps when exercising), produces alcohol or ethanol in others like yeast, only 2 ATP made per 1 glucose 3) Krebs Citric Acid Cycle: if oxygen is there, mitochondrial matrix, make NADH and FADH2 electron carriers 4) Electron Transport Chain (ETC): makes the most ATP, inner mitochondrial matrix

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

1) Physiological Needs 2) Safety and Security 3) Relationships and Love 4) Self Esteem 5) Self Actualization

George Mead: Stages of the Self

1) Preparatory Stage (0-2yr): imitation, no sense of self 2) Play Stage (2-6yr): role-taking, understand themselves as separate from others which is "I" 3) Game Stage (7+yr): consider tasks and relationships simultaneously, understand rules, the "me" is formed through interactions with others

What adds to the duodenum? What do these deliver?

1) Stomach: chyme, HCl 2) Liver/gallbladder: bile 3) Pancreas: enzymes 4) Brush border enzymes: activation/digestion, have foldings with increased surface area due to the villi/microvilli

cell theory

1) all living things are composed of cells, 2) cells are the basic units of life, 3) cells are produced from existing cells, 4) cells store info in DNA (nucleic acids)

how to name a carbohydrate

1) ending with the suffix (-ose) 2) prefix for the # of carbons 3) prefix for the functional group (Ex. aldo-) Ex. aldohexose

What is the function of the ebulliator in fractional distillation or the boiling chip? (Both of these produce air bubbles)

The air bubbles break the surface tension of the liquid being heated, thus they prevent superheating and bumping.

Transcription steps

1. Initiation: RNA polymerase II in the nucleus locates promoter region (TATA box) 2. Elongation: RNAP synthesizes heterogenous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) 3. Termination All of these steps require large amounts of energy

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational Mnemonic: "Some People Can Fly" Object is every other stage

What proportion of offspring with the genotype AABBCC will result from a trihybrid cross for the unlinked genes A, B, and C?

1/64

Nucleosome

200 DNA base pairs wrapped around a histone core. Subunit of Chromatin

How to calculate the number of stereoisomers?

2^n where n is the number of chiral centers Ex. glucose has 4 chiral centers and 16 possible stereoisomers

NADPH function

3 functions: 1) Biosynthesis of lipids/cholesterol resulting in steroid hormones 2) Antimicrobial resistance via bacterial destruction by bleach within lysosomes 3) Maintenance of reduced glutathione for protection against free radical damage

hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

3 major parts of the brain 1) Hindbrain: balance and motor coordination (Remember: pull the string beHIND your brain up for BALANCE) 2) Midbrain: sensorimotor reflexes to promote survival. (Remember: if you put your hand in the MIDdle of the flat iron your survival reflexes will kick in) 3) Forebrain: emotion, memory, and higher-order cognition. (Remember: Formal education requires higher order cognition)

An electron in a sodium atom in its ground state could be assigned what quantum numbers?

3, 0, 0, 1/2 where 1/2 can be positive or negative

What would a male who has had sex with men but has been attracted to women be on the Kinsey scale? 0 1 5 6

5 because he is mostly homosexual but has been attracted to women

The four lowest energy levels of an electron in an atom are the ground state and the first three excited states. What is the maximum number of different lines in the emission spectrum of the atom that can be accounted for by transitions in these four levels?

6

In a titration of a weak acid with a strong base, what is the pH of the solution at the equivalence point?

>7

imine

A double bond between a carbon and a nitrogen (C=N)

Disaccharide

A double sugar molecule made of two monosaccharides bonded together through dehydration synthesis. Joined by glycosidic linkage. Ex. Maltose, Lactose, sucrose Remember: Maltese Like Sugar

Can a Ketose be oxidized or reduced?

A ketose is not a reducing sugar, so it cannot be oxidized any further. Ketose is a monosaccharide. Ketose can only act as a reducing sugar if it undergoes tautomerization.

partial report procedure

A method in which a person is asked to recall particular items in a briefly presented array of multiple items. It's incredibly accurate, but only for a very brief time. Studies visual sensory (iconic) memory

Negative vs positive control

A negative control is a control group in an experiment that uses a treatment that isn't expected to produce results. A positive control is a control group in an experiment that uses a treatment that is known to produce results.

cofactor

A nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Activates an inactive enzyme. (Ex. Mg, K, Cu, Zn, Fe, Cu) Mnemonic: Factor is needed for function

spontaneous reaction

A reaction that will proceed without any outside energy (negative ΔG°). Equilibrium constant for the reaction is very large (much greater than 1)

sect

A religious group that arose from a split from a larger religion. A relatively small group that has broken away from an established denomination.

tryptophan

A repressible system which is naturally on. This continues until there is an abundance of tryptophan. This abundance requires a repressor to bind to tryptophan and operator site to stop it.

Information from the sympathetic nervous system follows a different structural path than the parasympathetic nervous system. Which of the following accurately describes the flow of sympathetic nervous system information?

A sympathetic nerve originates in the middle of the spinal cord and has a short axon to the synapse of another neuron. From the second cell, there is a long axon that goes to target neuron.

Integrins

A transmembrane protein in the membrane of animals that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton. It regulates neutrophil extravasion. A transmembrane protein usually has hydrophobic side chains like Phenylalanine.

salt bridge

A tube that allows the slow transfer of ions and maintains the neutrality of the electrolyte solutions. It helps neutralize so electrons don't move as quickly and maintains charge balance.

Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

A type of chromatography that uses silica gel or alumina on a card as the medium for the stationary phase. used to separate components of a mixture. It is important to place a lid on the jar because the solvent will be a volatile substance. An open system will allow for the solvent to evaporate from the TLC plate and reduce the amount of solvent travelling through the plate.

fear conditioning

A type of conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. CS evokes fear. This involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.

Chemokines

A type of cytokine (cell signaling) chemical secreted by blood vessel endothelium and monocytes during an immune response to attract phagocytes to an area. Released by infected cells to initiate an immune response (warn other cells).

Which of these accurately describes the mesolimbic pathway, which is associated with reward and motivation? A) Dopamine, produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), is transmitted from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the hippocampus. B) Dopamine, produced in the substantia nigra, is transmitted from neuron soma to axons projecting into the caudate nucleus and the putamen of the neostriatum. C) Dopamine, produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), is transmitted from the VTA to the pre-frontal cortex. D) Dopamine, produced in the arcuate nucleus, is transmitted from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland.

A) Dopamine, produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), is transmitted from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the hippocampus.

An infectious agent is probably a virus instead of a bacterium if it: A. lacks membrane-bound organelles B. cannot reproduce in acellular culture C. has a length of 1μm, about the size of a mitochondrion D. contains DNA

A. lacks membrane-bound organelles, incorrect, Both viruses and bacteria lack membrane-bound organelles. B. cannot reproduce in acellular culture, correct. Viruses require host cells in order to reproduce. C. has a length of 1μm, about the size of a mitochondrion, incorrect, This is the size of a bacterium. D. contains DNA, incorrect, Both bacteria and viruses may contain DNA.

universal acceptor blood

AB+

Anabolic vs. Catabolic

ABCD: Anabolic Builds (requires ATP, energy) Catabolic Destroy

Parasomnias

Abnormal behaviors such as nightmares or sleepwalking that occur during sleep. Night terrors: anxiety during Slow Wave Sleep. (Remember: just like parasympathetic is rest/digest the parasomnias happen during rest)

Absolute vs relative poverty

Absolute : minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence, basic life needs, in danger of starvation, The median level of income in a society can gradually rise as country gets richer. When it does, we find less people live in absolute poverty - decrease in poverty. (Mnemonic: S in absolute stands for survival) Relative : poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society, its people whose incomes are so low in their own society they're being excluded from society, relative to those around them, People living in relative party could be in the upper class. This would be if they are not as well off as their neighbors.

Ketone bodies form via ketogenesis due to excess _______ in the liver during a prolonged starvation state

Acetyl-CoA

When pyruvate undergoes pyruvate decarboxylation (oxidative), it is converted to

Acetyl-CoA

Microglia

Act as phagocytes, eating damaged cells and bacteria, act as the brain's immune system, scavengers that remove dead cells and other debris. IN THE BRAIN

Enzyme-linked receptors

Activated by ligand binding. The steps are that the ligand binds, conformational change, and catalysis.

parasympathetic nervous system actions

Acts for rest and digest. Examples: decreased heart rate, stimulation of bile secretion, bladder contraction

Purines (name, structure, location)?

Adenine (only one without Oxygen) and Guanine, Found in DNA and ATP, Have two rings, Remember: PURe As Gold

Pairings of endocrine gland and hormone secretion

Adrenal cortex: aldosterone, anterior pituitary: TSH, Hypothalamus: FSH-releasing factor

An increase in stress would cause a hormone to be released from what structure?

Adrenal glands (hypothalamus)

Is alcohol a good or bad leaving group? How can this be changed?

Alcohol is a bad leaving group. This can be modified into a tosylate or mesylate to be better.

Korsakoff's syndrome

Alcohol related disorder marked by extreme confusion, memory impairment, and other neurological symptoms, caused by a/an thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency in the brain

Ways to remove neurotransmitters from the synapse

All of these make the action potential move faster by removing neurotransmitters: 1) Diffusion: passive diffusion, only works on slow action potential, neurotransmitter drifts away, out of the synaptic cleft where it can no longer act on a recepto 2) Enzymes: breakdown neurotransmitters, remove active fast action potentials like acetylcholine 3) Reuptake pumps: pump the neurotransmitter back into axon terminal they came from 4) Astrocytes: in CNS, the end feet are at the synapse, can pump neurotransmitters into the astrocyte

Aldol Addition

An enolate attacks a carbonyl leading to a new carbon-carbon bond

peptidyl transferase

An enzyme in the ribosome responsible for peptide bond formation during translation. This is between the incoming amino acid in the A site and growing polypeptide chain in the P site.

Primase

An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.

conjunction fallacy

An error that occurs when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event. This can be as a result of the representativeness heuristic.

Dielectric

An insulator is placed between the two plates of a capacitor.

inducible system

An operon that requires an inducer to remove a repressor protein from the operator site to begin transcription of the relevant gene; also called a positive control system.

Utilitarian Organization

An organization where people are paid/rewarded for their efforts. Ex. money, certification, diploma

aldonic acid

An oxidized aldose, reducing agent. Remember it's oxidized since it ends in -ic

When do sister chromatids separate in meiosis?

Anaphase 2

What happens when an animal's metabolism is lowered?

Animals with decreased metabolism and reduced access to oxygen will allow anaerobic metabolism(fermentation) dominate. Fermentation produces lactic acid, which is toxic. There will also be more enzymes that process lactic acid such as lactate dehydrogenase.

Which of the following is NOT true about obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)? A) Obsessions raise the individual's stress level B) OCD is ego-syntonic C) Obsession and compulsions are focal and acquired D) Compulsions relieve tension

Ans that is NOT true: B) OCD is ego-syntonic Exp. OCD is actually ego-dystonic because the patient sees the disorder as a problem.

A woman stands 1m in front of a plane mirror. What is the magnification and distance from the woman to her mirror-image?

Ans. 1 and 2m

What is the net volume(mL) of fresh air that enters the alveoli each minute, assuming that the breathing rate is 10 breaths/min, the tidal volume is 800 mL/breath, and the nonalveolar respiratory system volume (dead space) is 150 mL?

Ans. 6500 mL Exp. The amount of air entering the lungs in a single breath, or tidal volume, is given as 800 mL/breath. Of that 800 mL only 650 mL reaches the alveoli per breath (800 mL of air inhaled minus 150 mL of nonalveolar respiratory volume). Therefore the net volume of air that reaches the alveoli each minute is equal to 650 mL/breath multiplied by 10 breaths/min, or 6500 mL.

Suppose a weak acid has Ka = 4.0 x 10^-9. Which of the following gives its equivalent Kb? A) 2.5 x 10 ^-6 B) 1.5 x 10 ^-10 C) 4.0 x 10 ^-11 D) 4.0 x 10 ^-8

Ans. A) 2.5 x 10 ^-6 Exp. The Kw of water = 10^-14. The equation to solve this is Ka​Kb​ = Kw​.

In oxidative phosphorylation, cytochrome c acts as: A. 1-electron carrier. B. 2-electron carrier. C.3-electron carrier. D.4-electron carrier.

Ans. A) A. 1-electron carrier. Exp. Cytochrome c is a heme protein that only cycles between a ferrous and ferric state during oxidative phosphorylation. Therefore, only single electron transfers are possible.

A researcher is interested in studying executive function development. He recruits children who are from very similar backgrounds, but are at different ages. He administers a cognitive test to each child and compares their results. What kind of study design does the researcher use? A) Cross-sectional design B) Case study design C) Longitudinal design D) Experimental design

Ans. A) Cross-sectional design Exp. A longitudinal design follows a group of children over a period of time as they develop. A case study design would follow one or two children closely. An experimental design has manipulation of variables. A cross-sectional design examines the same factor of interest in different groups of individuals who vary in age.

Based on general solubility rules, which of the following compounds is considered soluble? A) Cs2CrO4 B) PbCl2 C) Al(OH)3 D) CaSO4

Ans. A) Cs2CrO4 Exp. CASH-N-GIA is a mnemonic for solubility rules. Chlorates, Acetates, Sulfates, Halides (not Fluorides), Nitrates, Group I metals, Ammonium. These compounds are generally soluble. Lead chloride, PbCl2​, is a halide or chloride, but it is one of the exceptions which include mercury Hg2 +2, silver Ag^+, and lead Pb^2+. Think HAPpy. Calcium sulfate, CaSO4​, is a sulfate, but it is one of the exceptions which include the HAPpy group from above, but also CBS for the Group II metals, calcium Ca^2+, barium Ba^2+, and strontium Sr^2+.

Long term potentiation (LTP) is thought to be the physiological manifestation of learning. It involves the strengthening of connections between neurons, and is an example of synaptic plasticity. As these connections strengthen, information is recalled more quickly. By what mechanism does LTP occur? A) Equal levels of presynaptic stimulation result in greater postsynaptic potential B) Greater postsynaptic speed of transmission results in increased neural connectivity C) Greater presynaptic speed of transmission results in increased neural connectivity D) Greater levels of presynaptic stimulation result in equal postsynaptic potential

Ans. A) Equal levels of presynaptic stimulation result in greater postsynaptic potential Exp. The question specifically asks about the synapse, which requires the involvement of both presynaptic and postsynaptic fibers. Neural transmission will flow from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic neuron. The greater the postsynaptic potential, the more ion channels will open in the neuron. This will result in a stronger neural response. In LTP, the same presynaptic stimulation will elicit a stronger and stronger response in the postsynaptic neuron. This mechanism is what allows for facilitated recollection.

Which of the following elements is MOST likely to be a strong nucleophile? A) Hydroxide ion B) Water C) Ethanol D) Tert-butanol

Ans. A) Hydroxide ion Exp. Charge, electronegativity, H-bonding capacity, and steric bulk are important in determining how strong a nucleophile is. Here, hydroxide ions are negatively charged (OH-), strongly electronegative, and have no steric hindrance (choice A is correct). Water and ethanol are not very strong nucleophiles (choices B and C are incorrect). Tert-butanol has a lot of steric hindrance (choice D is incorrect).

Which of these traits is most heritable? A) Intelligence B) Personality (extraversion/introversion) C) Information processing speed D) Religiosity

Ans. A) Intelligence Exp. Religiosity in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.49 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data.Personality in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.50 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. Information processing speed in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.56 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. Intelligence in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.69 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data.

Which of the following assumption is correct regarding optimal foraging behavior? A) Natural selection favors behavior that provides the maximum energy return. B) Optimal foraging of an animal is fixed over time. C) Natural selection favors group foraging behavior. D) Optimal foraging is genetically predetermined.

Ans. A) Natural selection favors behavior that provides the maximum energy return. Exp. Optimal foraging strategy is a type of cost-benefit analysis that seeks the lowest spent energy for the highest energy yield.

A patient in the hospital only eats food on one half of the plate. After turning the plate, the patient reacts with surprise that there is food on the plate. What is a possible cause of this attentional disorder? A) Inattentional blindness B) Covert orienting C) Attentional capture D) Neglect syndrome

Ans. A) Neglect syndrome Exp. Covert orientating is the act of focusing attention on an object or event without body or eye movement. Attentional capture occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus.Inattentional blindness is the inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus that is in 'plain sight'. This is due to a psychological lapse in attention, rather than a defect or deficit in sensory perception. Neglect syndrome occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention. Report a problem

Jim is walking down a quiet street. Suddenly, he hears a noise which captures his attention. As he begins attending to this noise, he turns his body toward the noise, to maximize the flow of sensory information. What term is used to describe Jim's actions? A) Overt orienting B) Exogenous attention C) Covert orienting D) Endogenous attention

Ans. A) Overt orienting Exp. Exogenous attention is driven by bottom-up or external events, i.e. pop-out. Endogenous attention is driven by top-down or internal events, i.e. the cocktail effect. Covert orienting is the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement. During overt orienting, a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event.

What type of memory loss is most common during the initial stage of Alzheimer's disease? A) Short term memory loss B) Semantic memory loss C) Episodic memory loss D) Procedural memory loss

Ans. A) Short term memory loss Exp. Patients with Alzheimer's forget new information in early stages of the disease. They initially have trouble with short term memory, which eventually progresses into problems with long-term memory (like episodic, procedural, and semantic memory loss). Short term memory loss is most common during the early stages of Alzheimer's disease.

Most bacterial and human cells are alike in: A) The ability to produce ATP via ATP Synthase B) Chemical composition of ribosomes C) Their enclosure within cell walls D) Shape of the self-replicating structures that carry their DNA

Ans. A) The ability to produce ATP via ATP synthase is common to both bacterial and human cells. Exp. Both types of cells possess a membrane-embedded electron transport chain capable of generating a H+ gradient, which drives synthesis of ATP via ATP synthase. This ATP synthesis takes place on the plasma membrane of bacteria and on the inner mitochondrial membrane in human cells. The chemical composition of prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes, although similar, is distinct enough that several types of antibiotics are able to preferentially target prokaryotic ribosomes over eukaryotic ribosomes. Of human and bacterial cells, only bacterial cells have cell walls, and most bacterial chromosomes are circular whereas human chromosomes are linear.

Which of the following is NOT true about sp^2 orbitals? A) The nitrogen in ammonia is sp^2 hybridized B) Carbons double bonded to each other are sp^2 hybridized C) They have 33% s character and 66% p character D) The sp^2 orbitals are situated 120° apart

Ans. A) The nitrogen in ammonia is sp^2 hybridized Exp. Nitrogen in ammonia (NH3) is sp^3 hybridized.

Water and oil do not mix due to differing polarities. If they are in the same container, a layer of oil will sit on top of a layer of water. What does this imply about the specific gravity of oil? A) The specific gravity of oil is less than 1 B) The specific gravity of oil equals 1 C) The specific gravity of oil is greater than 1 D) There is not enough information to conclude anything

Ans. A) The specific gravity of oil is less than 1 Exp. Specific gravity is the ratio of a fluid's density to the density of water. Since oil sits on top of water, it must be less dense. Since it is less dense than water, the ratio of its density to that of water is less than 1

The frequency with which students completed problems decreased after their teacher stopped rewarding completed problems with candy. This observation is an example of which phenomenon? A. Extinction B. Shaping C. Stimulus discrimination D. Stimulus generalization

Ans. A. Extinction Exp. Without continued reinforcement of an established operant behavior, the frequency of the behavior decreases.

Which of the following properties of a 2.3 MHz ultrasound wave remains unchanged as it passes into human tissues? A. Frequency B. Wave speed C. Amplitude D. Wavelength

Ans. A. Frequency Exp. frequency of a wave is not affected by the medium through which it propagates

Of the events listed, which occurs first during action potential generation? A. Voltage-gated sodium channels open at the axon hillock. B. Hyperpolarization stimulates the opening of ligand-gated potassium channels. C. Graded potentials propagate along the axon. D. Calcium influx stimulates vesicle fusion and release of neurotransmitter.

Ans. A. Voltage-gated sodium channels open at the axon hillock. Exp. When threshold is met at the axon hillock, voltage-gated sodium channels open, generating an action potential. Voltage-gated (not ligand-gated) potassium channels open in response to depolarization, not hyperpolarization

Suppose that the railcar passes by a horn that is emitting a sound with frequency f. Which of the following describes the frequency f that the person on the railcar hears? A. f' > f before passing the horn, f '< f after passing it B. f' < f before passing the horn, f' > f after passing it C. f' = f before passing the horn, f '= f after passing it D. f '> f before passing the horn, f '> f after passing it

Ans. A. f ' > f before passing the horn, f '< f after passing it Exp. Doppler effect, the frequency that the person on the railcar hears before passing the horn is larger than the actual frequency of the sound emitted, while the person hears a frequency lower than the actual frequency after passing the horn.

In which of Erikson's stages of human development does an individual begin to develop a sense of self? Young adulthood Adulthood Latency Adolescence

Ans. Adolescence Exp. Sense of self is developed during a time when peer relationships are very important. The primary conflict of this stage is identity vs. confusion. According to Erikson, individuals develop their identity or sense of self during adolescence.

Which best exemplifies a primary circular reaction during the sensorimotor stage of development? A) An infant repeatedly vocalizing the same syllable B) An infant repeatedly banging their fist against the wall C) An infant understanding that a toy taken out of their view continues to exist D) An infant considering a person to "disappear" during a game when they hide their face

Ans. An infant repeatedly vocalizing the same syllable Exp. Primary is when infants are soothing their own bodies. Circular reaction is repetitive.

Which of the following demonstrates a self-fulfilling prophecy? A) Andy went to see a fortune teller, who told him that he might be involved in an automobile accident this month. Andy did not tell anyone, but is worried. A few months later, Andy got into a car accident because he was not paying attention on the street. B) A baseball coach believes that John is a better player than his teammate Tim. John is praised more, and more time is spent with John during practice. At the end of the season, other teammates noticed that John has become a better player than Tim. C) You believe Sarah is an introvert. You ask Sarah whether she has ever felt uncomfortable in big groups. Sarah said "yes". You therefore conclude that she is indeed an introvert. D) Simon wants to improve his grades this semester. He posts inspirational posters in his dorm room and downloads a work productivity app. He ends up getting straight As.

Ans. B) A baseball coach believes that John is a better player than his teammate Tim. John is praised more, and more time is spent with John during practice. At the end of the season, other teammates noticed that John has become a better player than Tim. Exp. In a self-fulfilling prophecy, the perceiver has expectations about how target will behave. The perceiver behaves in a way that is likely to elicit the expected target behavior. The target behaves in a way that confirms perceiver's expectations. The perceiver sees predicted behavior in the outcome.The baseball coach has expectations about how target John will behave. Actual results are observed (John became a better player).

A team of developmental psychologists are testing the taste sensation in children. The researchers want to make sure that the tastants utilized do not interact with charged particles. Which of these tastant combinations should the researcher use? A) A salty tastant and a sour tastant. B) A sweet tastant and an umami tastant. C) A bitter tastant and a sour tastant. D) A salty tastant and an umami tastant.

Ans. B) A sweet tastant and an umami tastant. Exp. Salty tastants bind to salt receptors which detect the presence of sodium ions and should not be chosen by the researchers. Sour tastants bind to sourness receptors that react with hydrogen cations (H++start superscript, plus, end superscript). Once H++start superscript, plus, end superscript binds to the receptor, it closes potassium channels. Sweet, bitter, and umami tastants bind to G-coupled protein receptors.

How does doubling the depth of measurement affect the absolute pressure? A) Absolute pressure increases by a factor of 2 B) Absolute pressure increases by a factor of less than 2 C) Absolute pressure increases by a factor of more than 2 D) Absolute pressure does not change with depth

Ans. B) Absolute pressure increases by a factor of less than 2 Exp. Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is directly proportional to depth, but atmospheric doesn't depend on depth underwater.

Which of the following terms best describes an inability to repeat a sentence that has just been heard? A) Broca's aphasia B) Conduction aphasia C) Wernicke's aphasia D) Cognitive aphasia

Ans. B) Conduction Aphasia Exp. Conduction aphasia occurs when the arcuate fasciculus, the bundle connecting Broca's and Wernicke's areas, is damaged. The connection is damaged so they cannot communicate. Language comprehension and production are not affected, but the production of recently received language is inhibited.

Alcohols generally require acid catalysis in order to undergo substitution by nucleophiles. The acid catalyst enhances the reaction by: A) Increasing the solvent polarity B) Creating a better leaving group C) Neutralizing basic impurities D) Protecting the alcohol group

Ans. B) Creating a better leaving group Exp. The substitution reaction serves to replace the hydroxyl group(-OH). The hydroxide ion is one of the worst leaving groups in substitution reactions. Under acidic conditions, the hydroxyl group is protonated such that the leaving group is now water, a superior leaving group, rather than hydroxide ion. Thus, B is the best answer. Solvent polarity and basic impurities are not particularly relevant, and protecting the alcohol group defeats the purpose of the reaction.

What part of the antibody binds to the antigen? A) Fc heavy, Fc light B) Fab heavy, Fab light C) Fab heavy, Fc light D) Fab light, Fc heavy

Ans. B) Fab heavy, Fab light Exp. The fab (top) part of the antibody always binds to the antigen. This has the variable region. The heavy is the inside and the light is the outside chain. These are linked by disulfide bonds.

Which of the following birth defects is associated with consumption of a teratogenic substances during pregnancy? A) Polycystic kidney disease B) Fetal alcohol syndrome C) Autism spectrum disorder D) Phenylketonuria

Ans. B) Fetal alcohol syndrome Exp. A teratogen is a substance or environmental factor that can disrupt normative fetal development. Phenylketonuria is a genetic problem; consumption of diet soda during pregnancy would not directly cause phenylketonuria. Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic problem. Autism spectrum disorder is not a birth defect.

Which of these papillae categories does not contain taste buds? A) Circumvallate papillae B) Filiform papillae C) Fungiform papillae D) Foliate papillae

Ans. B) Filiform papillae Exp. Fungiform papillae are mushroom-shaped structures located on the tip and sides of the tongue, which contain taste buds.Foliate papillae are folded structures at the back of the tongue on both sides, which contain taste buds. Circumvallate papillae are flat mound structures that are found at the back of the tongue and contain taste buds.Filiform papillae do not contain taste buds and exist all over the tongue. The center of the tongue contains only filiform papillae. This is why stimulation of the center of the tongue does not cause a taste sensation, while the back and perimeter produce a broad range of taste sensations.

Baby animals sometimes acquire behavioral characteristics from their parents. This type of copying behavior is referred to as: A) Projective behavior B) Imprinting C) Associational learning D) Biological impulse

Ans. B) Imprinting. Exp. Imprinting is when a young animal recognizes (another animal, person, or thing) as a parent or other object of habitual trust.

Patients with Huntington's disease have difficulties recognizing when others are feeling disgust. Damage to what brain region in Huntington's disease likely results in this severe deficit, due to its important role in the recognition of the facial expression associated with disgust? A) Hippocampus B) Insula C) Amygdala D) Basal ganglia

Ans. B) Insula Exp. Damage to the basal ganglia causes problems recognizing angry facial expressions. The amygdala recognizes the facial expressions associated with fear. The hippocampus is necessary for fear conditioning. The insula is the brain structure most associated with disgust. The anterior insula receives signals from the senses of olfaction and gustation, while the posterior insula receives signals from audition and somatosensation.

Who has increased levels of ghrelin? A) Obese person B) Lean person

Ans. B) Lean person Exp. Obese individuals have more energy stores than lean individual. For this reason, the levels of ghrelin, which increases appetite, are lower in obese individuals.​

John only lives a quarter mile from work, but because it's raining today he decides to drive. What are possible manifest and latent functions of John's decision? A) Manifest: Get to work quicker; Latent: Stay dry B) Manifest: Stay dry; Latent: Contribute to traffic C) Manifest: Stay dry; Latent: The rain stops just after John gets to work

Ans. B) Manifest: Stay dry; Latent: Contribute to traffic Exp. John chose to drive to work with the specific purpose of avoiding the rain, so that is the manifest function. The latent function must be unintentionally caused by the action; by driving, John contributes to the morning traffic.

Which of the following functions is LEAST regulated by a structure within the brain? A) Involuntary breathing B) Reflexive motor responses C) Vestibular sense D) Blood pressure

Ans. B) Reflexive motor responses Exp. Motor reflexes are caused by interactions between the peripheral nervous system and spinal cord.

In a darkly lit room, a man sees a small object moving in his peripheral vision, what part of the eye most likely allows the man to detect this object? A) Cone photoreceptor B) Rod photoreceptor C) Cornea D) Fovea

Ans. B) Rod photoreceptor Exp. Rods are sensitive to light. Rods are responsible for peripheral vision and vision under low light.

Which of the compounds below cannot be oxidized to a carboxylic acid? A) Aldehyde B) Tertiary alcohol C) Primary alcohol D) Terminal alkene

Ans. B) Tertiary alcohol Exp. A tertiary alcohol cannot be oxidized into a carboxyllic acid. This is because the C-C bond would have to break to form a carbonyl. C-C bond is very stable and strong.

The human brain is often described by the analogy of the brain as a computer. Which of these choices describes a possible problem with the information-processing model? A) The information-processing model assumes a limited capacity for attention; however, the human brain has unlimited attention capacity. B) The information-processing model assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing. C) The information-processing model assumes top-down processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for both stimulus and expectation driven processing. D) The information-processing model assumes unlimited storage capacity; however, the human brain has a limited capacity for storage.

Ans. B) The information-processing model assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing. Exp. The information-processing model is a bottom-up or stimulus driven model. The information-processing model assumes limited storage capacity. The human brain is believed to have a limited capacity for attention. The information-processing model assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing.

A test tube filled with virions (virus particles) is enzymatically digested into component parts in order to isolate the various biological molecules in the sample. Which of the following would least likely be seen? A) The presence of capsid proteins B) The presence of uracil and thymine C) The presence of double stranded RNA D) The presence of viral enzymes

Ans. B) The presence of uracil and thymine Exp. A virus is made of genetic material in a protein coating. Enzymes can also be mixed in. Viruses will only have ONE form of genetic information either single stranded DNA or double stranded RNA. Thus, there cannot be both uracil AND thymine.

The broken windows theory is integrated into law enforcement strategies across the United States. Improper implementation of this policy has resulted in discrimination against people of lower socioeconomic status, minorities, and the mentally ill. Many of these individuals obtain criminal records. Most states restrict the voting rights of felons. Which type of discrimination does this scenario describe? A) The restriction of franchise for felons is a result of past-in-present discrimination. B) The restriction of franchise for felons is a result of side-effect discrimination. C) The restriction of franchise for felons is a result of individual discrimination. D) The restriction of franchise for felons is a result of institutional discrimination.

Ans. B) The restriction of franchise for felons is a result of side-effect discrimination Exp. Individual discrimination does not apply to this scenario. No one individual is discriminating against these groups of people. Past-in-present discrimination is the result of direct discrimination against a group that indirectly causes current discrimination against the same group. Side-effect discrimination occurs when decisions of linked institutions create indirect and unintended structural discrimination.

Assume that a certain individual has no underlying metabolic disorder and has a normal ghrelin response. Given this, what would most likely happen to this individual's fasting level of circulating ghrelin if the individual were to first gain, then lose, a significant amount of weight by natural methods? The fasting level of circulating ghrelin would: A. increase as the individual gained weight, then decrease as the individual lost weight. B.decrease as the individual gained weight, then increase as the individual lost weight. C. increase as the individual gained weight and remain high as the individual lost weight. D. decrease as the individual gained weight and remain low as the individual lost weight.

Ans. B) decrease as the individual gained weight, then increase as the individual lost weight. Exp. Because of a feedback mechanism, the levels of circulating ghrelin are the opposite of the amount of weight gained. They are low when the individual gains weight and high when the individual loses weight.

When two amino acids are joined via a peptide bond, what is the mass of the byproduct of this reaction? (Note: Assume that the amino acids were not modified by protecting groups.) A. 17 amu B. 18 amu C. 32 amu D. 44 amu

Ans. B. 18 amu Exp. The formation of a peptide bond is accompanied by the formation of water as a by-product, and the mass of water is 18 amu.

The retina functions to: A. accommodate and focus incoming light rays on the lens. B. detect light rays and convert them into signals for the brain to process. C. provide oxygen and nutrients to the vitreous humor. D. control the amount of light focused on the photoreceptor cells.

Ans. B. detect light rays and convert them into signals for the brain to process. Exp. The retina contains photoreceptors such as rods and cones, which detect light and transduces light to energy. The energy eventually becomes an action potential and the signal travels through the optic nerve and travels to the primary visual cortex.

In the context of impression management, which of the following selves is most similar to the ought self? A. The ideal self B. The tactical self C. The authentic self D. The presented self

Ans. B. the tactical self Exp. The ought self is who people expect us to be. The tactical self is who we market ourselves to be in order to follow other's expectations.

The phenomenon that occurs when people mistakenly read the letter "C" as the letter "O" illustrates which Gestalt principle of perceptual grouping? A.Similarity B.Closure C.Proximity D.Symmetry

Ans. B.Closure Exp. closure, which refers to one of the Gestalt principles of perceptual grouping, occurs when people perceive objects that are incomplete as complete

The antibiotic penicillin has the effect of inhibiting the production of the chemical peptidoglycan. Therefore, penicillin is likely to be most effective in treating infection by:

Ans. Bacteria Exp. Since penicillin inhibits the production of peptidoglycan and peptidoglycan is a major component of the bacterial cell wall, one can conclude that penicillin will be an effective treatment for a bacterial infection.

Which class of bipolar is characterized as having less extreme bouts of mania but includes at least one major depressive episode? Bipolar I Disorder Bipolar II Disorder

Ans. Bipolar II Disorder Exp. Bipolar I includes manic periods that present with or without major depressive disorder, while Bipolar II presents with hypomania and at least one major depressive episode.

Bubbling of carbon dioxide out of the reaction drives which of the following processes forward? Only decarboxylation Only tautomerization Both decarboxylation and tautomerization

Ans. Both decarboxylation and tautomerization Exp. While it is certainly true that removal of carbon dioxide drives the decarboxylation reaction forward, it also causes the enol product to build up, which drives tautomerization as well.

If the compound of interest is a wax with a long hydrocarbon chain, then water and dichloromethane (more dense) are added. What layer will be extracted to find the wax and which (water or dichloromethane) will the wax mix with?

Ans. Bottom layer because it is soluble with dichloromethane. Exp. Bottom layer has the more dense substance. Dichloromethane is nonpolar and a wax is also nonpolar, so these will mix.

A resident of a famine area who appears undernourished and extremely emaciated has eaten only starches for the past 3 months. A urine analysis shows that a large amount of nitrogen is being excreted. This is most likely evidence of:

Ans. Breakdown of the body's own structural proteins to provide energy Exp. In starvation, the body uses up its stores of carbohydrate and lipids, and then begins to break down body proteins for metabolic energy. A byproduct of the metabolism of the amino acids from protein is nitrogen.

If the pipe openings of a hydraulic lift have areas of 1m2 and 10m2, how far must the liquid on a smaller-diameter end be displaced to raise an object on the larger-diameter end 0.5 meters in the air? A) 0.5m B) 2.5m C) 5.0m D) 7.5m

Ans. C) 5.0m Exp. Combine the following equations: W₁ = F₁d₁ = F₂ d₂ = W₂ F1/A1 = F2/A2

Which of the following changes would NOT interfere with the repeated transmission of an impulse at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction? A) Addition of a cholinesterase blocker B) Addition of a toxic that blocks the release of acetylcholine C) An increase in acetylcholine receptor sites on the motor end plate D) Addition of a substance that binds to acetylcholine receptor sites

Ans. C) An increase in acetylcholine receptor sites on the motor end plate Exp. The question is about the transmission of a nerve impulse to a muscle cell. The impulse is transmitted by release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from the presynaptic membrane and its reception by membrane-bound proteins on the postsynaptic membrane. Answers B and D are incorrect, because they involve substances that would interfere with the presynaptic release or postsynaptic reception of neurotransmitter. Addition of a cholinesterase blocker would produce a buildup of acetylcholine in the synapse and prevent receptors from responding to impulses, so option A is incorrect. The only change that would not result in blockage of the impulse transmission is option C, which is the correct answer. An increase in acetylcholine receptors on the postsynaptic membrane would enhance transmission, not interfere with it.

Which of the following responses could maintain cardiac output under dehydration conditions that reduce blood volume? A. A decrease in stroke volume B. A decrease in heart rate C. An increase in heart rate D. An increase in blood viscosity

Ans. C) An increase in heart rate Exp. The heart rate is the number of heart contractions per minute. An increase in heart rate would maintain the cardiac output in dehydration conditions.

Butanol is reacted with PCC until all the butanol in the reaction flask has been consumed. What is the resulting product? A) Butanoic Acid B) 2-Butanone C) Butanal D) 2-bromobutanol

Ans. C) Butanal Exp. The but- prefix is a 4 carbon and the -ol is an alcohol. PCC is a weak oxidizing agent. It oxidizes primary alcohols to aldehydes

Which of the following recombinant processes depends on the F factor plasmid? A) Transformation B) Transduction C) Conjugation D) Translocation

Ans. C) Conjugation Exp. Bacteria can exchange genes by three processes: conjugation, transformation and transduction. Conjugation: producing a special conjugation pilus (sex pilus) by one bacterium and transfer through it a DNA to another bacterium. It requires special genes for the pilus and these are usually present on a plasmid, a separate extragenomic strand of DNA not incorporated into the bacterium's own DNA. This plasmid is the fertility or F factor. Conjugation is a feature of Gram-negative bacteria. It uses sexual reproduction on bacterium. Plasmid benefits by being able to move from one host bacterium to another through the conjugation pilus. Transformation and transduction don't require a plasmid. In transformation bacteria take up DNA from their surroundings, the media in which they are immersed. Transduction: genes are transferred by a virus.

Sound travels faster through: A) Water B) Air C) Glass D) The speed of sound is constant in all mediums

Ans. C) Glass Exp. Sound travels fastest in the solid medium, glass, because of the close proximity of molecules and the strength of the intermolecular bonds. Sound travels faster as the density of the medium increases.

Miss McLain is an elementary school teacher who gives her students group projects as part of their math curriculum. What might she do to minimize the effects of social loafing? A) Give students the option to present their project in front of the class for extra credit B) Grade the group as a whole on the project instead of giving each group member a grade C) Grade both the group as a whole and each individual group member on the project D)Assign the children to groups randomly instead of letting them choose their own

Ans. C) Grade both the group as a whole and each individual group member on the project

Researchers discover that polymorphisms in the DRD2 gene can be associated with thrill-seeking behavior, and that individuals with certain forms of the gene are more likely to become extreme athletes and have more dangerous hobbies. Which of the following theories is supported by this discovery? I. The social cognitive perspective II. The behavioral perspective III. The biological perspective I only III only I and III only II and III only

Ans. C) I and III only Exp. The link between genetic expression and behavior is the biological perspective. The social cognitive perspective is that people's behaviors and traits shape their environments, which in turn have an effect on their identity, so this supported. Behaviorism is not supported, as the discovery is not related to rewards and punishments.

Increased stomach pH is the consequence of which of the following? A) Damage to the mucous cells B) Increased G cell activity C) Inhibition of parietal cells D) Overexpression by chief cells

Ans. C) Inhibition of parietal cells

A psychiatrist has children complete tasks to assess development. Each child is shown a three dimensional model of a mountain scene, while positioned on one side with the psychiatrist observing from the opposite side of the scene. The child is asked to look at four pictures from different viewpoints including both the child's and the psychiatrist's viewpoints. Nathan, one of the children from the group, looks at the 4 pictures and selects the viewpoint that matches his own. Which of Piaget's stages of cognitive development has Nathan currently attained? A) Formal operational B) Sensorimotor C) Preoperational D) Concrete operational

Ans. C) Preoperational Exp. The preoperational stage is associated with an inability to understand the perspective of others.

As a student, Hammond is very busy. It is finals week, and he has to study for his biology, history, and English exams, two final papers to finish, and a speech to give in his public speaking class. He also has to finish a research project for his economics course. Which sociological concept best describes Hammond's situation? A) Role Conflict B) Role Stress C) Role Strain D) Role Tension

Ans. C) Role Strain Exp. This specifies Hammond's status as a student. Role conflict can be eliminated because Hammond is experience conflicts within only one status, as opposed to conflicts between multiple statuses. Role strain is what Hammond is experiencing because the question indicates conflicts within his status as a student.

Repeated administration of some drugs will lead to a decrease in their effectiveness, an occurrence known as drug tolerance. When this occurs, doctors may need to increase the dosage in order to continue therapy. What is true of this increase? A) Drugs of a certain type will exhibit the same drug tolerance rates B) The dosage will increase by the same amount each time the patient reaches tolerance C) The dosage increase is directly proportional to the initial dose D) The increase in dosage will be the same for different patients

Ans. C) The dosage increase is directly proportional to the initial dose Exp. The doctor will attempt to increase the dosage by the just noticeable difference, in order to maintain the drug's effects while avoiding toxicity. Different individuals will react to drugs differently, and so each person will have their own threshold for drug tolerance. The dosage increase is directly proportional to the initial dose - Weber's Law states that the difference threshold divided by the initial stimulus is a constant for that person.

Researchers are seeking evidence to confirm a close evolutionary relationship between two extant species. Which of the following pieces of evidence would be LEAST likely to help the researchers demonstrate this relationship? A) A fossil that shares traits with both species B) The sequence of a ribosome-coding gene from each species C) The identification of several analogous structures between the species D) The discovery of similar stages of embryonic development

Ans. C) The identification of several analogous structures between the species Exp. This asks what would NOT support the hypothesis that two extant (living) species have a close evolutionary relationship. A fossil that shared traits with both species would support the idea that the two species have a recent common ancestor. One tool evolutionary biologists use to determine relationships between species is their embryonic development. Similar embryonic stages would support the researchers' hypothesis.Another tool for evolutionary biologists is DNA. The most commonly sequenced genes for testing evolutionary relationships are ones that are essential to almost all organisms, such as the genes for ribosomes. Analogous structures are structures that serve the same function, but come from a different evolutionary origin. Identifying these structures would be an argument AGAINST the researchers' hypothesis.

All of the following can be classified as nonverbal communication EXCEPT: A) A rising note of inflection at the end of a sentence to indicate a question. B) A pat on the shoulder to indicate a comment was made in jest. C) The written use of an individual's name to draw their attention. D) Continuous eye contact, indicating interest and attention on the part of the listener.

Ans. C) The written use of an individual's name to draw their attention. Exp. Writing is not a nonverbal communication because it involves the use of language/linguistic conventions. Vocal aspects such as intonation/tone/rate of speech are nonverbal communication.

Which of the following responses are LEAST likely in response to stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system? A) Release of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla B) Release of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus C) Vasoconstriction of the lungs and skeletal muscle D) Increase of gluconeogenesis in the liver

Ans. C) Vasoconstriction of the lungs and skeletal muscle Exp. In response to stress, the adrenal medulla synthesizes epinephrine and norepinephrine, or the catecholamines. These catecholamines work to vasodilate the lungs and skeletal muscle. Another response to stress is produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The hypothalamus releases cortico-tropin releasing hormone (CRH), increasing ACTH, which increases cortisol (choice B is incorrect). Cortisol increases gluconeogenesis in the liver

A defining characteristic of proteins that act as transcription factors (such as STAT5b) is that they: A. can dimerize. B. can phosphorylate other proteins. C. contain a DNA binding domain. D. are present within the nucleus of the cell.

Ans. C) contain a DNA binding domain. Exp. While transcription factors can also dimerize with other proteins, this is not the characteristic that defines it as a transcription factor. The ability to phosphorylate other proteins is the defining characteristic of a kinase, not a transcription factor. The defining characteristic of a transcription factor is that it has a DNA-binding domain that allows it to bind to regulatory nucleic acid sequences in a gene to alter transcription. Transcription factors ultimately end up in the nucleus, but other proteins can exist within the nucleus that do not alter transcription.

As blood passes through actively contracting skeletal muscle tissue, the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen in the muscle tissue: A. increases as a result of an increase in plasma temperature. B. increases as a result of an increase in plasma PO2. C. decreases as a result of a decrease in plasma pH. D. decreases as a result of a decrease in plasma PCO2.

Ans. C) decreases as a result of a decrease in plasma pH. Exp. Affinity would decrease with a decrease in plasma pH, and during prolonged exercise, anaerobic respiration would decrease the plasma pH. This is because more CO2 means it is making more carbonic acid in your blood. There is less oxygen available so your hemoglobin will have decreased affinity for oxygen. Hemoglobin has positive cooperativity so affinity for oxygen increases as the number of bound oxygens increase.

A reaction occurs in an isolated system. Which of the following changes in state functions must be equal to zero over the course of the reaction? A) ΔG B) ΔT C) ΔU D) ΔS

Ans. C) ΔU Exp. An isolated system cannot exchange energy (heat and work) or matter with the surroundings.

What is the concentration of hydroxide ion for the solution with the pH= 10? A. 10^-10 B. 10^-6 C. 10^-4 D. 10^-2

Ans. C. 10^-4 Exp. [H3O+][OH-]=10-14 The pH of 10 will have a [H3O+] = 10^-10. Thus, the hydroxide ion concentration will be 10^-4.

Large amounts of protein are found in the urine of a patient. Based on this information, which portion of the nephron is most likely malfunctioning? A. Collecting duct B. Distal tubule C. Glomerulus D. Loop of Henle

Ans. C. Glomerulus Exp. Glomerular capillaries prevents the entry of large molecules, such as proteins, into the filtrate.

A team of researchers at a pharmaceutical company tests a new cancer drug. The researchers have concluded that the drug is effective, but other scientists CANNOT replicate the findings. Which is the most likely explanation for the lack of replicability of the original results? A. Base rate fallacy B. Hindsight bias C. Observer bias D. Public verifiability

Ans. C. Observer bias Exp. Any bias on the part of the observers recording the data could have contaminated the original results. It is possible that proper precautions (for example, ensuring that observers were "blind" with respect to which patients received the drug and which patients received the placebo) were not taken.

A researcher measures the concentration of CO2(aq) in a solution at equilibrium. Which additional quantity must be measured in order to calculate the Henry's Law constant kH for the gas? A. Atmospheric pressure B. Volume of the solvent C. Partial pressure of the gas D. Vapor pressure of water

Ans. C. Partial pressure of the gas Exp. The Henry's Law constant kH relates the solubility of a gas S to the pressure of that gas Pg above the solution and is written as S = kH•Pg. Therefore, in addition to the concentration of CO2(aq) in a solution at equilibrium, the partial pressure of the gas Pg must be measured.​

If a thin thread is placed between a screen and a bright source of light, a pattern of parallel dark and bright fringes appears on the screen. The phenomenon best explaining the formation of this pattern is: A. refraction. B. polarization. C. diffraction. D. reflection.

Ans. C. diffraction. Exp. Refraction is between optical media with different indices of refraction. Diffraction involves bright and dark. The bright spots occur at Full CONSTRUCTIVE interference (when the lights waves are perfectly in phase) and the dark spots occur at FULL DESTRUCTIVE interference (when the light waves are perfectly out of phase). A screen with many slits evenly spaced and placed close together is called a diffraction grating. The bright spots are narrow while the dark spots are wider.

Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is a laboratory technique used to separate non-volatile mixtures. Using a silica gel plate and a hexane solvent, which of the following compounds in a mixture containing CH3OH, HCOOH, CH2O, and C6H6 would have the highest Rf value?

Ans. C6H6 Exp. Nonpolar have the highest Rf values. Polar compounds adhere to the silica gel plate and travel little from the initial starting position. Meanwhile, nonpolar compounds elute away from the starting position with the nonpolar hexane solvent via capillary action.

What is likely bound to a protein in the body?

Ans. Calcium and Magnesium Exp. Magnesium acts as a natural calcium blocker, helping your muscle cells relax after contracting. Calcium helps muscle contractions. Calcium remains in the sarcoplasmic reticulum until released by a stimulus. Calcium then binds to troponin, causing the troponin to change shape and remove the tropomyosin from the binding sites.

Which of the following provides the best explanation for the low catalytic efficiency of the mutant? A) Disruption of hydrophobic effect B) Change in charge of a key active site residue C) Disulfide bridge disruption D) Reduction in size of an active site residue

Ans. Change in charge of a key active site residue. Exp. Changing the charge of an important active site residue is likely to alter the enzyme's mechanism, thereby leading to the decrease in catalytic efficiency.

What process directly produce GTP? A) Glycolysis B) Pentose Phosphate Pathway C) Citric Acid Cycle D) Oxidative Phosphorylation

Ans. Citric Acid Cycle

At work, you witness an employee getting yelled at by the boss. In your mind you come up with at least three potential causes for the yelling: the boss' (actor) bad temper, the laziness of the employee (object), and the especially hot and humid day (context or setting). This judgment process is referred to as: Stereotyping Covariation model Attribution error Cultural attribution

Ans. Covariation model Exp. A type of attribution theory for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some internal characteristic of the person or the external environment. Perceivers use multiple observations to arrive at a conclusion about the cause(s) of a behavior. In the covariation model, you (the perceiver) use multiple observations (actor, object, context) to determine the cause of the yelling behavior.

There is a water tower with a leak causing the water to spew from the tower to the ground. The pressure both inside and outside the tower is 1 atm. The water hits the ground with a speed of 4 m/s. What is the initial height that the water is flowing out from the tower? (Water density = 1000 kg/m^3) A) 1.2 m B) 0.6 m C) 0.3 m D) 0.8 m

Ans. D) 0.8 m Exp. Use Bernoulli's equation which is P1 + 1/2 ρ v1^2 + ρ g h1 = P2 + 1/2 ρ v2^2 + ρ g h2. The sum of the pressure energy (a form of internal energy), kinetic energy per volume, and potential energy per unit volume remains constant

A column of mercury is twice the height of a column of water. What is the difference in pressure at the bottom of the mercury column in comparison with the column of water? A) The same B) Twice as great C) 13 times as great D) 26 times as great

Ans. D) 26 times as great Exp. The formula for pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is P = ugh where p is the fluid density. Specific gravity= p object/p water. Mercury is 13 times denser than water. The column is also twice as tall. (13)(2)= 26

The combination of the cornea and the crystalline lens shown below serves as a converging lens. In a perfectly functioning eye, an image is projected at a fixed distance on the retina, which is approximately 2cm from the lens. What is the power of the converging lens when a person without any visual impairment stares at a distant object? A) 0.5 diopters B) 10 diopters C) 25 diopters D) 50 diopters

Ans. D) 50 Diopters Exp. Use the thin lens equation 1/f = 1/do + 1/di, where f is the focal length, do is the object distance, and di is the image distance. Since the power (P) of a lens is equal to 1/f, you can set P = 1/do + 1/di. The question stem states that image distance is fixed and equal to a length of 2 cm. Since the question states that the observer stares at a distant object, we can assume that 1/do is negligible and equal to zero. Therefore, the equation simplifies to P = 1/di. Since power is measured in diopters, which has the units of m-1, you must convert 2 cm to 0.02 m and solve. Thus, the power of the lens is equal to 50 diopters, or answer choice D.

Which of the following is not a neonatal reflex? A) A baby closes her hand into a fist when her palm is touched. B) A baby throws out her arms and legs when she hears a loud noise. C) A baby sucks on an object that is placed in her mouth. D) A baby kicks out her leg when the sole of her foot is touched.

Ans. D) A baby kicks out her leg when the sole of her foot is touched. Exp. The sucking reflex occurs when a baby sucks on any object placed in her mouth and helps newborns during the breastfeeding process. The moro reflex occurs when a baby reacts to a noise. The grasp reflex occurs when a baby closes her hand around whatever touches her palm. When the sole of a baby's foot is touched, the baby does not kick out her leg. Instead the baby's toes fan out and her foot curls in, which is the babinski reflex.

Which of the following is the best representation of Archimedes' principle? A) A heavier person making a bigger splash when jumping into a pool B) A feather floating on the surface of water C) A droplet of water retaining its shape on a flat surface D) A person causing a raft to sink deeper by stepping into it

Ans. D) A person causing a raft to sink deeper by stepping into it Exp. Archimedes' principle states that a submerged object will displace its volume in water, and if it is at rest, it will displace its own weight. Option D represents a raft becoming heavier and then sinking lower, displacing more water (choice D is correct). Splash size depends on more than just the weight of the object creating the splash (choice A is incorrect), and a feather floating on water and a droplet retaining its shape both represent effects of surface tension (choices B and C are incorrect).

A stereotype threat is an example of: A) A fundamental attribution error B) Ethnocentrism C) Prejudice D) A self-fulfilling prophecy

Ans. D) A self-fulfilling prophecy

In the lab, a researcher starts with acetic acid and adds the reagent, sodium borohydride, what is the product of the reaction? A) Ethanol B) Acetaldehyde C) Bromoethane D) Acetic Acid

Ans. D) Acetic Acid Exp. - Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) is a weak reducing agent - Can't reduce carboxyllic acids - Can only reduce aldehydes, ketones, and acids to alcohol

On a particular chain of islands, 14 species arose from a common ancestor. This is an example of: A) Evolutionary bottleneck B) Genetic Drift C) Commensalism D) Adaptive Radiation

Ans. D) Adaptive Radiation Exp. Adaptive radiation is several species originating from a single ancestor. Genetic drift is the loss of an allele in small populations due to all members with the allele dying. Evolutionary bottleneck is a severe population crisis that causes a shift in allelic frequencies in survivors. Commensalism is a relationship between species in which only one member benefits.

A study looking at the relationship between developmental dyslexia and biliteracy in young adults produces a correlation coefficient of -1.39. What does this indicate? A) Strong positive correlation - as developmental dyslexia increases, biliteracy also increases. B) Strong negative correlation - as developmental dyslexia increases, biliteracy decreases. C) Cause and effect relationship - developmental dyslexia causes biliteracy and vice versa. D) An error when computing the correlation between developmental dyslexia and biliteracy.

Ans. D) An error when computing the correlation between developmental dyslexia and biliteracy. Exp. Correlations can only range between 1 to -1.

Which of these can be described as both an emotion and a mood? A) Pride B) Tension C) 'Feeling good' D) Anger

Ans. D) Anger Exp. Core affect (such as pleasure, tension, or energy) can exist in isolation or as a component of moods and emotions. An example is: shame can be defined as 'feeling bad' (core affect) about oneself (cognitive component) as a result of some episode or occurrence. Moods typically last longer than emotions, global as opposed to specific, and often relate to a world view about everything or about the world in general. An example is: an irritable mood may be caused an outlook regarding life in general, or multiple episodes and is likely directed at anything or anyone.

A different patient with a brain injury is having difficulty naming objects and retrieving words. He often looks at objects and cannot retrieve the word that corresponds with the object.. What is he most likely experiencing? A) Broca's aphasia B) Global aphasia C) Wernicke's aphasia D) Anomic aphasia

Ans. D) Anomic Aphasia Exp. Global aphasia is a combination of impaired comprehension and production of speech. Wernicke's aphasia is difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences, as well as difficulty producing sentences that make sense. Anomic aphasia has difficulties in naming objects or retrieving words.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) refers to a large group of genes that code for proteins that play an essential role in which of the following? A) Phagocytosis by macrophages B) Antigen presentation to B lymphocytes C) Phagocytosis by neutrophils D) Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes

Ans. D) Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes Exp. MHC genes code for cell surface proteins that play a critical role in antigen presentation. B lymphocytes produce antibodies and act as antigen presenting cells. Antigen presenting cells present their antigens to various types of T cells. The MHC plays an essential role in antigen presentation to T lymphocytes

Trypsin is a digestive enzyme most active at a pH close to 8.0, where would one expect Trypsin to function in the digestive tract? A) Stomach B) Mouth C) Esophagus D) Duodenum

Ans. D) Duodenum Exp. Duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine that secretes the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK). This CCK peptide hormone signals for the gall bladder to release basic bile into the duodenum which will have a basic pH.

How is acetylcholine removed from the postsynaptic membrane? A) Diffusion B) Astrocyte pumps C) Reuptake pumps D) Enzymatic deactivation

Ans. D) Enzymatic deactivation Exp. Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, and are removed from the membrane in a specific way. When the structure of a neurotransmitter is changed, it is not recognized by the receptor.Acetylcholine is deactivated by acetylcholinesterase, which is an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine into choline and acetate.

What solvent would be most effective at purifying through recrystallization a quantity of sugar contaminated with some table salt? A) Benzene B) Petroleum ether C) Water D) Ethanol

Ans. D) Ethanol Exp. Like dissolves like. Sugars are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, and salt is an ionic compound Water can dissolve both sugar through hydrogen bonding and salt through solvation. Benzene and petroleum ether are both very non-polar Petroleum ether is a mixture of alkanes (pentane, hexane, heptane, etc.) and should not be confused with the ether functional group. Ethanol would dissolve sugar and allow for its separation from table salt through recrystallization.

According to the collision theory of chemical kinetics and the arrhenius equation, which of the following will NOT necessarily increase the reaction rate? A) Increase in temperature B) Decrease in activation energy C) Increase in frequency factor D) Increase in concentration of reactants

Ans. D) Increase in concentration of reactants Exp. The reaction could be zero order.

Which travels slower in a vacuum? A) Photons B) Microwave C) Gamma waves D) Neutrons

Ans. D) Neutrons Exp. Neutrons have the most mass.

Where is the first place in the brain where the olfaction and gustation systems integrate? A) Thalamus B) Amygdala C) Nucleus of the solitary tract D) Orbitofrontal cortex

Ans. D) Orbitofrontal cortex Exp. The nucleus of the solitary tract is the location where the nerves from the mouth and tongue synapse on the medulla. The pathway for olfaction goes from the olfactory bulb to either the amygdala or the piriform cortex. From there the signal is transmitted to the orbitofrontal cortex. Taste sensory information does not pass through the thalamus before being integrated with signal from olfaction. The Orbitofrontal cortex is the first place that the signals from the olfactory system and the taste system are integrated.

Which of the following is not released after an orgasm? A) Endorphins B) Oxytocin C) Prolactin D) Serotonin

Ans. D) Serotonin Exp. Prolactin is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm. Endorphins produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure, and are released post-orgasm. Oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners. Differing levels of serotonin (as seen in individuals who take SSRI's) are associated with the inability to achieve orgasm.

Which of the following is an example of a gross motor skill? A) Picking up a spoon B) Stirring cake batter C) Painting with fingers D) Throwing a ball

Ans. D) Throwing a ball Exp. Fine motor skills involve refined use of small muscles, like the ones that control fingers, hands and thumbs. Gross motor skills involve use of larger muscles, like ones that control arms or legs. Throwing a ball is a gross motor skill.

Which of the following media will most likely be used to go virions in the lab? A) Suspension of ribosomes and ATP B) Suspension of human DNA C) Nutrient broth D) Tissue Culture

Ans. D) Tissue Culture Exp. Viruses take advantage of the elaborate intracellular mechanisms of the host cell using them to make more virus particles. To do this they need intact host cells. Non-cellular media such as the nutrient broths and suspensions in choices A, B and C will not support culture of viruses.

What channel plays a role in the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft? A) Both voltage-gated potassium and sodium channels B) Voltage-gated sodium channels C) Voltage-gated potassium channels D) Voltage-gated calcium channels

Ans. D) Voltage-gated calcium channels

Which of the following would trigger high frequency firing from a non-adapting mechanoreceptor? A) Accidentally touching a hot stove B) Getting lemon juice on a paper cut C) Tripping on the curb and stumbling D) Walking into a lamp post

Ans. D) Walking into a lamp post Exp. Mechanoreceptors sense pressure, so they would not register a sharp chemical pain like lemon juice on a paper cut, or nerve pain like touching a hot stove. Stumbling after tripping on the curb would affect sensors that deal with proprioception and balance, but would not trigger a lot of firing from pain receptors as the stimulus would quickly clear.A higher frequency correlates to a higher intensity stimulus. Walking into a lamp post would be the most likely scenario to trigger high frequency firing from a mechanoreceptor.

The most likely explanation for the difference between water intake and urine excretion is that: A. extra water was stored as blood. B. water was consumed with the food that was eaten. C. extra water was excreted by the intestine. D. water was excreted via the skin and the lungs.

Ans. D) water was excreted via the skin and the lungs. Exp. Extra water is normally excreted through skin and lungs. The skin excretes water through the process of transpiration, and the lungs use water to humidify the air that enters the body.

Given that the speed of sound in the rat tissues was 1500 m/s with 2.3 MHz ultrasound, the wavelength of the ultrasound wave used in the study was closest to: A. 34.5 mm. B. 6.5 mm. C. 1.5 mm. D. 0.65 mm.

Ans. D. 0.65 mm. Exp. Speed of a wave: v = fλ where frequency is in Hz units

The relative thermodynamic stability of isomeric organic compounds can be inferred from which of the following types of experimental data? A. Boiling points B. UV-visible absorption spectra C. Mass spectroscopic fragmentation patterns D. Heats of combustion

Ans. D. Heats of combustion Exp. Relative thermodynamic stability of isomers can be determined based on the amount of heat produced when the compounds are combusted; less heat, greater stability.

A carbonyl group contains what type of bonding interaction(s) between the C and O atoms? A. One σ only B. One σ and one π only C. One π only D. One σ and two π only

Ans. D. One σ and two π only Exp. A carbonyl group contains a C=O double bond. The first bonding interaction between atoms is always a σ bond. The second bond is formed from π symmetry orbitals.

Which experimental condition is NOT necessary to achieve reliable data for Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics? A. Initial velocity is measured under steady state conditions. B. Solution pH remains constant at all substrate concentrations. C. The concentration of enzyme is lower than that of substrate. D. The reaction is allowed to reach equilibrium before measurements are taken.

Ans. D. The reaction is allowed to reach equilibrium before measurements are taken. Exp. Equilibrium is not desired for Michaelis-Menten because once the reaction reaches equilibrium, measurement of Vo will be impossible and the kinetic data will look the same

Drug X causes increased secretion of cortisol by directly binding to receptors on the adrenal cortex. How would the drug X impact a patient's endogenous levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

Ans. Decrease CRH and decrease ACTH Exp. When cortisol levels are high, cortisol exhibits negative feedback on the hypothalamus reducing the secretion of CRH. This reduces ACTH secretion by the anterior pituitary gland.

Mineralocorticoids, including aldosterone, are able to maintain blood pressure during times of stress. Which of the following is not an effect of aldosterone? Possible Answers: Decreased urine sodium content Increased blood pressure Decreased blood potassium levels Decreased blood sodium levels

Ans. Decreased blood sodium levels

After using the Sanger (chain-termination) method for DNA sequencing, a researcher utilizes gel electrophoresis and obtains single dark band. Which of the following sources of ERROR is most likely? A) Dideoxynucleotides were omitted from the reaction mixture. B) The DNA was denatured into single strands using heat. C) Deoxynucleotides were present in excess D) The primer annealed to the template strand in numerous places

Ans. Dideoxynucleotides were omitted from the reaction mixture. Exp. In absence of dideoxynucleotides, DNA polymerase will replicate entire template and thus produce complete copies, all of same length.

What's the difference between race and ethnicity? A) Ethnicity is a social construct but race is an innate characteristic. B) Race is a social construct but ethnicity is an innate characteristic. C) Race describes cultural factors, and ethnicity describes physical traits. D) Ethnicity describes cultural factors, and race describes physical traits.

Ans. Ethnicity describes cultural factors, and race describes physical traits. Exp. Race and ethnicity are both social constructs. Ethnicity is used to describe cultural factors like language, religion, and other customs. Race is most commonly used to group humans based on their physical appearance such as skin color.

A stable, differentiated cell that will NOT divide again during its lifetime would most likely be found in which of the following stages of the cell cycle?

Ans. G1 or G0 Exp. A diploid, nondividing cell is most likely in G0 or G1, in which the cell remains metabolically active but is not replicating its DNA (S) or segregating its duplicated chromosomes and dividing (M).

Lewis base

electron pair donor

Aufbau Rule

electrons fill the lowest energy level first

affective component of attitude

emotional feelings stimulated by an object of thought Ex. "I love action movies"

nondisjunction

failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during anaphase I of meiosis or the failure of sister chromosomes to separate during anaphase II of meiosis.

Enzymes affect

forward reaction just as much as reverse

DNA replication enzymes

helices (separates strands), primase (creates primer to start replication), polymerase, ligase (joins Okazaki fragments), telomerase (replicates the telomere ends)

chaperone proteins

help new or denatured proteins fold into their normal shape, help hold the protein in its tertiary structure and maintain its 3D shape

steroid hormones

hormones made of cholesterol rings that are secreted by the adrenal cortex and bind to intracellular receptors of target cells, freely diffuse past the membrane

pragmatics of language

how context affect the usage, wording, and inflection. (ex. formal at a business function)

molar heat capacity

how much energy (J) is necessary to increase one mole of a substance by 1 K. Therefore, the higher the molar heat capacity, the more energy required

glucagon and ghrelin trigger

hunger

Signs of upper motor neuron dysfunction include:

hyperreflexia, clonus, hypertonia, and the babinski sign.

What controls the anterior pituitary?

hypothalamus

HMG-CoA reductase

in cholesterol metabolism, is the rate-controlling enzyme of the mevalonate pathway, the metabolic pathway that produces cholesterol

Morpheme

in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning

proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

in the kidney, segment of the nephron, first section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients, filters and reabsorbs glucose, ONLY PLACE GLUCOSE IS ABSORBED

Somatostatin

in the pancreas, suppresses secretion of glucagon and insulin

Anhedonia

inability to feel pleasure, loss of interest in activities

presbyopia

inability to focus the vision on close-up objects. farsightedness caused by loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye, occurring typically in middle and old age.

anosmia

inability to smell or perceive an odor

Tumor Supressing Genes are more likely to result in cancer through

inactivation, loss of function mutations

-ogen suffix

inactive form

Assimilation

incorporating new experiences into existing schemas. (Piaget made schema) Mnemonic: "double ss is same schema"

Gs protein

increase cAMP

The relationship between respiratory rate, carbon dioxide and pH

increase respiratory rate = decreases CO2 = more basic/alkaline

Glaucoma

increased intraocular pressure results in damage to the retina and optic nerve with loss of vision

atomic radius

increases down and to the left (opposite of EN), the smaller the atomic radius the shorter the bond

Virions

individual virus particles Many viruses form infective particles (virions) by budding off the surface of eukaryotic cells and becoming enclosed in a vesicle composed of the host's cell membrane. Such eukaryotic cell membrane is made up of a bilayer of amphipathic lipids with associated proteins.

efferent neurons

information from the brain/Central Nervous System to the rest of the body Efferent neurons exit the spinal cord from the ventral root before interfacing with their target muscles. Efferent exits the body. Remember: "SAME DAVE" Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent Dorsal Afferent Ventral Efferent

primary appraisal

initial decision regarding whether a stimulus is harmful

The only cytoskeletal fibers not associated with intracellular movement or whole cell locomotion are __________

intermediate filaments

relationship between wavelength and frequency

inverse

What kind of enzyme is ATP synthase in mitochondria?

is a lyase because it involves two small different molecules

Normally the immune system avoids attacking the tissues of its own body because:

it suppresses cells that are specific to its own body's antigens (surface molecules that would otherwise initiate an immune response).

Cholera disease

massive diarrhea and vomiting, death due to dehydration, losing fluid in the large intestine

microorganisms

microorganisms like bacteria in the large intestine, help digest carbs to produce methanols and hydrogen sulfide

Centrosomes are sites where protein dimers assemble into ____________.

microtubules

In eukaryotic flagella, the fibers that slide past one another due to the activity of dynein proteins are _______

microtubules

Endorphins

natural pain killer, "morphine within", produces "runner's high". Mnemonic: That's why the running door with fins looks happy.

destructive interference

negates any actual sound, occurs when two or more waves combine to produce a wave with a smaller displacement, opposite graph lines, waves are 180° apart, 0 amplitude, phase difference is π (one wavelength, like a circle)

resting potential

neuron is in its resting state, ions inside the neuron are more negatively charged and the majority of the ions outside the neuron are positively charged, opposite of action potential Remember: "neg-in" (neckin') and "pos-out" (passed out)

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that take information from the senses to the brain, bring sensory information in

Neustress

neutral stress, type of stress that is neither positive nor negative. It refers to events that have no actual impact on a person

Beta-1 radioactive decay

neutron becomes a proton, loss of electron/positron (Remember: starts with negative to become positive)

purines and pyrimidines

nitrogenous bases that have nitrogen in the ring, thus are heterocyclic

Uridine

nucleoside of uracil in RNA, must contain ribose

Where does DNA transcription occur?

nucleus

Bond length decreases when...

number of bonds (bond order) and electronegative difference increase

cross-sectional study

observational study that analyzes the prevalence of exposure and disease/outcome of a sample population at ONE point in time.

What P value is statistically significant?

p<0.05 p-value is statistically significant if it's less than 0.05

Acidosis

pH below 7.35, too much CO2 caused by not being able to breathe to take in oxygen, person may hyperventilate Ex. You're underwater so you're in pain because of too much CO2 in your body, when you get out of the water you will hyperventilate (breathe a lot)

Hardy-Weinberg equation

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1, p+q = 1 p: dominant allele q: recessive allele. Equation: predicts the frequency of homozygous dominants (p^2), homozygous recessives (q^2), and heterozygotes (2pq).

An ulcer that penetrated the wall of the intestine would allow the contents of the gastrointestinal tract to enter:

peritoneal cavity

5' end of DNA

phosphate group and negative charge

Schachter-Singer Theory (two-factor theory)

physiological arousal + cognitive appraisal -> emotion. This theory states that nervous system arousal and interpretation of context lead to a cognitive response. Remember: "Schit he's hot! I'm gonna write him an emotional song"

Loci

point on the chromosome where the alleles for a gene is found

Cellulose

polysaccharide carbohydrate in plant cell walls, have beta linkages, most animals lack the digestion enzyme necessary to cleave its beta bond between glucoses

Distance between linked genes is measured by

probability of crossing over

secondary socialization

process of learning appropriate behavior, socialization from early childhood through adult life

semantic processing

processing a word by its meaning, Wernicke's

During which phase does the nuclear envelope begin to disappear?

prometaphase

Right vs. left ventricle

right- pumps blood only to the lungs in the pulmonary artery left- pumps blood through the aorta to the rest of the body, thicker walls bc has to go to the body

Heterocyclic

ring shaped carbon chain which has to have at least one atom that isn't carbon in the ring

Isoelectronic

same number of electrons

insulin, leptin, and cholecystokinin trigger

satiety/fullness

How to determine s and p character?

sp3 = 25% s-character, 75% p-character sp2 = 33% s-character, 66% p-character sp = 50% s-character, 50% p-character The more s-character a bond has, the stronger and shorter the bond is.

Broca's area

speech production, frontal lobe (remember: bro is spoken)

Index of refraction (n)

speed of light in vacuum (c)/speed of light in the medium (v). (Note: The speed of light in a vacuum is 3.0 × 10^8 m/s.)

structural proteins

support the cell, repeating secondary structures, secondary structures organize into motifs of 2 beta sheets Examples: - Keratin, Collagen, Elastin, Actin, Tubulin, Lamin

RNA polymerase III

synthesizes tRNA and some 5S rRNA (Remember: Three has the letters T and R)

Which sense requires interaction of a chemical with a receptor?

taste and smell depend on chemoreceptors

What brain regions are involved in auditory processing?

temporal lobe, superior olive, thalamus

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate/biological behaviors instead of the learned behavior they were taught animals trained to perform a specific behavior will often lose that behavior in favor of innate behaviors, even when reinforcement is present

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

In humans, cholesterol is a precursor to:

testosterone

What determines an enzyme's specificity?

the 3D shape of the active site

scotopic vision

the ability to perceive visual stimuli in near darkness due to the activity of rods, night vision in dim light

Medicalization

the process by which problems or issues not traditionally seen as medical come to be framed as such

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use/function

self-verification

the tendency to seek out (and agree with) information that is consistent with one's self-concept

Glucocorticoids have been implicated in stress-related weight gain because:

they increase glucose levels, which causes insulin secretion.

ADH and aldosterone trigger

thirst

Codon

three-nucleotide sequence on messenger RNA that codes for a single amino acid, written in 5' to 3' direction

peripheral route processing

type of information processing that involves attending to factors not involved in the message, such as the appearance of the source of the message, the length of the message, and other noncontent factors

Michaelis-Menten equation

v = (vmax [S])/(Km + [S])

Formal charge

valence electrons - dots- sticks

Which portion of an antibody provides antigen-binding sites?

variable portion

Where is blood pressure the lowest?

veins (then capillaries have the second lowest BP)

electromotive force (emf)

The power supplied by the source per unit current. Typically the source is a battery. It increases the electric PE of charges. The EMF is greater than the voltage. The EMF has small internal resistance that causes the voltage supplied to the circuit to be less.

How to find the solubility given that the solubility of gas in water is 1.25 x 10^-3 M and the atmospheric pressure is 0.800 atm?

The pressure of 0.800 becomes 80%. This is multiplied by 1.25 x 10^-3 M. 1.25 times 80% equals 1. So the solubility answer is 1.00 x 10^-3 M.

oxidative phosphorylation

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration. - In the mitochondrion of eukaryotes - In the plasma membrane of bacteria (analogous structure to mitochondrion bc of endosymbiotic theory)

How to find rate law from a set of reactions?

The slow reaction is rate determining. So, you will only include the reactants of the slow reaction. It will have an exponent equal to the coefficient in the slow reaction.

4 moles of solid NaCl are added to 4 L water, where they dissociate completely. What's the total molar concentration of solutes in the resulting solution?

The solid solute NaCl dissociates into Na+ with 4 moles and Cl- with 4 moles. The total is 8 moles of solute. The equation is mol of solute/L of solvent. Thus, you insert it to be 8 moles of solute/ 4 L water. The answer is 2M.

What variable doesn't change for sound?

The speed is unchanged.

What DNA strand is most stable?

The strand with the most Cytosine-Guanine pairs will be most stable because it has the most hydrogen bonds. DNA is double stranded bc of hydrogen bonds (3 between C and G, 2 between A and T)

Cognitive Psychology

The study of how people think, learn, percieve, and remember. A person's beliefs and ideas.

The temporal lobe is a forebrain, midbrain, or hindbrain structure?

The temporal lobe is a forebrain structure.

Phosphorylation

The transfer of a phosphate group, usually from ATP, to a molecule. Nearly all cellular work depends on ATP energizing other molecules by phosphorylation. Phosphorylation is an esterification.

Raoult's Law

The vapor pressure of a solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of solvent present. As solute is added ↑, vapor pressure of the solvent decreases ↓. This occurs ideally when the solute/solvent have similar sizes and polarity. A higher vapor pressure will happen with very different properties (Ex. Ethanol and hexane) this doesn't follow Raoult's Law.

If you decrease the strength of the intermolecular forces, what will happen to the vapor pressure?

The vapor pressure will increase

In a titration, what information do you need to find the initial moles of an acid?

The volume of base at the end point of titration is needed to find the initial moles of the acid.

Flow rate

The volume of fluid that moves through a system in a given period of time. Shortest length, largest radius.

DNA and RNA are read in what direction?

They are read in the 5' to 3' direction and are antiparallel, the complementary strand would be in the 3' to 5' direction

How do researchers confirm that they have glycine?

They can use polarized light to determine whether it is optically active. This is because Glycine is the only amino acid that is achiral.

refractory period

Time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated, period of inactivity 1) Absolute refractory period: no amount of stimulation can cause another action potential to occur 2) Relative refractory period: there must be a greater than normal stimulation to cause an action potential bc the membrane is starting from a potential that's more negative than resting

Water absorption in the large intestine

Too little water absorbed produces diarrhea Too much water absorbed produces constipation

What are the layers of extraction techniques?

Top layer is lower density than bottom layer.

Periodic trends

Top right of the periodic table: greater nuclear charge(more protons). It also has a greater ionization energy and electronegativity. Atomic radius is the opposite periodic trend (Cs is largest and He is smallest).

Partial pressure (Dalton's Law)

Total pressure= partial pressure/X moles

Phosphotransferase

Transfers phosphate group (energy) Acceptor group can be alcohol, carboxy, nitrogenous, or phosphate. Ex. Serine

What are the genotypes of Trisomy X, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome?

Trisomy X has XXX genotype. Turner syndrome has XO genotype. Klinefelter syndrome has XXY genotype.

Trophoblast, epiblast, hypoblast

Trophoblast: supplies the embryo with nourishment and later forms the major part of the placenta Epiblast: endoderm Hypoblast: outermost layer of an embryo before it differentiates into ectoderm and mesoderm.

Tropic and direct hormones

Tropic (indirect hormone that stimulates another hormone/doesn't secrete anything)hormones = FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH (FLAT) Direct Hormones = Prolactin, Endorphins, GH (PEG)

Type 1 vs Type 2 muscles

Type 1 Slow twitch: - Aerobic Exercise, red, slow contractions - Long contractions bc you have more energy - More mitochondria, oxidative phosphorylation, - Increased capillary density, triglyceride storage Ex. back/leg muscles Type 2 Fast-twitch: - Anaerobic, white, short - Greater Ca2+-pumping capacity - ATP/Creatine phosphate storage Ex. arms/fingers

Phagocytes

Type of white blood cell that engulfs/absorbs bacteria and viruses

stop codons:

UAA = U Are Annoying UGA = U Go Away UAG = U Are Gone

SN1 reaction

Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions: 2 steps Tertiary. The rate-limiting step (first step) only involves 1 molecule. 1. Leaving group leaves forming a positively charged carbocation (rate limiting step) *The rate of rxn depends only on the concentration of the substrate rate = k [R-L] R-L is the alkyl group containing the leaving group *Anything that accelerates the formation of the carbocation increase the rate of rxn 2. Nucleophile attacks the carbocation (unstable) *results in a racemic mixture (nucleophile can attack either side)

convergent evolution

Unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments. Develop similar traits due to similar environments. Ex. dolphin and shark (Dolphin is a mammal, but a shark is a fish. They develop similar features like fins, tails etc.)

DNA helicase

Unzips the DNA double helix at the replication fork to expose nucleotides Catalyzes the unwinding and separation of the parental DNA strands, so that each can be replicated

Edman degradation

Uses selective cleavage of N-terminus to analyze smaller or primary proteins.

Jones Oxidation

Uses strong oxidant chromium trioxide; oxidizes primary alcohols to carboxylic acids. Secondary alcohols into ketones.

Ohm's Law

V= IR where V is voltage, I is current, and R is resistance.

Subculture

Values and norms don't oppose the dominant culture, although group is distinct

Variable vs. Constant

Variable: Represents a value that can change Constant: A factor that remains the same throughout a program.

Variable vs. constant regions

Variable: provides antibodies with their specificity for binding antigen, includes the ends of the light and heavy chains. Exhibit molecular variety, generating a unique chemical identity for each antibody. Constant: determines the mechanism used to destroy antigen.

In terms of laminar flow, where is the velocity slow? A) Velocity is slow in the middle B) Velocity is slow at the corners of a slot C) Velocity is slow along the edges of a tube

Velocity is slow along the edges of a tube. Velocity is fastest in the middle streamline.

What is too small to be seen by a light microscope, thus it must be seen by an electron microscope?

Virus

Fat soluble vitamins

Vitamins (A, D, E, K) which are isoprene based lipids. Isoprene is an unsaturated (healthy) hydrocarbon.

Relationship between Km, Vmax, and ES?

Vmax and ES have the same direct relationship. Km is the opposite.

What channels play a role in the propagation of action potentials or release of neurotransmitters in efferent neurons of the central nervous system?

Voltage gated calcium channels, unregulated potassium channels, and voltage gated sodium channels because ions are important in the nervous system

Why is water reabsorption in the collecting duct possible?

Water reabsorption in the collecting duct is possible because the loop of Henle has very high osmolarity (very concentrated) at the bottom.

What do weak vs strong oxidizers yield?

Weak oxidizers yield ketones and aldehydes. Ex. CrO3 and pyrimidine Strong oxidizers yield ketones and acids.

moderating variable

Weakens or strengthens the relationship between the independent and dependent variable

just noticeable difference

Weber's Law, the smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect

Phototransduction cascade

What occurs when light hits the retina. Steps: light turns a rod off (rod is normally on), rhodopsin activates and changes conformation, releases transducin, alpha, PDE, cGMP, hyper polarization, bipolar cell to turn on, turns on a retinal ganglion cell (connected to the optic nerve)

rheumatoid arthritis

a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the joints and some organs of other body systems are attacked. The overuse of joints over time can lead to inflammation called arthritis. Destruction of articular cartilage.

Neuroleptics

a class of antipsychotic drugs, traditionally dopamine receptor blockers Treat schizophrenia. They're effective in treating positive symptoms, but their side effects include cognitive dulling, which can exacerbate negative symptoms

allosteric competitive inhibition

a competitive inhibitor binds to the active site to prevent anymore substrate from binding by changing the shape of the enzyme, reversible, non covalent binding of regulatory compounds

sensory adaptation

a decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation (ex. woman no longer believes a food is spicy by the end of the meal)

common ion effect

a decrease in the solubility of an ionic compound caused by the addition of a common ion

cohort

a group of individuals who have common characteristics such as age, experience, location, or generation

Cathode

a negative electrode at which reduction occurs, gains electrons, attracts cations (Remember: anode is opposite oxidation and gets to letter O first, or remember RED CAT)

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that play controls arousal, mood, motivation and alertness Remember: When you're "tickled" you become alert

overt orienting

a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event Mnemonic: Ove = Move

Scalar

a physical quantity that has magnitude but no direction, Ex. distance, temperature, speed, time, energy, work, capacitance, density, power, electric potential difference

Bacillus

a rod-shaped bacterium; also a genus of bacteria. (they look like tic tacs)

zero-sum game

a situation in which one person's gain is another's loss, so the net change in wealth or benefit is zero

The time period between action potential initiation and mechanical activity of a muscle fiber is called ______. a. latent period b. refractory period c. action potential d. excitation period

a. latent period

glass escalator

accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs men who pursue occupations with high proportions of women (Ex. teaching or nursing) will quickly ascend the career ladder with promotions.

What is the main neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system?

acetylcholine

Cytoskeleton components

actin filaments (aka microfilaments), intermediate filaments, and microtubules

diamagnetic

all electrons are paired, magnetic permeability of Bismuth less than 1, magnetic susceptibility less than zero, repelled by an external magnetic field

Selectins

allow cells to adhere to carbohydrates on the surfaces of other cells and are most commonly used in the immune system, regulate neutrophil extravasion Remember: Selectin Surface

Alpha vs Beta carbon

alpha is the carbon connected to the chiral carbon center that goes down (remember alpha looks like a fish swimming down), beta is the following carbon connected to the alpha (remember beta looks like a butterfly and goes up)

Anhydride

an -oic oxide that forms an acid when reacted with water, -RCOOCOR, two carbonyl oxygens with a shared oxygen between them, Anhydrides are commonly formed when a carboxylic acid reacts with an acid chloride in the presence of a base. (Mnemonic: An is a ho)

PTSD is what kind of disorder?

an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

biomedical approach

an approach to psychological disorders that considers only physical symptoms based on genetics/neurology and offers pharmaceutical and medical solutions for symptom alleviation, focus on physical causes and symptoms

social stigma

an attribute that is socially devalued, discredited, or disapproved

endonuclease

an enzyme capable of cleaving bonds between nucleotides located internally in a DNA strand

systematic error

an error that always occurs in the same direction, can't be reduced error with more trials

Jung's anima and animus

anima- repressed femininity in male (ex. a boy likes dolls) animus- repressed masculinity in female

Neuroticism

anxiety, insecurity, emotional instability, high emotional arousal in stressful situations

Teratogen

any factor that can cause a birth defect

Where is blood pressure the highest?

artery

classical conditioning

associating an involuntary response and a neutral stimulus, no enticements or rewards, takes advantage of biological/instinctual responses

Semantics

association of meaning with a word

What is the most common cell type in the brain?

astrocyte

free radical

atom with an unpaired electron, Ex. Atomic oxygen

parenting styles

authoritative (the best, associated with high self esteem for child), authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved

which of the following conditions could result in the formation of a double bond between carbon and nitrogen? a. a hydrocarbon reacting with ammonia b. a ketone reacting with ammonia c. a carboxylic acid reacting with NO₂ d. an alcohol reacting with ammonia

b. a ketone reacting with ammonia

Corpses usually exhibit rigor mortis because_________ a. ATP hydrolysis is stimulating myosin head attachment to actin b. a lack of ATP hydrolysis prevents myosin head detachment from actin c. calcium stores become deficient d. sodium stores become deficient

b. a lack of ATP hydrolysis prevents myosin head detachment from actin

Capillaries

branched, smallest blood vessels, have the most nutrient exchange

Proteolysis

breakdown of proteins during mitosis

Anomie

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community. A situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. Social anomie can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

breaks down acetylcholine

A major difference between smooth muscle fibers and skeletal muscle fibers in terms of calcium influx is that ________. a. smooth muscle fibers have a sarcoplasmoic reticulum b.calcium ions are sorted in the sarcoplasm of the smooth muscle c. calcium ion influx occurs mostly from the extracellular matrix fluid in the smooth muscle d. smooth muscle contraction does not involve calcium

c. calcium ion influx occurs mostly from the extracellular matrix fluid in the smooth muscle

highest priority functional group

carboxylic acid (most oxidized with 2 Oxygens)

mRNA

carries coded amino acid sequence from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome

Ribozymes

catalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can splice RNA

nonsense mutation (aka truncation mutation)

changes a normal codon into a stop codon, mutation with the most change in the sequence so its NO BUENO

reappraisal

changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus

Accomodation

changing our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information (Piaget made schema) Mnemonic: "Double cc Change or Create new schema"

arcuate fasciculus

connects Wernicke's area with Broca's area (Remember: can't articulate has to do with speech/lang)

Medulla

controls heartbeat and breathing Regulate cardiovascular system (breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, etc.). Derived from the hindbrain. Remember: medals in your heart, Gold Medalists wear medals near their heart

Ciliary muscle

controls the shape of the lens, smooth muscle portion of the ciliary body, which contracts to assist in near vision

far-sighted

converging, behind the retina

pyruvate dehydrogenase

converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA in mitochondrial matrix. - stimulated by insulin - inhibited by acetyl-CoA It increases in activity after intense exercise in order to make up for lost ATP. This increased activity is due to increased pyruvate concentration.

Enteropeptidase

converts trypsinogen to trypsin

suicide inhibitors

covalently bind to the enzyme to prevent it from catalyzing reactions, rarely unbind, irreversible

direct hormones

directly stimulate organs, Ex. growth hormone, prolactin, endorphins

individual discrimination

discrimination carried out by one person against another

lactone

cyclic ester

lexicon

dictionary, entire set of morphemes in a language

4 lobes of the brain

frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital (Remember: Freud Tore his Pants Off)

Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis

language affects/determines how we think

Which DNA strand is synthesized continuously?

leading strand

iris and pupil

regulate amount of light entering the eye

Enzymes after a reaction

remain unchanged, not consumed

observer bias

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

rRNA

type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes, catalyze peptide bond formation, synthesized in nucleolus

Phenyl

(C6H5) Non-Polar, benzene ring as a substituent

What is the conjugate base of the bisulfate ion (HSO4-)?

(SO4) 2-

Prometaphase

- 2nd stage of mitosis - Nuclear envelope fragments and microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes. - Nuclear envelope disassembles

agoraphobia

- An abnormal fear of open or public places. - Agoraphobia occurs when a patient fears situations that make them feel trapped, embarrassed, or helpless. They may fear an actual event or the anticipation of an event. This can occur in a crowded area, such as a subway or metro bus.

central route processing

- An individual cares deeply about the message and pays attention to the argument presented - Person is deeply invested in a situation/has not knowledge - Any attitudes formed or reinforced this way are thought to be more enduring and resistant to counter-arguments. Mnemonic: CC Central Cares

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

- Attempts to replace negative thoughts/beliefs (cognition) with healthier thoughts and behaviors - Ex. desensitization, self-talk

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

- Bilateral destruction of amygdala - Dramatic emotional changes including reduction in fear and anxiety - Hyperorality, hypersexuality, disinhibited behavior (doing reckless things) Mnemonic: You need a Benzo to chill out. Kluver is a scary name.

optic disc

- Blind Spot - site where optic nerve connects to retina and leaves the eye - lacks photoreceptors (no rods or cones) - proteins that fire action potentials to the brain

Astrocytes

- Blood Brain Barrier: prevents large potentially toxic molecules from leaving the blood to go into the CNS,uses endothelial tight junction - Function: axon guidance, synaptic support, lactate release, brain scarring, and blood brain barrier. Regulate blood flow in the brain, maintain the composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, and regulate communication between neurons at the synapse - When injured, astrocytes fill the gaps where there is dead neuronal tissue/ brain scarring.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

- Brain imaging technique, shows brain anatomy - Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to detect magnetic changes in the brain's blood flow patterns - Makes computer-generated images of soft tissue.

explicit memory (declarative memory)

- Consciously acting to recall/recognize particular information - Facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. - Recalling previous experiences and information. - Semantic = words - Episodic = events or experiences Ex. trying to remember a list of words you just saw.

Sarcomere

- Contractile unit of a muscle fiber - 2 proteins it has are myosin and actin - Myosin make thick filament - Actin make thin filament

peptide bond

- Covalent bonds that connect amino acids. - N-terminus(amino end) to C-terminus(carboxyl end). - formed by dehydration synthesis - partial double bond character - primary structure - resonance - planar - very stable, low reactivity

memory reconstruction

- During an event, we construct a memory. When we try to retrieve the memory, we reconstruct an account based partly on surviving memories and partly on expectations of what must have happened. - Every time we retrieve a memory we change it in small ways. Info may not be accurate. - Intrusions of false information into episodic memories of events (referred to as false memories)

AV node (atrioventricular node)

- Electrical conduction system of the heart - Coordinates the top of the heart. - Makes a delay in movement between the atria and ventricle - Electrically connects the atria and ventricle

mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA)

- Evolve rapidly. - Maternally inherited. - Codes for 13 polypeptides. - Can impact oxidative phosphorylation (also in mitochondrial membrane). - Almost every base in mitochondrial DNA codes for a product, unlike nuclear DNA that has introns/exons.

confounding variable

- Experimental factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect - Uncontrolled variables that affect dependent/independent

ductus arteriosus

- In the fetus - Connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta, bypassing the lungs - Reduces blood flow through the underdeveloped lungs.

operant conditioning

- Learning where behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. - Associates a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

knee jerk reflex

- Muscle stretch response when patellar tendon is tapped just below the knee - Uses a 2 neuron (sensory and motor neurons) "monosynaptic" reflex arc. No interneurons. - From the muscle spindle sensory neuron, to the spinal cord, which activates a motor neuron causing quadriceps contraction

sensorimotor stage

- Piaget's theory - 0-2 yrs: Infants and young children - Object permanence - Stranger anxiety - Know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

isotopes of hydrogen

- Protium (1 neutron) - Deuterium (2 neutrons) - Tritium (3 neutrons)

Virus

- Tiny, nonliving particle - Invades then reproduces in a living cell. - Made of genetic code, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat (capsid). - Can't replicate alone, so they infect and use cells to make copies of themselves. - Negative-sense RNA: RNA strand is complimentary to the mRNA to be translated - Positive sense RNA: already in the correct form of mRNA to be translated into proteins. - Most cells: virus attaches to the outside of the cell and a tail injects genetic material in the bacteria - Animal cells: entire virus in the cell via endocytosis or fusion with the plasma membrane. - obligate intracellular parasites. They are unable to reproduce without the aid of the host cell's metabolic machinery.

Weber's Law

- To be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount). - Thresholds are proportional (make it into a fraction) so find a percentage greater than the minimum. - a ratio -larger initial weight will cause the same amount of change in weight to not be as noticeable - k = Δ I / I where ΔI is change or JND, and I is initial

ligand-gated ion channel

- Transmembrane protein - Pore opens or closes as it changes shape in response to a signaling molecule (ligand), allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions. Ligand binds to allosteric site and alters the protein conformation. - Aka. ionotropic receptor. - In neurons because they react quickly to stimulus. Induced fit or lock and key models.

bottleneck effect

- Type of genetic drift - Reduction of a population by a natural disaster - Surviving population is no longer genetically representative of the original population. Mnemonic: Drinking bottles can be disastrous

representativeness heuristic

- Using info you already know - Based on stereotypes you have of groups - Basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. - This can lead to a conjunction fallacy. - Comparing information to our mental prototypes Ex. we may decide what occupation someone holds based on their hobbies. If they like to attend orchestra concerts and music festivals, we may assume that they are more likely to be a musician than a cattle rancher.

CT/CAT scan

- X-rays take static images of the brain structure. - Used to find tumors, swelling, and bleeding. Mnemonic: "C: See Simple structure"

Microtubules

-largest diameter (25 nm) -α-tubulin and β-tubulin -> dimer-> polymer -> sheet -> microtubule -dynamic, cell movement -centrosome -dynein, kinesin, cilia, flagella -9+2 arrangement -Pull apart chromosomes

Southern Blot

-used to detect presence and quantity of various DNA strands in a sample - Used to visualize a specific piece of DNA and see if that sequence(s) is in a longer strand of DNA. - Cleave DNA -> electrophoresis -> filtration -> expose to radio labeled DNA -> X-ray -look for a sequence of interest

stepping reflex

0-2 months. When the infant is held upright such that the feet can touch the floor, it will take step-like motions on the ground. This is a developmental precursor to walking, which is usually attained around 1 year of age.

parallel circuit

1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 +... If it is for a resistor in parallel, then you take the inverse of the final answer.

atmospheric pressure

1 atm= 760 mmHg = 760 Torr= 1.01 × 10^5Pa = 1.01 bar

1 codon codes for

1 codon = 1 amino acid = 3 nucleotide base pairs

Conversion from mM to M.

1 mM = 0.001 M x 10^-3 M

Avogadro's number

1 mol = 6.02 x 10^23 atoms or molecules

pattern of sleep stages during a complete sleep cycle early in the night

1-2-3-4-3-2-REM

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

1. Infant: Trust vs. Mistrust 2. 1.5-3.5: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. 3.5-5.5: Initiative vs. Guilt 4. 5.5-12: Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Adolescence (teen): Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Young adult: Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Adult: Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Elderly: Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Sp2 hybridized

1/3s character

What is the s character of sp3?

1/4 s character

optics formula

1/f = 1/i + 1/o 1/f = 1/q (image) + 1/p (object) -i = virtual +i = real units: cm

1kg = ? N

10 newtons

Prostaglandins

20 carbon lipid that contains 1 ring

sp^2 hybridized orbitals

33% s, 66% p trigonal planar geometry 120° bond angles ex) Cs 1 double bond

structure of steroids

4 fused carbon rings

Small intestine pH

8.5

CARS section timing

90 min total, 10 min per passage w/ quest, ~1 min per quest

What will a bulky base reagent do?

A bulky base (NaOC(CH3)3) will cause an elimination reaction and create a double bond.

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Levorotary

A compound that rotates polarized light to the left, or counterclockwise. The angle will be negative degrees.

Karyotype

A karyotype shows DNA as pairs of Xs - chromosomes composed of sister chromatids. Sister chromatids split in anaphase, meaning that a karyotype is taken of cells arrested in metaphase.

Eustress

A positive good stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal (Ex. working out)

Gentrification

A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area.

Schizophrenia

A psychological disorder with high levels of dopamine. Positive symptoms: delusions, hallucination, catatonic behavior. Negative symptoms: avolition (lack of motivation, ability to do tasks). Areas of the brain that are less active are the amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus. Can affect memory.

After sleep deprivation ends,

A sleeping person spends extra time in REM sleep and has more alpha and beta alert waves. After being REM-deprived the night before, the volunteer is going to exhibit "REM rebound." They will have more REM sleep than usual.

Personality Disorder Clusters

A(weird, odd, eccentric): Paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal B(wild, dramatic, emotional, erratic): Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic C(worried, anxious, fearful): Avoidant, dependent, obsessive compulsive Mnemonic: Alphabetical order ABC: Weird Wild Worried

What is the primary difference between a peptide hormone and a steroid hormone? A) A peptide is lipophobic, while a steroid hormone is lipophilic. B) A peptide is hydrophobic, while a steroid hormone is lipophobic. C) A peptide is lipophilic, while a steroid hormone is lipophobic. D) A peptide is lipophilic, while a steroid hormone is hydrophilic.

A) A peptide is lipophobic, while a steroid hormone is lipophilic.

During muscle contraction, myosin cross bridges attach to which active sites? A) actin filaments B) Z discs C) thick filaments D) myosin filaments

A) actin filaments

Auditory hair cells are what type of receptors? A.Mechanoreceptors B.Proprioceptors C.Chemoreceptors D.Osmoreceptors

A.Mechanoreceptors

What happens to an electron when light is absorbed?

AHED Mnemonic Absorb light Higher potential Excited Distant from nucleus

start codon

AUG, Methionine (Met) is the first amino acid in a protein

Tragedy of the Commons

Acting in one's own self-interest is contrary to the interests of the group as a whole.

Inhalation is an _____ process.

Active

What does N- stand for in IUPAC naming?

Alkyl groups attached to the amide nitrogen are given the locand "N−" to show that they're on the nitrogen.

What eukaryotic DNA polymerase is used for nucleotide addition?

Alpha and beta

essential amino acids

Amino acids that are needed, but cannot be made by the body; they must be eaten in foods. Phenyalanine, Valine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine, Methionine, Histidine, Leucine, Lysine Mnemonic: "PVT(private) TIM HaLL"

How does the acid differ from it's conjugate base?

An acid differs from its conjugate base only by the presence of an additional H. Ex. HPO4-2 is the conjugate base of H2PO4-.

Is a ketone or an alcohol more polar?

An alcohol is more polar. This is because of hydrogen bonding capabilities. The alcohol has a greater net dipole moment because the carbonyl (C=O) can be resonance stabilized.

Amps to moles

An amp (A) is equal to (C/S). This can be converted to mol using: - Faraday's Constant = 10^5 C/mol.

biopsychosocial approach

An approach that considers environmental and lifestyle factors then helps by changing those

It is unlikely that an ideal gas has this behavior:

An ideal gas will not have high pressure, low volume, and low temperature. This is because low volume decreases the chances of IM forces and low temp decreases kinetic energy.

How does the body's production of carbon dioxide impact the pH in bloodstream?

An increase in carbon dioxide produces more carbonic acid which lowers the pH in the bloodstream. This increase in acid means more H+ ions bind to hemoglobin. This lessens the hemoglobin's affinity for O2.

Which of these is an attribute of the magnocellular pathway? A) High temporal resolution B) Poor object tracking C) Sharp, high feature resolution D) High spatial resolution

Ans. A) High temporal resolution Exp. The magnocellular pathway specializes in sending information about movement since most retinal ganglion cells begin outside of the fovea. The magnocellular pathway is specialized for object tracking, but has a low spatial resolution.

Before going to the beach, Jimmy watches a documentary about shark attacks. At the beach, Jimmy is afraid to go in the water because he thinks it's full of sharks. What best explains his fear? A) Representative Heuristic B) Availability Heuristic C) Primacy Effect D) Recency Effect

Ans. B) Availability Heuristic Exp. Availability heuristic judges the likelihood of an event based on how easily the event comes to mind. Since Jimmy just watched the movie, this is availability heuristic.

Alice has a brain injury in which she can speak fluently, however her speech makes little to no sense. What best describes this phenomenon? A) Broca's Aphasia B) Wernicke's Aphasia C) Retrograde Amnesia D) Anterograde Amnesia

Ans. B) Wernicke's Aphasia Exp. Wernicke's Aphasia is in the left temporal lobe. It has trouble understanding speech and cannot produce meaningful sentences. This is because Wernicke's is language comprehension and words. Broca's is speaking fluently.

Which sociological perspective fits the following: The purpose of the mass media is to create an informed public capable of recognizing societal injustices and making intelligent political decisions. A) Social constructionism B) Conflict theory C) Functionalism D) Symbolic interactionism

Ans. C) Functionalism Exp. Functionalism says that each societal institution has a function maintaining the homeostasis of society.

Which type of lethal, inheritable allele is most likely to persist in a population? A) Dominant B) Codominant C) Recessive D) Incompletely Dominant

Ans. C) Recessive Exp. A lethal allele can persist through carriers in the population. Carriers are generally heterozygous (1 disease allele; 1 healthy allele). A lethal, inheritable allele is most likely to persist in a population if it is recessive.

All halogens are good leaving groups except: A) F B) I C) Cl D) Br

Ans: Fluorine is a bad leaving group. Exp: Fluorine is the most electronegative

What if the electrophoresis gel shows uniform lengths of DNA?

Ans: The researcher failed to add restriction enzymes. Explanation: Restriction enzymes cut DNA by cleaving different specific sequences.

Which of the following is NOT classified as an opiate? A) Xanax B) Vikodin C) Percocet D) Morphoine

Ans: Xanax

Acidic (negative) amino acids

Aspartic Acid (Asp) and Glutamic Acid (Glu)

Deutsch and Deutsch Late selection theory

Assigns meaning to words then filters out what you want to hear/pay attention to Sensory Register -> perceptual processes -> selective filter -> cognitive processes

______ involves classifying information into schemas; ______ involves modifying schemas themselves

Assimilation is the process of classifying new information into existing schemata. Accommodation is the process whereby existing schemata are changed to fit new information.

At high temperatures, cholesterol increases or decreases membrane fluidity?

At high temperatures, cholesterol decreases membrane fluidity by immobilizing a few methylene groups in the fatty acid tails of the lipids

Aversive prejudice vs. Dominative prejudice:

Aversive: you don't want to have the negative thoughts about a group but you do anyways (so, when you see black people walking at night, you get scared even though they probably will not harm you and you know its wrong to think like that, you still do) Dominant: deliberately keeping a group in a negative/inferior position (indian people smell and you are ok with thinking that)

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination Remember: tight walker using bells for balance

What amino acids interact favorably with negative DNA?

Basic Amino Acids - Ex. Arginine and Lysine

blood pressure (BP)

Blood flow will not be heard when the pressure of the cuff placed on your arm is too high. If your blood pressure is 130/85, then the diastolic pressure is the smaller number (85) and the larger number (130 mmHg) was the systolic pressure. Mnemonic: "Diastolic is on a diet, so it's small."

Golden Ratio

Body proportions of 1.618:1 are more attractive humans, swirl proportion

Which property of a substance is best used to estimate its relative vapor pressure?

Boiling point

feature detection

Brain identifies specific components of visual stimuli (ex. shiny, edges, shape). Color, form, and motion Perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus, specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimulus.

parallel processing

Brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. The ability to simultaneously analyze color, shape, motion info. You recognize key characteristics of an object and apply it to a past memory.

Hydrolase enzymes

Break chemical bonds by adding water. Ex. lipase, phosphatase, and sucrase. Breaks apart macromolecules that were formed by a dehydration synthesis reaction.

Bundle of His

Bundle of heart muscle that transmits the cardiac impulse from the AV node to the ventricles causing contraction

How would an increase in blood pressure cause an increase in urine output?

By increasing the glomerular filtration rate

How does DNA transcription occur?

By using the RNA polymerase in the nucleus to transcribe.

Capacitor equation

C = Q/V where C = Capacitor, Q = Charge, V = Voltage

Capacitance for parallel plate capacitor

C = ɛ0 · (A/d) ɛ0 = 8.85 x 10^-12 F/m A = area d = distance between the two plates

Which of these is NOT an aspect of cognition? A) Making meaningful responses to an object B) Attending to an object C) Innate reactions to an object D) Identifying an object

C) Innate reactions to an object

Which theory of language development would most likely describe thought as being influenced by but not strictly constrained by language? A) Piaget's theory of language B) Universalism C) Weak linguistic determinism D) Whorfian theory

C) Weak linguistic determinism

The unit ampere for current is equivalent to what?

C/s = Coulombs/sec

Carbonyl

C=O, oxo- prefix

Caffeine belongs to a class of general stimulants, which all increase the metabolic activity in cells. What is the process that causes jitters from excess amounts of coffee or other highly caffeinated beverages?

Caffeine inhibits an enzyme that breaks down cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The increase in cAMP increases glutamate production. This increase in cellular activity results in action potentials that are briefer and released in bursts.

What will happen to a patient who's thyroid is removed?

Calcium homeostasis will be affected

Highly expressed genes

Can be isolated through low levels of methylation, high levels of histone acetylation

In carbohydrate rings, what bonds are present?

Carbohydrate rings only have single bonds, so they can't be aromatic.

Why does the human body store energy for long term consumption as lipids not carbohydrates?

Carbon in lipids has a lower oxidation state than carbohydrates, energy density matters

The enzyme amidase is responsible for hydrolysis of amides. What would be the products of this reaction?

Carboxylate ion and ammonium

Exons

Coding segments of eukaryotic DNA. Expressed. Exit the nucleus. Spliced together using spliceosome.

Scientific Method

Collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

Bacteriophage

Combination of the virus and its host

conditioned vs unconditioned

Conditioned is learned (Ex. food bowl) Unconditioned is unlearned and reflexive (Ex. food)

photopic vision

Cone-mediated vision, which predominates when lighting is good

Conjugation vs Induction of a molecule

Conjugation: every other bond is a pi bond (Ex. Benzene Ring) Induction: the sigma bonds of a molecule and electronegativity of a molecule.

first law of thermodynamics

Conservation of energy. Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

content validity

Consistency between the test items or problems and the kinds of situations or problems that occur on the job. Content validity describes the extent that the test measures the construct accurately.

Isochoric (aka isometric or isovolumetric)

Constant volume: no work is done.

Core nation vs. periphery nation

Core nations: wealthy and strong, export goods (ex. clothes) Periphery nations: poor and weak, export resources (ex. cotton)

Recurrent thoughts, fears, impulses, and actions are the symptoms of __________. Possible Answers: somatoform disorder antisocial personality disorder schizophrenia impulse control disorders obsessive-compulsive disorder

Correct answer: obsessive-compulsive disorder

crest and trough

Crest: The top of a transverse wave. Trough: The bottom of a wave.

What are the types of memory that improve with age?

Crystallized memory Emotional reasoning Semantic memory

Epoxide

Cyclic ether; oxygen in a three membered ring, much more reactive than other ethers due to ring strain; good electrophiles, mcPBA can form epoxides

Pyrimidines

Cytosine, Uracil (RNA), Thymine (DNA). Have one ring. Remember: CUT the Pye, where pie is a circle with 1 ring

Which of the following effects on urine production would be expected if there was vasoconstriction in the efferent glomerular arteriole? A) Decrease the volume of urine production due to increased glomerular blood pressure B) Decrease the volume of urine production due to decreased glomerular blood pressure C) Increase the volume of urine production due to decreased glomerular blood pressure D) Increase the volume of urine production due to increased glomerular blood pressure

D) Increase the volume of urine production due to increased glomerular blood pressure

Which series shows the order in which filtrate passes through the tubular regions of a nephron? A. Bowman's capsule → loop of Henle → proximal tubule → distal tubule → collecting duct B. Proximal tubule → collecting duct → loop of Henle → Bowman's capsule → distal tubule C. Collecting duct → Bowman's capsule → loop of Henle → proximal tubule → distal tubule D. Bowman's capsule → proximal tubule → loop of Henle → distal tubule → collecting duct

D. Bowman's capsule → proximal tubule → loop of Henle → distal tubule → collecting duct

What would be the result of a mutation that inhibits telomerase?

Daughter strands of DNA will have progressively shorter sequences

Pascal's Law

F1/A1 = F2/A2 Force per unit area is the same on each end.

How does glucose enter muscle cells from the blood?

Facilitated diffusion (with the help of a carrier protein)

Relationship of Flow to Cross-sectional Area (Continuity Equation)

Flow rate (Q) = A₁V₁ = A₂V₂

Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence

Fluid: younger people have this and decreases with age, non verbal, culture free, problem-solving, pattern recognizing (memory of digits) Crystallized: acquired skills, verbal skills, culture education, experience, prior knowledge (vocab)

What happens to the rate of reaction as temperature increases?

For every 10 degree increase, the rate of reaction doubles. This is until it reaches a high temp of 37 degrees and denatures.

Two polysaccharides that share all of their glycosidic linkages?

Glycogen and amylopectin are the only polysaccharide forms that demonstrate branching

Homotropic vs Heterotropic Allosteric Regulation

Homotropic: substrate and regulator are the same molecule Heterotropic: they are different molecules

In which organelle of a eukaryotic cell is the pyrimidine uracil, as part of uridine triphosphate (UTP), incorporated into nucleic acid?

In the nucleus

Equation for Kw

Kw = [H+][OH-] = Ka​Kb​ The Kw of water = 10^-14.

Redox

Lose Electrons Oxidation and Gain Electrons Reduction LEO says GER

symport

Membrane transport that carries 2 substances in the same direction across the membrane.

sliding filament model

Muscle contraction - Change in a sarcomere (basic unit of muscle) - Thin (actin) filaments slide across thick (myosin) filaments - This shortens the sarcomere - Shortening of all sarcomeres in a myofibril shortens the entire myofibril - Actin and myosin overlap more - Uses Calcium and ATP

Nucleotides are in

NAD+, nucleic acids, DNA and RNA

NADH vs NADPH

NADH: catabolic, breaks things down, breaks down glucose in glycolysis, breaks down fats in β-oxidation, breaks down citrate into CO2 in TCA cycle NADPH: anabolic, build things up, fatty acid synthesis, pentose phosphate pathway, cholesterol synthesis

Where will the repressor protein bind on a DNA strand?

Operator Site

Potential energy in a spring

PE = 1/2kx^2 where k=spring constant and x=displacement

peptide hormones

Peptide hormones are chains of amino acids, water soluble, can act through secondary messengers, and are derived from proteins

missense mutation

Point mutation, one amino acid swaps for a different amino acid Ex. sickle-cell anemia (shrivelled, less fluid) Remember: Miss, Point your toes

Histidine, His, H

Polar basic, positive charge. Contains an imidazole ring which makes it heterocyclic. The side chain can be ionized in cells.

Cysteine, Cys, C

Polar neutral with sulfhydryl side chain, can form disulfide bonds

Na+/K+ pump

Primary active transport. 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in. More permeable to K+ (negative) than to Na+ (positive), so the resting potential is close to the equilibrium potential of K+ at -70mV.

primary vs secondary reinforcers

Primary: Help satisfy biological needs.; Secondary: Derive effectiveness from their association with primary reinforces through classical conditioning. Primary = food, water, social relations Secondary = things that can get primary ones

Acyl Halide

RCOX -oyl halide

Differences between DNA and RNA

RNA contains uracil DNA contains thymine DNA has double helix RNA has a single helix RNA uses ribose (has two alcohol groups -OH) DNA uses 2'-deoxyribose (has one alcohol group -OH) DNA self replicates; RNA does not DNA stable under alkaline conditions

peptide

Short chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

independent variable

The experimental factor that is changed/manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. How it effects the dependent variable.

What describes the "buffer" region in a titration curve?

The flat portion of the curve just before the equivalence point. The buffer region derives its name because the pH of the solution does not greatly change when the titrant is added to the solution.

metastasis

The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site. Break off and then grow in another location.

Ideal gases

Theoretical gas whose molecules occupy negligible space and whose collisions are perfectly elastic. Gases behave ideally under reasonably temperatures and ̄pressures.

Why is ATP high energy?

There are 3 negatively charged phosphates that repel each other, increases charge in one place, phosphates want to stabilize with resonance structures

determined stem cells

These committed cells are tied to one lineage.

NaOH and HCl amounts needed for titration

They are both monoprotic, so the amounts needed for titration to reach equilibrium would be equal

What are the structural features possessed by storage lipids?

Three fatty acids ester-linked to a single glycerol (Ex. Triacylglycerols) R—CO2H is a fatty acid

Three amino acids are called what? How many bonds?

Tripeptide with two peptide bonds

Charles' Law

V1/T1=V2/T2 at a constant pressure the volume of gas is directly proportional to temperature

A tRNA is considered charged when bonded to what?

When it is charged, a tRNA is bonded to an amino acid during translation.

protein denaturation

When proteins are subject to heat, acid or other conditions that disturb their stability; protein uncoils, loses its shape, and loses its function. - (Ex. adding urea, adding sodium, adding SDS, or increasing temp will denature a protein) - A hypotonic environment or change in solubility will not denature it

What are the E or Z configurations?

Z: high priority groups are on the same side E: high priority groups are on opposite sites

equilibrium constant expression

[products]/[reactants] Exclude pure solids and liquids.

nucleus accumbens

a dopamine-rich area in the forebrain that participates in reward and addiction

parent/template strand

a strand of DNA that is used to synthesize a complementary strand

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

glycosidic linkage

a type of covalent bond by dehydration reaction that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate. Ex. Joins phosphate and glucose in beta-D-glucose-6-phosphate

PET

a visual display of brain activity that uses glucose injection to focus on activation (and thus brain function) in particular regions

Oncogenes are more likely to result in cancer through

activation

How do enzymes lower activation energy?

by locally concentrating the reactants, modifying the local charge environment, forming transient covalent bonds, acting as electron donors or acceptors

Light equation

c = λv Where C is speed of light (3 x 10^8), Wavelength (m), V is frequency (Hz). This equation can be used with (E) = (h)(v).

An adult male is donating red bone marrow to determine if he is a match to a leukemia patient. Most likely the doctor will collect the bone marrow from his ___________. a. femoral diaphysis b. humeral diaphysis c. ilium d. skull

c. ilium (part of the hip bone)

Mineral component of bone

calcium, phosphate and hydroxyl groups.

Ozonolysis

cleaves double bond in half, it only oxidizes the carbon to an aldehyde under reducing conditions. Both carbons in the double bond become carbonyl carbons.

Cataracts

clouding of the lens, form when a protein coat builds up and cause a white barrier to form that limits vision.

auditory pathway

ear canal -> ossicles -> oval window -> hair cells -> auditory nerve -> superior olive -> inferior colliculus -> medial geniculate nucleus -> temporal cortex

efficacy

effectiveness; the power to produce a result

McDonaldization

efficiency, calculability (same prices at every place), uniformity, and technological control

What happens as you add solute?

freezing point decreases, boiling point increases, osmotic pressure increases

Cyclic form of monosaccharides

hemiacetals and hemiketals

Bicarbonate ions in the blood and the dialysate are important for maintaining physiological levels of:

hydrogen ions (pH levels)

Lactase

hydrolyzes (breaks down) lactose to glucose and galactose

pancreatic amylase

hydrolyzes (digests) starch to maltose

3' end of DNA

hydroxyl group (-OH) and neutral no charge

Saponification

long chain ester reacts with sodium (NaOH) or potassium (KOH) hydroxide to form a salt of the acid The longer the hydrocarbon chain is, the more soap that will be made.

Euchromatin

loose, accessible, light

skewed left (negatively skewed)

lower on the left

-al suffix

means there is an aldehyde (O=C carbonyl center)

Voltmeter

measure voltage in parallel, high resistance (so the voltage doesn't go through it instead of through the circuit)

Anmeter

measures current in series, low resistance

concurrent validity

measures how well a new test compares to a well-established test

Glands

organs that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Activation domain (AD)

regulates transcription by interacting with other proteins (such as basal transcription factors or RNA polymerase), binds/recruits several transcription factors and regulatory proteins

Reduction example using a carbonyl

replacing a carbonyl (C=O) with a hydroxide (-OH)

Glycogen

storage form of glucose in liver and muscle of animals, very branched, animal equivalent of starch, polysaccharide, easy to break down

Is LiAlH4 a reducing or oxidizing agent?

strong reducing agent

ID

survival impulses (sex and aggresion), unconscious, immediate gratificationmnemonic:basicsurvival

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute others' behavior to their dispositions (personality/traits) and our own behaviors to our situations, only talks about negative things

exchange mobility

the exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that about the same number of talented people move up the economic hierarchy as the number of less talented move down, overall social class system shows little change.

physiological zero

the normal temperature of the skin to which objects are compared to determine if they feel warm or cold

The hindbrain contains three structures:

the pons, medulla, and cerebellum

Heterochromatin

tight, inaccessible, dark

isoosmotic

two solutions with the same osmolarity; no net movement of water by osmosis

descending loop of henle

water reabsorption

units for power

watt, defined as J/s = ft•lb/s = kg•m2/s3

The first peak in gas or liquid chromatography

weakest bonds (intermolecular forces) and lowest weight

Isotonic

when the concentration of two solutions is the same

tactical self

who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us

How will an acid with a high negative charge act in water? Why?

will dissociate less in water, because it's a weak acid

Work equation

work = force x distance x cos of angle (W=Fd). If it is horizontal (90 degrees), then the cos angle is 0.

Meter conversions

x 10^3 kilo x 10^-1 deci x 10^-2 centi x 10^-3 milli x 10^-6 micro (µ) x 10^-9 nano

Entropy equation including cell potential

Δ G = -nFE° where Δ G is in Joules, F is Faraday's constant =96,500 C/mol e, and E is standard cell potential in V

first law of thermodynamics equation (internal energy)

ΔU = Q - W, ∆U change in internal energy, Q heat energy, W work done by system

angular frequency

ω = 2πf

focal length of a mirror

- Focal length is the distance from a mirror or lens to the focal point - Focal point: the point that reflected rays of light converge - Plane mirror doesn't allow for convergence of light, so the focal length of a mirror is infinity.

Sphingolipids

- Sphingosine and amide link to a fatty acid. - Lipids with a sphingosine backbone: ceramide, sphingomyelins, glycosphingolipids, gangliosides. - Sphinglolipids have different head groups: phosphocholine, phosphoethanolamine, monosaccharide, oligosaccharide

Proton NMR (H-NMR)

-Different types of hydrogens = # of peaks - More steric hinderance, makes the peaks split very far apart. - Aromatic ring has 4 peaks (2 doublets). - Least steric hinderance: has 1 group of 3 peaks (a triplet). - Mirror effect (halide in the middle/splits): add 1 peak to each group - If there is a chiral center, the protons will NOT be chemically equivalent. - Based on the carbon its attached to, n is the neighboring protons. n+1 equals the number of peaks Graph: 12-0, 12 is deshielded (High freq, high Energy), 0 is shielded (Low freq, low Energy, more EN/polarization, sp3)

Centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached. Separate sister chromatids during anaphase in mitosis. Has high G-C content.

Gauge Pressure

Gauge pressure= absolute pressure-atmospheric pressure Standard atmospheric pressure: 100,000 Pascals Gauge pressure is directly proportional to depth

Geminal diols vs. Vicinal diols

Geminal diol: Two hydroxyl groups on the same side Vicinal diol: Hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons Remember: Vicinal is in the same vicinity

Where are gangliosides found?

Glangliosides are on Schwann Cells

ambient stressors

Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Ambient stressors are hard to control, and often happen in the background of one's life and active salience. Ambient stressors are global stressors, not individual, meaning that they can influence more than one person. Ex. pollution

Gross motor skills vs. fine motor skills

Gross motor skills: physical abilities involving large body movements/muscles, such as walking and jumping Fine motor skills: refined use of small muscles like fingers and hands

What happens to your hormone levels after you eat a meal?

Insulin levels increase after you eat. This is in response to higher blood glucose levels. Osmolarity of the ileum will increase. The levels of circulating glucagon will decrease

Globalization

Integration of international trade and finance markets.

endoskeleton

Internal skeleton or supporting framework in an animal Function: 1) Support and framework for movement 2) Protects vital organs 3) Physiological: calcium storage, hematopoiesis (cellular components of blood such as red blood cells formed in bone marrow)

Electrophile

"Electron-loving" atoms with a positive charge that can accept an electron pair

Aldosterone

"salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys. Na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes a higher blood volume and pressure, activates the kidneys to reabsorb more water into the bloodstream Increases sodium and water reabsorption to increase blood pressure and increase blood volume - Mnemonic: Aldo is salty

Nitrogenous base compositions in DNA

# A (20%) = #T (20%), #C (30%) = #G (30%), Total of all bases (A,T, C, G) must be 100.

Amphoteric

- Can act as both acids and bases depending on the environment. - Ex. water, amino acids, bicarbonate (NaHCO₃), and other substances that can act as an oxidizing or reducing agent. -Usually strong acids or bases CANNOT be amphoteric.

oculomotor nerve (CN III)

This nerve is responsible for: - Ciliary and pupillary muscles innervation - Elevation of the upper eyelid - Innervation of the superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique muscles of the eye.

p53

This tumor suppressor gene causes cell cycle arrest in G1, providing time for DNA repair. If repair is successful, cells re-enter the cycle. If unsuccessful, apoptosis. Damage to the p53 gene can lead to unmitigated cell division and tumor formation, marking p53 as a proto-oncogene.

socioeconomic status (SES)

a measure of social class that is based on income, education, and occupation

negative feedback

a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus, negative = something is removed

diatomic molecules

a molecule that consists of two atoms of the same element Remember: "Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer" this stands for Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Bromine

histrionic personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and preoccupation with being the center of attention; emotional shallowness; overly dramatic behavior

ethnic enclave

a small area occupied by a high concentration of distinctive minority culture, prevent assimilation Ex. Chinatown, Little Italy

master status

a status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person's entire life Ex. the queen is both a master and ascribed status

X-ray crystallography

a technique used to determine the 3D structure of a protein

Ethnocentrism

belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group, judging others based on your own social standards/values

coenzyme

bind to active site on enzyme, speeds up the enzyme, small organic molecules (Ex. vitamins, NAD, FAD, Acetyl CoA)

Types of Bipolar Disorder

bipolar I: mania bipolar II: major depression and hypomania (excessive energy) cyclothymia: periods of dysthymia and hypomania lasting at least 2 years; usually begins in adolescents/early adulthood, not as extreme as those in bipolar I or II disorder

Antagonist

blocks or reduces the effect (of neurotransmitter)

Ossification

bone formation, initiated by osteoblasts

hematopoietic stem cells

bone marrow cells that give rise to all blood cells, have an indefinite replicative capacity bc of their ability to continually reproduce telomerase

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord, body's decision maker (Remember: Brain and spine are in the Center)

Wernicke's area

brain area that controls language comprehension, connected to Broca's area by axons, located in the left hemisphere temporal lobe (hearing), semantic processing

What do the dark areas on an MRI scan of a brain with Alzheimer's indicate? Neurofibrillary tangles Brain atrophy Tau proteins Beta-amyloid plaques

brain atrophy

Osteoblasts

build bone

random error

caused by any factors that randomly affect measurement, equal probability of measured value being

fractional charge

charges of attached atoms/atoms attached to the center atom

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. Hormones are negative feedback. Ex. peptides, steroids, amino acid derivatives

Sodium Laurel Sulfate (SLS) detergent

disrupts non-covalent bonds in secondary or tertiary

cognitive process dream theory

dreams are the sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, Xanax, barbiturates, benzodiazepines/benzos) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. They increase GABA activity.

pyruvate kinase

enzyme in glycolysis, located in cytoplasm, phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate

RNA polymerase

enzyme that links together the growing chain of RNA nucleotides during transcription using a DNA strand as a template

Holoenzyme

enzyme with its cofactor, the opposite of an apoenzyme

The three techniques used for brainwashing identified by McConnell are:

isolation, dependency, reward

Anomers

isomers that differ at a new asymmetric carbon atom formed on ring closure, type of epimer, beta-anomer is more likely to form bc of less electron repulsion

Organ

issues that carry out a specialized function of the body

sensory interaction

one sense (ex. vision) may influence another (ex. balance) Ex. In order to balance on one foot, many people need to have their eyes open.

Hund's Rule

orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin

Mechanoreceptors

respond to touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch

Visual pathway

retina, optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, LGN, optic radiations, occipital lobe in the visual cortex

Azimuthal (orbital) quantum number

s, p, d, and f, correspond to azimuthal quantum numbers of 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively Mnemonic: A like the alphabet has to do with letters.

three amino acids that are phosphorylated in eukaryotes:

serine (S), threonine (T), and tyrosine (Y) Remember: any hydrophilic amino acid with an -OH can be phosphorylated in eukaryotes

Amino acids with hydroxyl (-OH) side chains

serine, threonine, tyrosine (Remember: I live on St. or Terr.)

What is affected when you touch a painfully hot bowl and recoil?

spinal interneurons, peripheral nerve tissue, efferent motor neurons, afferent sensory neurons

Binding Proteins

stabilize each strand, Ex. Hemoglobin

Diastereomers

stereoisomers that are not mirror images, different, can be separated, different chemical and physical properties, different at one or more chiral carbons

Equation for energy of activation

the activated complex (transition state) minus the energy of the reactants

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

C-terminal amino acid

the amino acid at the end of the chain, after anything, carboxyl group

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to situational factors but to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors

Cannon-Bard Theory

theory proposing that an emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to an emotion and to physiological (bodily) reactions Remember: (Cry-Body Theory) (two N's because it happens simultaneously)

Acidity increases when

there are more electron withdrawing groups such as Chlorine (large EN). Strongest acid is also the most stable. If there are two very electronegative atoms, they prefer to be farther from each other.

If a reaction is stereospecific, how many products will there be?

there can only be one possible product/stereoisomer.

RNA Polymerase I

transcribes rRNA in the nucleolus of eukaryotes

London dispersion forces last how long?

transient (lasts a short time, not permanent)

Ways to lower activation energy

transition state stabilization, microenvironment adjustments, adjusting substrate proximity, transient covalent bonding, reactant destabilization (raising reactant energy)

RNA is _____ into protein

translated

Overextension

the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning applying a term for one class of objects to other objects that bear only a superficial resemblance Ex: "doggie" for a cow or "butterfly" for a moth

In a weak-strong titration, the equivalence point is shifted from neutralization towards

the pH of the strong reagent

ought self

the person others wish and expect you to be

Internalization

type of conformity in which an individual changes their outward opinion to match the group and also personally agrees with those ideas.

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

used as a diagnostic tool that describes the symptoms of mental disorders

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. Includes explicit and implicit memory.

secondary appraisal

the second step in assessing a threat, which involves estimating the resources available to the person for coping with the stressor. perceptions regarding our ability to cope with an event that follows primary appraisal

Arginine

(Arg, R) Polar, basic, positive charge, hydrophilic

informative influence

- Look to the group for guidance when you don't know what to do. - Assume the group is always correct. - Conform to others because we believe they have accurate information.

intercalated discs

- Type of gap junction - Passage of ions between cardiac muscle cells - Allow an action potential to spread very rapidly to produce a coordinated contraction.

gram equivalent weight

-amount of a compound that produces 1 equivalent of the particle of interest Gram Equivalent Weight= (molar mass)/n n : # of particles produced or consumed per molecule

function of SDS in SDS-PAGE

-disrupt non-covalent interaction between subunits of proteins -Solubilizes/denatures proteins to make them negative - It allows for separation of proteins by size - Binds to the secondary structure of proteins and gives them an overall negative charge; the bigger the substance the bigger the negative charge.

Carboxylic acid naming

-oic acid (-dioic for two of them)

Alcohol Naming

-ol (hydroxy prefix if more than 2 functional groups)

isoelectric focusing

-proteins separated based on isoelectric point (pI) -electric charge is applied to the sample, usually small quantity - protein migrates and stops when it reaches its isoelectric point(stops b/c charges cancel out)

Andersen's Disease

A glycogen storage disease in which the glycogen branching enzyme is not functioning properly. This will lead to eventual cirrhosis of the liver and diminished hyperglycemic response to epinephrine. Results in decreased glycogen solubility, slower action of glycogen phosphorylation, and less storage of glycogen in the body.

Blastula

A hollow ball of cells that marks the end of the cleavage stage during early embryonic development in animals. A zygote cleaves to become a blastula.

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach. Increases in ghrelin, the "hunger hormone," produce increases in appetite. Mnemonic: Stomach grumbles for ghrelin

Formic acid vs. acetic acid

Acetic acid has one more methyl

Prion

A misfolded protein that acts as a template to misfold other proteins. Ex. of some prion diseases include mad cow disease in cows, fatal familial insomnia, and Creutzfeldt Jakob disease.

Zwitterion

A molecule that contains + and - charges, but is neutral overall. Most often used to describe amino acids

Vector

A quantity that has magnitude and direction, Ex: displacement, torque, force, electric field, momentum, and velocity

combustion

A rapid reaction between oxygen and hydrocarbons (fuel) that results in carbon dioxide with water (fire)

Disproportionation

A redox reaction in which the same element is both oxidised and reduced

life course theory

A research perspective that considers how experiences from earlier in life affect outcomes later in life

coordinate covalent bond

A single atom provides both bonding electrons. Most often found in Lewis acid-base chemistry. Ex. Oxygen is the Lewis base to form a coordinate bond with Calcium ions.

Pluralism

A state in which people of all races and ethnicities are distinct but have equal social standing

experimental study

A study in which the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the manipulation influences other variables. The participants are randomly chosen.

Epimers

A subtype of diastereomers that differ in configuration at only one chiral carbon, slightly different chemical and physical properties

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. - In Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate so less acetylcholine. - The main neurotransmitter used in nervous system. Remember: ACE card flexing its muscles

Endogamy vs. Exogamy

Endogamy = marrying within a group (2 college educated people marrying, 2 latinos marrying) Exogamy = marrying outside the group (interracial couple, different social statuses)

endolymph vs perilymph

Endolymph: fluid in the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear, it takes awhile for your body to realize when you've stopped moving because the fluid in the endolymph is still spinning Perilymph: fluid that fills the bony labyrinth of the inner ear

Protease

Enzyme that breaks down proteins into amino acids Hydrolyze amide bonds, which is the same as hydrolase activity. Ex. pepsin

Eukaryotic chromosomes vs. prokaryotic chromosomes

Eukaryotic chromosomes have multiple origins of replication. Prokaryotic chromosomes only have one origin of replication.

histone acetyltransferase (HAT)

Eukaryotic enzymes that loosen chromatin structure by adding 3-Carbon Acetyl groups lysine residue on histone proteins Histone acetylation: promotes DNA transcription by modifying chromatin structure

Exocrine vs. endocrine

Exocrine: release of enzymes into external environments through ducts Endocrine: release of hormones into the blood.

What does each test check for: Eating causes drowsiness, bright object test, and Galant reflex?

Eating causes drowsiness: parasympathetic (rest and digest), spinal sensory input Bright object test: retinal sensory input, brain, spinal motor output Galant reflex: spinal nerve sensory input, spinal interneuron, spinal nerve motor output

recognition-primed decision model

Experience and recognition of similar situations one has already had influence your decision-making and actions.

Opsonization

Foreign particles are marked for phagocytosis, complement system

What is the functions of the liver?

Produce glucose from lipoproteins, synthesis of glycogen from glucose, modification of ammonia into urea, produce bile, drug detoxification, glucose regulation, and cholesterol metabolism. Drug detoxification happens with the oxidation of the cytochrome p450 system. (drug detox)

Amides

Product of an amine(R-N) bonded to a carbonyl carbon (C=O). This would result in (O-C-N-C). Peptide bonds are made of amides.

Differences between heterochromatin and euchromatin

Heterochromatin is silent, whereas Euchromatin has areas that can be transcribed Heterochromatin is tightly packed/dense, whereas euchromatin is less dense Heterochromatin stains darkly, whereas euchromatin stains lightly

alter-casting

Imposing an identity onto another person. Ex) As a good MCAT student, As a good friend

Primary vs. secondary circular reactions

In primary circular reactions, infants are focused on what soothes their own bodies, while in secondary circular reactions, the focus shifts to objects and environmental events.

What won't be oxidized easily?

Ans. Tertiary alcohols Exp. Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized at all without breaking carbon-carbon bonds

If an archaebacterial species lives in a pool that is 0.01 M HCl(aq), what is the pH of the water?

Ans: 2 Exp. The pH of a solution is defined as -log[H+]. The strong acid HCl completely dissociates in water, so an HCl concentration of 0.01 M means that the H+ concentration is 0.01 M (10-2 M), and the pH is 2.

Disruption of two disulfide bonds in a protein requires

Ans: 2 molecules of NADH NADH can donate electron group, hydrogen disrupts the bond

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Which part of the cell does it interact with? A) Soma B) Myelin Sheath C) Dendrites D) Axon

Ans: Dendrites Exp: Signals are collected by dendrites in the pre-synaptic cleft, then transmitted to the soma and axon.

With respect to their relative pH, how do the cytosol, intermembrane space of the mitochondria, and the mitochondrial matrix compare?

Ans: pH of mitochondrial matrix > pH of cytosol > pH of intermembrane space Explanation: This is because the ETC makes the most ATP. It needs the most H+, so it will be the most acidic (intermembrane space).

What is the name of the phenomenon in which a white blood cell engulfs a pathogen? Which cytoskeletal structures are involved in this process?

Ans: phagocytosis and microfilaments Exp: Phagocytosis is the engulfing movement that a cell will do destroy a pathogen, and microfilaments are responsible for generating the momentum necessary for this process.

Conjunctivitis (pink eye)

Inflammation or infection of the conjunctiva, characterized by redness and often discharge, inflammation of the sclera, or white part of the eye

What happens during inhalation and exhalation?

Inhalation: chest wall/ribcage expands and diaphragm contracts (decreases pressure in the pleural cavity between the thoracic wall and lung) Exhalation: chest wall/ribcage contracts and diaphragm relaxed

Why is atomic oxygen very reactive and not found on the Earth?

Atomic oxygen is a free radical (atom with an unpaired electron, lack of a stable number of outer shell electrons)

Blood cell lineages

It starts off being pluripotent then separates into myeloid or lymphoid. Myeloid lineage: red blood cells, platelets, megakaryocte, neutrophil, basophil, monocyte (version of macrophage), mast cells Lymphoid lineage: NK cell, B cell, T cell

elaborative rehearsal

Long term memory technique, the linking of new information to material that is already known

What atoms have the most similar chemical properties?

Atoms in the same column of the periodic table

Lymphoid progenitor(aka lymphoblasts) gives rise to

B and T lymphocytes and natural killer cells

Sense of smell

Molecules enter the nasal cavity and bind to chemoreceptors. The info is sent to olfactory bulb which then goes to higher regions of the brain.

morbidity vs mortality

Morbidity refers to the burden of illness, or the severity or degree of illness. Morbidity is prevalence. Mortality refers to deaths caused by a given illness.

A _______ is a solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum

Morula

Largest dipole moment

Most EN on one atom

Digestive pathway

Mouth -> oval cavity -> pharynx -> esophagus -> cardial sphincter -> stomach -> pyloric sphincter -> duodenum -> jejunum -> ileum -> cecum -> ascending colon -> spiral colon -> desending colon -> rectum -> anus

What's most similar to borderline personality disorder?

Narcissistic disorder. It also doesn't take into account other people's emotions.

resting membrane potential

Negative inside, positive outside. An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. In most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell.

β-oxidation

Occurs in Mitochondrial Matrix to break down fatty acids via the enzyme *Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase* Removes an Acetyl-CoA from Fatty Aceyl-CoA and produces FADH2 and NADH This free Acetyl-CoA can go on to form ketone bodies Fatty acid side chain gets shorter with every cycle

Fatty Acid Biosynthesis

Occurs in liver and the products are transported to adipose tissue for storage Primer: Acetyl CoA Addition of 2 Carbons: by Malonyl CoA Reducing by: NADPH Major enzymes: acetyl-CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthase (stimulated by insulin) Primary end product: palmitic acid (palmitate) which is a 16 carbon fatty acid

Smell pathway to brain

Olfactory stimulus will bind to a chemoreceptor in the nasal cavity to initiate a sensory signal. Olfactory epithelium -> olfactory bulb -> brain

Side-effect discrimination

One institution can unintentionally influence another institution negatively. Side-effect discrimination occurs when decisions of linked institutions create indirect and unintended structural discrimination.

transcription factors

Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription. Increase gene expression.

Ligase enzyme

Combine two molecules, Use ATP to join DNA fragments in DNA synthesis/repair on Okazaki fragments (not involved in RNA). A ligase catalyzes the formation of a single bond between two substrates through the elimination of water. It often requires ATP. Ex. nucleic acid synthesis.

Gemeinschaft

Community, A type of society in which life is intimate; a community in which everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of togetherness

Density of water

Depends on units : 1 kg/L (or 1 g/mL or 1 g/cm3).

Which of the following is equivalent to electric potential? A.) Ed B.) dV C.) Emv/t D.) qvB

Ed

Best way to move information from short term to long term memory

Elaborative rehearsal and repetition

How do the following (hypothalamus, ventral tegmentum, substantia nigra) relate to dopamine?

Dopamine is released from the ventral tegmentum to the limbic system through the nucleus accumbens. Dopamine is released from the substantia nigra to the striatum. Dopamine is released from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland.

Sight - down regulation or up regulation to light intensity.

Down regulation: light adaptation. When it is bright out, pupils constrict (less light enters back of eye), and the desensitization of rods and cones become desensitized to light) Up regulation: dark regulation. Pupils dilate-, rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules

passenger vs driver mutations

Driver mutation: Mutations that provide a selective growth advantage, and thus promote cancer development, oncogenes, TSGs or repair genes Passenger mutation: mutations that do not directly drive cancer initiation and progression

Ketone

RCOR -one Where R is any hydrocarbon (CH)

During the early days of nutrient deprivation, the brain uses glucose excessively as a source of fuel. This leads to what affect on your muscles?

Rapid breakdown of muscles (in order to keep glucagon secretion levels constant)

Ray of light from the left visual field hits where?

Ray of light from the left visual field hits the NASAL side of the left eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of the right eye

Babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched. 0-2 yrs. A normal response is plantar extension, the toes extend outwards. In adults, the reflex disappears and the toes curl inward (flex) instead.

A double-stranded DNA molecule contains bases with a ratio of (A + T)/(G + C) = 3:1. This molecule is replicated with DNA polymerase in the presence of the four deoxynucleoside triphosphates with a molar ratio of (A + T)/(G + C) = 1:1. What is the expected ratio of (A + T)/(G + C) in the double-stranded daughter DNA molecule?

The double stranded daughter DNA molecule would be an exact duplicate of the parent molecule. It would have the same (A + T)/(G + C) ratio. The correct answer is 3:1.

chromosome segregation

Separation of sister chromatids during mitosis. The spindle apparatus performs chromatid segregation. The kinetochores holding on to each chromatid are pulled by the microtubules that form the spindle fiber towards the centrosome. Microtubules originate from the centrosome.

Which is biological or social: sex or gender?

Sex is biological and gender is social

Norms

Shared rules of conduct that tell people how to act in specific situations. Deviance is a violation of a norm.

Which phases (solid/gas/liquid) of solvent and solute can form a solution?

Solutions can be formed from any combination of phases. The solvent remains in the same phase after mixing to create the homogenous uniform mixture.

Enzyme

Sometimes a protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction by binding to a substrate at the active site to lower the activation energy, only affect kinetics (make it go faster to reach equilibrium, don't change enthalpy), don't affect thermodynamics (ΔH), don't affect where equilibrium lies, regenerated in the reaction, can be reversible/irreversible, not all enzymes are proteins

What can sound travel fastest through?

Sound travels fastest through a solid, and slowest through a gas. It can travel through all of the phases. - This is because there is more pressure through a solid. Sound waves are made by pressure. - Sound cannot travel through a vacuum because there is no air or pressure.

pressurized sound wave

Sound waves of lower frequency (longer wavelength) travel further and penetrate deeper into the cochlea.

Purkinje cells

Specialized neurons in the Cerebellum with lots of dendrites/synapses that regulate motor movements

The specific gravity of a ball in water is 3. What is the specific gravity of the same ball in another fluid that has a density of 6 g/cm^3. Will the ball sink or float in the second fluid? The density of water is 1 g/cm^3. Answer choices: Specific gravity = 2 or 0.5 Float or Sink

Specific gravity = 0.5, Float

specific gravity

Specific gravity is the density of something compared to water. Specific gravity = ρ/ρwater. The specific gravity of water is 1.

alternative splicing

Splicing of introns in a pre-mRNA that occurs in different ways, leading to different mRNAs that code for different proteins or protein isoforms. Increases the diversity of proteins. There are way more proteins than genes.

What is the Keq value for a reaction that is spontaneous, non spontaneous, or at equilibrium?

Spontaneous: Keq >1 because more products are made Nonspontaneous: Keq < 1 Equilibrium: Keq = 1

In which stage of sleep do sleep spindles and K complexes occur?

Stage 2 (theta waves)

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Stages of moral reasoning based on ethical behavior: 1) Pre-conventional: self-interest, rewards, punishment 2) Conventional: conformity, authority, social-order maintaining, please others, obedience, law and order 3) Post-conventional: personal values and principles we developed

Moro reflex

Startle reflex. 0-6 months. In response to a startling sound or abrupt change in the infant's position, the infant will rapidly reach its arms outward with outspread hands and then draw its arms closer together.

Translational Equilibrium

State where the sum of the forces acting on an object is zero, giving it no net acceleration. Ex. terminal velocity, after coming to a complete stop

Le Chatelier's Principle

States that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.

Cyanogen bromide cleaves peptide bonds by first undergoing nucleophilic attack by the side chain of a methionine residue. Which atom is the nucleophile in this reaction?

Sulfur

How is the primary structure of a protein formed?

The amino-terminus of one amino acid attacks the carboxy-terminus of another. Made of peptide bonds.

In humans, the lining of which structure is NOT primarily derived from the endoderm? A. Mouth B. Bronchi C. Bladder D. Stomach

The answer to this question is A because most of the lining of the mouth is derived from an invagination of ectoderm. Most of the epithelial tissues inside the body (B, C, D) are derived from endoderm.

What atom gets priority when finding the configuration?

The atom with the largest atomic number

Gustation

The sense of taste. One taste bud or cell has all five basic tastes. Taste buds are foliate, fungiform, or circumvallate. There are 5 basic tastes: - sweet, umami (taste of meat), bitter "SUB": G- protein coupled receptor - salty, sour: ion channels

What transition in electron energy levels will produce the longest wavelength?

The shortest transition in electron energy levels will produce the longest wavelength. This is because energy and wavelength are inversely related. Based on the equations, E = hf and C = λf the longest wavelength will have the shorted energy. The separation between electron energy levels equals the energy of a photon.

What are the solubility properties of fatty acid salts?

They can partially dissolve in both polar and nonpolar medium. Exp. A fatty acid salt contains a long hydrocarbon chain, which is soluble in nonpolar solvents. The salt also contains the charged group -CO2-Na+, which is soluble in polar solvents.

Apoenzyme

enzyme without the necessary cofactor, catalytically inactive (opposite of holoenzyme)

an acyl halide reacts with a primary alcohol to produce what functional group?

ester

Glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory

The 5' cap protects mRNA from _____________

exonucleases

semantic memory

explicit long term, memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

What can be used to generate Acetyl CoA?

fatty acids, amino acids, ethanol

Purkinje fibers

fibers in the ventricles that transmit impulses to the right and left ventricles, causing contraction

Bradford (Coomassie brilliant blue) protein assay

finds protein concentration

Osteon (Haversian system)

functional unit of compact bone

nephron

functional unit of the kidney

Cornea

gathers and filters/focuses light transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue, bends light, first part of eye light hits.

g factor

general intelligence, the notion of a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person's overall performance on tests of mental ability, if you're smart at one thing then you'll be smart at all tests

Oncogenes

genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction, protooncogenes turn into oncogene which cause cancer unless stopped by anti-oncogenes

Alpha cells produce _____ a hormone that causes the cells to release _____

glucagon, glucose

Which monosaccharide can be used in the glycolytic pathway?

glucose, galactose, fructose

How do stronger intermolecular forces affect surface tension?

greater surface tension

Chalcogens

group 16, oxygen is colorless odorless gas, the rest are solids, sulfur exists in several allotropic forms, 6 electrons in outer energy level

gestation

growth process from conception to birth,pregnancy

If the membrane has a negative potential, then the outside of the cell

has a greater positive charge

Alzheimer's disease

has brain atrophy, low acetylcholine, senile plaques of Beta-Amyloid

What RNA molecules or proteins are in the spliceosome during intron excision? (RNAP II is responsible)

hnRNA (heterogenous nuclear RNA): primary transcript made in nucleus of eukaryotes before splicing, precursor to mRNA, activator of ribosomal gene transcription by base-pair interaction with the non-transcribed region snRNA (small nuclear RNA): in the nucleus of eukaryotes, functions to remove introns from mRNA, RNA splicing machinery snRNPs (small nuclear ribonucleoproteins): Recognize introns and snip them out to form a spliceosome

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that increases the synthesis and release of thyroid hormone, tropic (indirect hormone) bc it stimulates another hormone/doesn't secrete anything

Prolactin (PRL)

hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates milk production in the mammary glands

Which cellular structures are likely to be the underlying cause of the sperm's lack of motility?

microtubules

two-point threshold

minimum distance necessary between two points on the skin to feel like two separate stimuli

Absolute threshold of sensation

minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. Can be influenced by a # of factors. Not a fixed unchanging number. Subliminal stimuli - stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation.

Where is cytochrome c located?

mitochondria for Krebs cycle

competitive inhibition

non-reactant molecule competes with the substrate for the active site, so the substrate can't bind. Increases Km (Km is substrate concentration, substrate is what binds to active site) and Vmax stays the same. Can be overcome by adding more substrate.

electrolytic cell (electrochemical)

non-spontaneous redox reaction that happens by putting an external electrical energy into it (like recharging a battery) - anode (+) - cathode (-) Remember: Electro is eww bc it's the opposite of the REDCAT mnemonic

Psychoticism

nonconformity, social deviance, rebel

Nucleophile

nucleus loving, electron dense, donate a pair of electrons to form a new bond Good Nucleophiles Have: Negative charge Anions (-) Lone pairs Pi bond (double or triple bond) Good bases Least EN and steric hinderance

Oxidation number

number of electrons needed based on periodic table column

Bobo doll experiment

nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively

cohort study

observational study that follows and assesses a group of people over time

Mesopic vision

occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones Mnemonic: mesopic is the middle ground

primary socialization

occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity

Choice shift

occurs during group polarization; describes the behavior change to extremes of the group when the individual's wouldn't do something so extreme on their own

Object Permanence (Piaget)

occurs in the sensorimotor stage (an object the child can't see still exists)

standing wave in open or closed tubes

open tube: λ = 2L/n where Length stays the same and n = 1,2,3,... closed tube: λ = 4L/n where Length stays the same and n = 1,2,3,...

marginal poverty

poverty that occurs when a person lacks stable employment

Prejudice vs. Discrimination

prejudice is a negative attitude, discrimination is a negative behavior

One characteristic common to arteries, veins, and capillaries is the:

presence of a layer of endothelial cells

dichotic listening task

presenting two different auditory messages, one to each ear.

Rate of flow is directly proportional to

pressure

Pressure equation

pressure = force/area = (density)(g)(h)

Antisense RNA

prevents mature mRNA in the cytoplasm from being translated, it does this by binding to the produced mRNA to create a double stranded RNA that can't be translated and will be degraded

proactive vs reactive social movements

proactive: promote social change (Ex. civil rights movement, women's rights) reactive: resist social change (white supremacist movement, antiglobalization movement)

Saccades

rapid movements of the eyes from one place to another as it takes in visual stimuli

What does B-mercaptoethanol do?

reduce disulfide bonds

parathyroid hormone

increases blood calcium levels, causes osteoclasts to break down bone to increase calcium. Hydrolyzed in the liver then goes to major target cells in bone and kidney.

lacoperon

inducible system, naturally off, gene system with a promoter, an operator gene, and three structural genes that control lactose metabolism

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. This allows for the quick recognition of an object without analysis of the details of that object.

uncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds only to enzyme-substrate complex (Remember: un is one substrate) locks substrate in enzyme preventing its release (increasing affinity b/w enzyme and substrate so it lowers Km) Lower Km and vmax

Myostatin

inhibits muscle growth

Many cell organelles, most notably the nucleus, are anchored by ___________ which are assembled from a diverse class of proteins.

intermediate filaments

Autotroph

an organism that is able to form nutritional organic (organic when carbon is bound to hydrogen) substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide. The organism makes its own food.

Gestalt Principles

an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts, people tend to see continuity, optical illusions Similarity, Pragnanz, Proximity, Continuity, Closure

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Ekman's Universal Emotions

anger, fear, disgust, sadness, enjoyment, surprise, contempt

parietal lobe

at top of head, receives sensory input for touch and body position, governs spatial processing, proprioception, and somatosensation. (Remember: A Piranha bites you on the top of the head (where the parietal lobe is located). That's a sensation the parietal lobe would process.)

Signs of lower motor neuron dysfunction include:

atrophy(waste away, shrivel), hypotonia (less muscle tone), hyporeflexia (muscles are less responsive to stimuli), and skeletal muscle twitches.

quaternary structure

made of interactions of nucleic acids with other molecules Two or more polypeptide subunits. Heat and solutes can cause denaturation. Ex. Hemoglobin, chromatin interacting with histones

neonatal reflexes

babinski, grasping, rooting, sucking, Moro, stepping, tonic neck

What cells are big enough to be seen by a light microscope?

bacteria and eukaryotic cells

vestibular sense

balance comes from your inner ear (semicircular canals filled with endolymph that allows us to detect the direction we are moving, may think we are still moving because liquid in ears are still moving, contributes to dizziness and vertigo) "mnemonic: Bul Bal"

Relationship between colors, wavelengths, freq/energy, rays

small n, long wavelength, low freq, low energy: ROYGBV: large n, short wavelength (300nm), high freq, high energy Rays: Radio, Microwave, Infrared, UV, X-Ray, Gamma) Remember: (Really Mad In Ur X-rated Game)

image on eye (retina)

smaller (reduced), inverted and real

Stable resonance structures have:

smallest charges on each individual atom

dideoxyribonucleotides

terminate the DNA chain because they lack a 3 -OH group

histone acetylation

the attachment of acetyl groups (RC=O) to certain amino acids of histone proteins, the heterochromatin becomes less compact into euchromatin, and the DNA is accessible for transcription, increases gene expression, the opposite is histone deacetylation

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle, awake with cortisol in the morning and asleep with melatonin at night

as the angle of the incline increase,

the frictional force decreases and the normal force approaches zero

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it Ex. Enhanced memory when testing is in the same place /conditions as learning.

Superego

the idealist and perfectionist moral compass.Mnemonic.supermanistheidealperfect

Ideocentrism

the individual is more important than the group

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Intersectionality

the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, age, class, and gender that overlap and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage. Multiple identities that a person has.

higher osmolarity of urine suggests that

the kidneys are acting to conserve water. An increase in water conservation would result in higher urine osmolarity and lower blood osmolarity.

When light enters a medium with a higher index of refraction, n

the light bends towards the normal/original

motion parallax (relative motion)

the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away Ex. road looks like its moving really fast, but the Mountain View does not

experience-dependent plasticity

the process through which neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of an individual's experiences, experiences cause the brain to develop differently

Efficiency

the ratio of output work to input work

Somatosensation

the sense of touch, anything on the skin (vibration, temperature, pressure, pain)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. voluntary movement of skeletal muscles, blood vessels, internal organs, glands.

Morphology

the structure of words and word formation (Ex. redesigned has "re" to do again, "design" verb root, "-ed" action in past)

social epidemiology

the study of how health and disease are distributed throughout a society's population Structural factors, such as poverty or race/ethnicity Social determinants of health and disease.

Epigenetics

the study of influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Chromatin

the superstructure of DNA and histones. DNA wraps around the histone core to form a nucleosome which stacks on to more nucleosomes to create chromatin.

role conflict

the tension caused by competing demands between two or more roles pertaining to different statuses

The half-life of a radioactive material is:

the time it takes for half of all the radioactive nuclei to decay into their daughter nuclei

Radiation

the transfer of energy as electromagnetic waves, thermal emission

Spatial inequality

the unequal distribution of wealth or resources in a geographic area, so that some places are richer than others - Social stratification: society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power (social and political).

Velocity of a ball before impact on the ground is affected by: A) Velocity of the ball when released B) Height from which the ball was released C) Mass of the Earth D) Mass of the ball

the velocity of the ball when it is released, the height from which the ball was released, and the mass of the Earth. (mass of the ball doesn't affect it)

If the pH of the environment is higher than the pI,

then the environment is basic

If the object distance is greater than focal distance,

then the object will be real and appear behind the lens of the eye.

If a solid catalyst is finely ground,

then the rate of reaction will increase because there is more surface area exposed.

If the OH is a product

then the reactant was a base and there should be a positive other atom if its neutral on both sides

zona pellucida

thick protective layer of glycoproteins that are at extracellular matrix of the egg

engender

to produce, cause, or bring about

lytic cycle vs. lysogenic cycle

two reproductive mechanisms of phages Lytic cycle: - Replicates at full speed - Make many new viruses inside the bacteria - Finally, the bacteria bursts and the new viruses spill into the environment Lysogenic cycle: - Viral genetic material becomes part of the bacteria's genome and lays silent. - Then, the lytic cycle is induced when certain environmental triggers are observed. - In the lysogenic cycle, the bacteria with viral genetic material is known as a prophage or a provirus.

chylomicrons and VLDLs

types of lipoproteins, both contain apolipoproteins and primarily transport triacylglycerol, Chylomicrons are synthesized in the intestine, VLDLs are synthesized in the liver.

Ingratiation

use of flattery or conformity to win over someone

Gabriel synthesis reaction

used to synthesize amino acids, transforms primary alkyl halides (c-F,Br,I) into primary amines (C-N)

Gibbs free energy equation

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS Also can be: ΔG = ΔH - RTlnQ (R is gas constant 8.314) S is entropy/disorder Spontaneous: ΔG negative (-), exergonic Nonspontaneous: ΔG positive (+), endergonic Endothermic: +ΔH Exothermic: -ΔH All spontaneous change occurs with an increase in entropy (disorder) of the universe. Remember: Gibbs is a negative GHoST

What is the ΔS of a solution that converts both a solid and a liquid into an aqueous compound?

ΔS > 0 Entropy increases because aqueous solutions have a higher entropy than solids or liquids. The particles in a solution are more separated and disordered. Entropy increases in the following general order: solids, liquids, aqueous solutions, and gasses.

Kinematic Equations

ΔX = ((Vf +Vo)/2 ) t ΔX = Vot + 1/2at^2 Vf = Vo + at V^2 = Vo^2 + 2a(ΔX )

Peroxisomes

- Fatty acid breakdown, destroy lipids and cell waste - Oxidase enzymes detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful reactive oxygen species

galvanic (voltaic) cell

A spontaneous redox reaction generates an electric current - anode oxidation is *negative* - cathode reduction is *positive* - cell potential is *positive*

adipose tissue

- Fat storing tissue - Source of energy because it makes fatty acids, glucose and ketone bodies. - Fatty acids are used to synthesize ketone bodies, and glycerol backbones are used in gluconeogenesis.

Maladaptiveness

- Whether the behavior negatively impacts the person's life or poses a threat to others - Harmful dysfunction that interferes with the person's life

Aldehyde

-CHO -al

gel electrophoresis

-Finds the length of DNA fragments - DNA (negative) fragments at negative end of a porous agarose polysaccharide gel in a buffer and applying an electrical voltage to the gel. It will move to the positive end. - Smallest strands move the farthest

Density of water

1 g/mL (or 1 g/cm³)

if the pH is 5, what is the hydrogen ion concentration?

1 x 10^-5

gastrointestinal tract

1) Mouth: chew, hydrolysis, make bolus, swallow 2) Esophagus: propel bolus 3) Stomach: churning (food breakdown), storage, hydrolysis, make chyme (more fluid) 4) Small Intestine: hydrolysis, nutrient absorption 5) Large Intestine(colon): absorbs water/ions 6) Rectum: storage 7) Anus: expulsion

number of carbons

1-meth 2-eth 3-prop 4-but 5-pent 6-hex 7-hept 8-oct 9-non 10-dec

boiling point of water

100 degrees Celsius

1 L

1000 mL

Stomach pH

2.0

Short term memory lasts how long?

20 seconds

Science section

95 min total, 95-80 for discrete/no passage questions, 72 P1, 64 P2, 56 P3, 48 P4,...

locus of control

A belief about the amount of control a person has over situations in their life.

spliceosome

A large complex made up of proteins and RNA molecules that splices RNA by interacting with the ends of an RNA intron, releasing the intron and joining the two adjacent exons.

pyranose

A six-membered ring sugar. It's very stable and common in nature. It's a form of cyclic carbohydrate.

drive-reduction theory

A theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis (Ex. a person wants to reduce something that is uncomfortable/unpleasant). Motivation comes from the need to fulfill basic needs such as food and shelter.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) acts to decrease urine output by increasing the water permeability of the walls of:

ADH acts on the distal tubule and collecting duct to increase water permeability by the insertion of aquaporins in the plasma membrane. This increases water reabsorption, which reduces urine output.

D or L configuration of amino acid

All chiral amino acids in eukaryotes are L-configuration. All of them also have S, except Cysteine is R configuration.

Selectins, integrins, and glycoproteins are ______

All involved in neutrophil extravasion process, white blood cell adhesion, and activation

In human females, mitotic divisions of oogonia that lead to formation of presumptive egg cells (primary oocytes) occur when?

All of the mitotic divisions that form primary oocytes occur prior to birth. Thus, they happen between fertilization and birth.

What has the largest recombination frequency?

Alleles that are far apart have the largest recombination frequency. Thus, the largest chromosome will have alleles farther apart.

Amine

Amine is NH2. This is derived from Ammonia(NH3)

The organic layer is also called the what?

Ans: Non-Polar layer

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) refers to a large group of genes that code for proteins that play an essential role in which of the following? A) Phagocytosis by macrophages B) Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes C) Phagocytosis by neutrophils D) Antigen presentation to B lymphocytes

B) Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes

Fehling's test can be used to screen for reducing sugars in the urine. During the oxidation of glucose, a carboxyl group is formed. Which of the following correctly identifies the carbon that becomes this carbonyl group? A) C-1 of Beta-D-glucose B) C-1 of linear D-glucose C) C-3 of beta-D-glucose D) C-3 of linear D-glucose

B) C-1 of linear D-glucose Exp. Carbon most susceptible to oxidation is the terminal carbon in a linear chain Ex. C-1. If carbon is in a ring, it will not be susceptible to oxidation.

Actin filaments within cells can be identified experimentally by the use of a labelled molecule that binds specifically to actin and not to other cell substances. Which of the following would be best to be used as the label molecule? A) ATP B) Myosin C) Albumin D) Myoglobin

B) Myosin

basic model vs social construction model of emotion

Basic model of emotion: emotions serve as an evolutionary purpose, thus they are similar across cultures. Social construction model of emotion: emotions are always a product of the current social situation, there is no biological or evolutionary basis for emotion

At the end of his initial hospital stay, a few E. coli cells remained in the patient's colon, even though he was taking antibiotics. These cells were most likely present because:

Because of chance mutations that occurred in a few E.Coli before the treatment made these cells and their descendants antiobiotic-resistant.

Behaviorist Theory

Behavior is based on reinforcement and punishment. Classical conditioning.

How old is a child that can speak in three word sentences, but has not mastered the language?

Between two and three years old

noncompetitive inhibition

Both the substrate and inhibitor can bind. Substrate binds at active site and inhibitor binds at allosteric site. Doesn't change Km and decreases Vm. Remember: Non is not competing since both can bind.

carboxyl group

COOH

What is renin secretion stimulated by?

Detection of low blood pressure by baroreceptor cells, detection of low glomerular filtrate electrolyte levels by macula dense cells, and innervation by sympathetic nerve cells

Dispersion vs. diffraction

Dispersion is light travelling through a prism. Diffraction is light going through a slit.

Neurotic Defense Mechanisms

Displacement, intellectualization, rationalization, regression, repression, reaction formation

Noble gases

Elements in group 8A of the periodic table. Have no charge and are gases under normal conditions. Can liquefy because of London dispersion forces (the only IM forces they experience)

The normal path of sperm movement from the male testis to the point of fertilization in the female is:

Epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tube (place of fertilization)

Larger molecule should be in what position?

Equatorial position (angled) is more stable

glycolytic pathway

Glucose is broken down to produce energy anaerobically. Produces ATP, ADP, and NADH.

If there is an active drug in the brain, what is likely to happen?

Glucose metabolism increases

Haloperidol (Haldol)

Haloperidol is an antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia.

compact bone

Hard and dense, but not solid, bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone which makes up the skeleton. Aka Cortical bone.

Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

How behavior, environment, and cognitive skills effect personality. - Attention, memory, imitation, motivation "AM I Motivated"

Human Embryonic Development

Human embryos must implant in the reproductive tract to be viable, some human embryonic cells become germ line cells

Aliphatic

Hydrocarbon joined together in straight chains, branched chains or non-aromatic rings

Reactions with either Ser or Thr would involve what functional group?

Hydroxyl group in the side chain of these amino acids

Hypoglycemia vs Hyperglycemia

Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar): takes too much insulin or decreased blood glucose levels. Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar): high blood glucose levels

Inbreeding can reduce the fitness of a population in the short term because it causes an increase in the:

Incidence of expression of rare deleterious recessive traits

Drug addiction - mesolimbic reward pathway

It's a dopaminergic pathway in the parts of the brain: nucleus accumbens (NAcc), ventral tegmental area (VTA) connected by medial forebrain bundle. Drugs hijack the brain's reward pathway that evolved to drive beneficial behavior (ex. eating high calorie foods)

Equation for Kcat

Kcat = Vmax/[E]total E is concentration of enzyme, Vmax is the rate Example: (125 nM/s)/5.0 μM = 2.5 × 10-2 s-1.

Evaporation

Liquid to gas

What happens to the melting point upon solute addition?

Melting point depresses because solute particles interfere with the lattice structure.

Myeloid progenitors become

Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, mast cells, monocytes, and platelets

The glycolytic enzyme aldolase has a Km= 2 and Vmax= 4. However, when exposed to the inhibitor phenylglyoxal, aldolase exhibits Km= 2 and Vmax= 1. What type of inhibition does phenylglyoxal exhibit towards aldolase?

Non-competitive inhibition

Introns

Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences. Stay in the nucleus

Alanine, Ala, A

Nonpolar, aliphatic R Groups, (S) absolute configuration, chiral, non aromatic side chains, glycogenic NOT ketogenic

Methionine, Met, M

Nonpolar, hydrophobic, aliphatic R Groups

inelastic collision

Objects stick together, momentum is conserved, but some kinetic energy is lost, happens between real gasses and fusion reactions

Where do oxidation and reductions occur?

Oxidation always occurs at the anode. Reduction occurs at the cathode.

Ideal Gas Law

PV=nRT where R= 8.314 J.K-1.mol-1 or 0.082 L.atm.K-1.mol-1

Which nervous system uses which neurotransmitters?

Parasympathetic: only acetylcholine Sympathetic: both acetylcholine and norepinephrine Somatic: only acetylcholine

What diseases are characterized by abnormal levels of dopamine activity?

Parkinson's has low dopamine levels Schizophrenia has high dopamine levels

DNA binding domain

Part of the 3D structure of a transcription factor that binds to nucleotide sequences in DNA.

utricle and saccule

Part of the ear, detects linear acceleration and head tilts (Ex. If you are pulled backwards from oncoming traffic, then the utricle structure would alert you of this.)

Spleen

Part of the lymphatic/immune system Makes lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. It clears infectious agents from the bloodstream. It helps activate B cells to produce antibodies, blood storage and recycling

Serine, Ser, S

Polar, uncharged R groups, hydrophilic

Power and power consumed equations

Power= W/t = ΔE /t = IV = I2R =V2/R = Fv (force times velocity) Power consumed is P=PE /time = mgh/t

denatured enzyme

Protein that has changed shape and cannot function, lost tertiary and quaternary structures

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells that transport oxygen. They lack organelles.

Secularization

Reduced power of religion, as religious involvement declines.

Satellite glial cells (SGCs)

Similar role to astrocytes. Supply nutrients to the neurons. Act as protective barrier that cushion cells.

Muscle cells have increased amounts of which organelles?

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum(efficient contractions) and mitochondria (energy). Muscles contain sarcoplasmic reticulum, a modified endoplasmic reticulum that helps store calcium.

What phase are ionic compounds at room temperature?

Solid

Immobile structure in the ear

Tectorial membrane (only structure that doesn't vibrate in the ear, located in the inner ear)

Solubility of particles in a solution

affects whether the particles can be dissolved/formed when the pH changes

What is HCl in the stomach more likely to react with?

The least electronegative element/least reduction potential

In order to regulate blood glucose levels, glycogen is made, stored, and broken down in what organ?

The liver

What type of base is more stable (weak or strong)?

Weak base is more stable. Anything which stabilizes the conjugate base will increase the acidity.

hypnic jerk

a body spasm/sensation of dropping that may occur during NREM stage 1 sleep

social stratification

a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy Remember: "Stratification: Straight line of ranking"

The most common form of chronic arthritis is __________. a. osteoarthritis b. rheumatoid arthritis c. gouty arthritis d. subluxation

a. osteoarthritis

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage, 7 +/- 2 pieces of information, Ex. phone numbers were made to be 7 digits because of this

What's the order of reactivity for carboxylic acid derivatives?

acyl halides > acid anhydrides > esters > amides

psychoanalytic perspective

behavior results from unconscious urges and desires

normative social influence

behavior that is motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance and approval

cognitive

beliefs

Largest atomic radius

bottom left, largest electric potential energy

Lyase enzymes

break one molecule into two smaller molecules without water, usually forms rings or multiple bonds, need 1 substrate to cleave a molecule but 2 for the reverse, adds/removes atoms with a double bond, may be called synthase1.

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

community, society

tRNA

carries amino acids to matching codons in the ribosomes, picks up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mRNA

Sertoli cells

cells in the seminiferous tubules that produce sperm

sphincter

circular ring of muscle that constricts a passage or closes a natural opening, makes sure food only goes one way, skeletal muscles (voluntary movement)

Sleep stages and EEG waves associated

complete cycle of stages lasts ~ 90 minutes Awake and alert: beta waves Awake and resting/drowsy: alpha waves (ahh im relaxed) Stage 1: theta waves, light sleep Stage 2: theta waves, sleep spindles, and k complexes, memory consolidation Stage 3 and 4: delta waves - slow wave deep sleep, beginning of the night REM: predominates later in the night, alert beta waves Dreams occur in all stages (Remember: BATs sleep in the Day)

Starches

complex carbohydrates, plant polysaccharides composed of many glucose molecules, used for storage of glucose in plants Ex. amylose (its alpha bond can be digested using the digestive enzyme amylase), amylopectin (its branched structure makes the alpha bonds even easier to digest)

frontal lobe

complex thinking (reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving) occurs. Remember: frontal lobe is similar to forebrain

Spongy bone is made up of small, flat pieces of bone called _________. a. perforating canals b. canaliculi c. osteons d. trabeculae

d. trabeculae

astigmatism

defective curvature of the cornea or lens of the eye, prevents proper focus, cornea misshaped like a football

physiological disorder

defined by biology. ex, Cancer

zymogens (proenzymes)

digestive enzymes secreted as inactive proteins, converted to active enzymes by removing some of their amino acids/covalent modification proenzyme in inactive precursor form (made active by hydrolysis or cleavage) Ex. enzymes that the pancreas releases like Trypsinogen

Cellular Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)

enable cells to bind, Ex. Cadherins, Integrins, Selectins

Hypertrophy occurs when

enlargement of an organ/tissue due to increased cell size, muscle synthesis > muscle breakdown, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy occurs when heart muscle thickens causing shortness of breath/fatigue

exonuclease

enzyme that cleaves off nucleotides from the end of the RNA

near-sighted

in front of the retina, needs diverging lens- cant see objects far away

unprejudiced discriminator

is not personally prejudiced but may sometimes, reluctantly, discriminate against other groups because it seems socially or financially convenient to do so Does not hold racist beliefs, and is tolerant of individuals' differences. They are not aware that the consequences of his or her actions causes discrimination. Discrimination is a negative behavior, prejudice is a negative belief.

state-dependent learning

learning that becomes associated with the conditions under which it occurred, so that it is best remembered under the same conditions, tied to the emotional state we were in when we learned the information

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Smaller aromatic rings

less stable bc of torsional and angle strain

opsins

light-sensitive proteins, photosensitive pigments in the photoreceptors: e.g., rhodopsin and photopsin

Oligodendrocytes

make myelin (for speed conduction) in the central nervous system (Remember: O before S Oligodendrocytes before Schwann Cells, Central and Peripheral)

aligning actions

making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses

During muscle contractions, myosin motor proteins move across tracks of.....

microfilaments

The extension of pseudopodia in amoeba is due to the regulated assembly and destruction of ___________

microfilaments

What are the two prefixes you'll likely see regarding muscle?

myo- muscle sarco - flesh

Most ribose will adopt _ conformation to alleviate ring strain

non-planar

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Henderson-Hasselbalch pH equation

pH = pKa + log [Base]/[Acid] In most problems the log (b/a) is equal to -1.

Nucleotides are composed of

pentose sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphate group

Baby Boomers

people born between 1946 and 1964

affinal kin

people related through choice, For ex. marriage Remember: In a marriage, you think your partner is fineeee;)

downward drift hypothesis

people with schizophrenia decline in socioeconomic status which worsens symptoms

signal detection theory (SDT)

process of assessing an individuals awareness of a stimuli Ex. man turns around when he hears his wife laughing in a crowded room

beta cells

produce insulin

Albumin

protein in blood; maintains the proper amount of water in the blood

Beta + decay

proton becomes neutron, (emits positron) Remember: starts with proton becomes negative

Ethnography

research method of observation observing human interactions in a social setting

Buffer

resists change in pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added buffering capacity that is ± 1 pH unit away from the pKa

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration (fires when pressure is first administered and when it is removed)

white blood cells (leukocytes)

respond to injury, infection, or inflammation - Phagocytes, macrophages, mast cells, Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Natural Killer cells, and Dendritic cells

Photoreceptors

respond to light

Osmoreceptors

respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)

looking-glass self

self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us, our perceptions of how we are perceived by others

Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC)

separates large quantities by molar mass

Pseudo-kinship

social ties that are not true kinship ties, such as by blood or marriage

Sublimation

solid to gas

Sound will travel fastest in

solid, dense environment

Shapes and bond angles most associated with sp, sp2, and sp3

sp = Linear. sp2 = Trigonal Planar. sp3 = Tetrahedral. sp3d = Trigonal Bipyramidal. sp3d2 = Octahedral In sp the angle is 180°. In sp2 the angle is 120°. In sp3 the angle is 109.5° In sp3d the angles are 120° and 90°. In sp3d2 the angle is 90°.

enhancers and silencers

speed up or slow down the rate of transcription

Enhancers

speed up the rate of transcription, enhancers are cis regulators bc they're on the same strand of DNA as the template that is being transcribed, enhancers function by enhancing the activity of RNAP at a single promoter site

Spirilli

spiral shaped bacteria (swirled)

positive feedback

stimulus added

Cortisol

stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex, results in wakefulness by increasing glucose levels, for chronic stress - Increases appetite by increasing ghrelin and orexigenic peptides - Decreases sensitivity to leptin (satiety)

Is HBr an acid or a base? Is HBr a covalent or ionic compound?

strong acid and covalent (H and Br are both nonmetals)

Torque equation

t= rFsinѲ r=length of the lever arm F=magnitude of the force Ѳ= angel between the lever arm and force vectors

good leaving groups

take electrons when bond is broken, stable after leaving, Weak Bases!!! (nucleophile must be a stronger base than the leaving group) Ex. halogens especially those farther down (Cl-, Br-, I-), water, inorganic ester (phosphate), ether, tosylate Mnemonic: You're too weak, so you need to leave.

Normality

take the number of mol/L and multiply by the number of H+/-OH equivalents of a substance

Hyperventilation

the condition of taking abnormally fast deep breaths, causes a decrease in blood carbon dioxide so breathing in a bag will help

DNA is _______ into RNA

transcribed

RNA polymerase II

transcribes mRNA, snRNA, hnRNA

Internalization of viral particles through endocytosis is mediated by

Endosomes

UTP

UTP is uridine triphosphate. This uses uracil so it is a ribose and a pyrimidine.

group selection

- genetic traits that benefit the population/group as a whole will still be selected for even if they don't directly increase fitness - survival after reproduction - Ex. Altruism, martyrdom

kinesthetic sense (proprioception)

-ability to tell where one's body is in space -found in receptors in muscles & joints that are sensitive to stretching (Ex. contracting) -play a role in coordination, balance & mobility - balance/position is for proprioception, more subconscious - movement is kinesthesia

Thyroid

-controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary -located near the base of your neck -sets the basal metabolic rate (T3/T4) and maintains calcium homeostasis (calcitonin)

hepatic lobules

-functional unit of liver -hexagon shaped 6 portal triad surround the hepatocytes with the central vein in the middle -the middle center is where blood first enters the liver lobule, it is carrying the "dirtiest" blood, and thus is the most susceptible to infection. It is also the most oxygenated

tonic neck reflex

0-7 months. When the infant is placed lying down with the head turned to one side, the arms move in response. The arm on the same side the head is turned to will extend while the opposite arm flexes. Due to the resemblance of this posture to a fencing stance, this reflex is also known as the fencing reflex.

Using Archimedes' principle, would volume or mass of an object affect buoyancy?

1) The more volume an object occupies, the more water it can displace. 2) The mass of an object has no relevance to the amount of water displaced as long the object is fully immersed.

Pancreatic juice (enzymes)

1) Amylase: breaks down carbohydrates (starch and glycogen) with alpha-linkages 2) Lipase: breaks down fats into fatty acids 3) Peptidase: - Trypsinogen activated in the small intestine by enterokinase into trypsin. - Trypsin cleaves peptide bonds. - Chymotrysinogen is activated by trypsin in the small intestine. It breaks down peptides into amino acids. - Carboxypeptidase hydrolyzes proteins at their carboxyl end.

Mouth (oral or buccal cavity)

1) Chew 1a) Masticate/teeth 1b) Lingula/tongue: extrinsic (elevate/depress/protrude/retract) and intrinsic (shorten/widen/lengthen/narrow) 2) Hydrolysis/enzyme 2a) Glands in saliva: parotid, submandibular, sublingual, von ebner's (secretes lingual lipase for fat digestion) 2b) alpha-amylase will be from all but the von ebner is lingual lipase

Pathway of the small intestine and pancreas

1) Chyme (acidic) moves into Lumen of Small Intestine 2) Small Intestine glands in the villi release secretin and CCK 3) Secretin stimulates release of pancreatic juice (amylase, lipase, peptidases) 4) CCK stimulates the liver to release bile (fat emulsification) 5) Proteolytic enzymes at brush border produce disaccharides (maltose, sucrose, lactose) and dipeptidares

parts of the small intestine

1. Duodenum: most digestion 2. Jejunum: most nutrient absorption 3. Ileum: important vitamins absorbed (B12,A,D,E,K) Secretin triggers the release of pancreatic bicarbonate solution, which would protect the small intestine from the acidity of the stomach contents.

Developmental events

1. Fertilization (right at the end of this the ovum completes Meiosis II) 2. Cleavage 3. Blastulation 4. Gastrulation 5. Organogenesis (Neurulation is the beginning of this step) Remember: Fleas Or Cockroaches BeGONe

three structural types of joints

1. Fibrous 2. Cartilaginous 3. Synovial

If the membrane thickness of a parallel plate capacitor doubles, then what will be the new capacitance?

1/2 d This is becuase the distance and capacitance are inversely related. The equation for this is C = ɛ0 · (A/d).

specific heat of water

1cal/gK or 4186 j/kg C or 4 g/J C

electron configuration

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p

divergent evolution

2 species, once came from 1 common origin, who are now diverging b/c of less shared traits due to exposure to different environments. Ex elephants live in hot africa + mammoths lived in cold arctic

Blood pH

7.4

glomerulus

A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney. Semipermeable membrane that filters small molecules while blocking the filtration of plasma proteins.

Does a catalyst affect the reaction rate, equilibrium, or both?

A catalyst affects the reaction rate, but doesn't affect the equilibrium of a reaction.

cognitive bias

A feature of human psychology that skews belief formation.

Keratin

A fiber protein that is the principal component of hair, skin, and nails. Intermediate filaments in epithelial cells. Define cell shape, anchor nucleus, and cell adhesion.

furanose

A five-membered ring sugar.

Oxaloacetate

A four-carbon molecule that binds with the two-carbon acetyl unit of acetyl-CoA to form citric acid in the first step of the Krebs cycle.

What gas will leak slower/faster?

A gas with a high molar mass will leak slower than a gas with a low molar mass.

repressible system

A gene making system that is normally "turned on" but can be inactivated by the addition of a repressor or corepressor. The repressors block RNA polymerase. It is a negative control mechanism.

Collagen

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers for structural support, in connective tissue and bone; the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom. Made of 3-strand helix

Node

A point of zero amplitude/no motion on a standing wave

Limen

A limen is a threshold below which a stimulus is not perceived or is not distinguished from another.

ion channels

A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient. Ex. voltage gated, ligand-gated, ungated channels

Energy for muscle contraction

ATP and phosphocreatine. (Remember: Phosphocreatine creates muscles)

cognitive flexibility

Ability to adjust to use different thinking strategies and mental frameworks. Cognitive flexibility in terms of stress is the ability to understand and reformulate approaches to stress if the current methods being utilized aren't working.

What's the main function of the colon?

Absorption of water

Alpha decay, beta, positron, and gamma decay

Alpha decay: loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, mass number reduced by 4 and atomic number reduced by 2 Beta minus decay: neutron to a proton, gains proton,bothbetaaffectatomicnumbernotatomicmass Beta plus (positron) decay: proton to a neutron, loses proton Gamma decay: no particles leave the nucleus, high energy form of electromagnetic radiation - a gamma ray photon - is released. no change in atomic mass/number

secondary structure

Alpha helix: 3.6 amino acids every turn, hydrogen bonds, inside the membrane, Ex. supercoiled helix Beta pleated sheet: parallel and antiparallel sheets(antiparallel is more stable), hydrogen bonds

Aspartic Acid

Asp, D, acidic, negative, polar, can create ion-dipole moments

Isotope

Atoms of the same element that only differ in the numbers of neutrons. The electron configurations will be the same. Mnemonic: Nise (nice)

selective attention

Attend to a single aspect of an incoming stream of sensory information. An ability to not attend to certain stimuli unless they are of special interest. The cocktail party effect shows this because you may be in a fully engrossed conversation with someone in a loud room. However, upon hearing your name spoken by someone else in the room, you will attend to it.

What are the type of memory used for attentiveness or rehearsal?

Attentiveness allows incoming sensory information to be stored in short-term memory, while rehearsal is necessary for the information to be stored in long-term memory

Treisman's Attenuation Theory

Attenuator can weaken incoming signals. Sensory register->attenuator-> perceptual process -> conscious

Analyte

mixture whose individual components have to be separated and analyzed

Osteoclasts are

Bone-destroying (reabsorption) cells, increases calcium Mnemonic: Cla increases Calcium

What are types of stable memory?

Implicit memory and recognition are stable forms of memory. You never forget these.

Right vs. left hemisphere of brain

Left brain hemisphere: right side of the body, logic, mathematics, language, & speech "Mnemonic: Left is Logic" Right brain hemisphere: left side of the body, artistic and creative side of the brain. "Mnemonic: Right is Red"

If an individual were to sustain a significant injury to their right cerebral hemisphere, where might somatosensory loss of functioning occur?

Left side of the body

What produces testosterone?

Leydig cells

Medicare and Medicaid

Medicare for 65 and older, and medicaid for poor

ordered mechanism

One substrate must bind before a second substrate. It has a specific order. - Ternary (complex with 2 substrates and 1 enzyme) complex can be formed

Which location on an operon does the repressor bind to?

Operator site

What binds nucleotides together in a nucleic acid?

Phosphodiester bonds

Isomerase enzymes

Rearrange atoms to create isomers

eggs vs. sperm

Same genome size because they are both haploid. Sperm and egg are gametes.

What requires large amounts of ATP in the testes?

Sperm motility

Social potency

The degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations

construct validity

The degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring. The extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research.

Conduction

The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching.

Chronicity

The duration of a disease, state of recurring again and again

Post-transcriptional modification

The enzymatic processing of the eukaryotic primary RNA transcript to produce a mature transcript; production of a mature mRNA requires capping, polyadenylation and intron splicing(NOT IN PROKARYOTES)

saturation point

The equilibrium position for a solution where the solute concentration is at its maximum value for the given temperature and pressure. Rate of dissociation= Rate of precipitation. Ion product = Ksp so its a saturated solution

trichromatic theory of color vision

The eye has 3 types of cones: red 60%, green 30%, and blue 10% Mnemonic: Roy G Bv

pKa1 in a graph

The first pKa1 value in a graph will be halfway between the starting point and the steepest (most straight up, biggest slope) part of the line graph.

difference threshold

The minimum amount of difference that can be detected between two stimuli

Mutarotation

The rapid interconversion between different anomers of a sugar, Ex. change from alpha to beta

Esterification

The reaction of an alcohol(OH) with a carboxylic acid (COOH) to produce an ester(OR-C=O) and water.

Deacetylation

The removal of an acetyl group, C2H3O.

Anaphase (Mitosis)

The sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and are moved apart. There are 2 sets of genetic material; each with 46 chromosomes being pulled apart.

Convection

The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid or gas

Diffraction

When an object causes a wave to pass into a region behind the obstruction. Young's double slit experiment show diffraction and interference.

Covariation model

You (the perceiver) use multiple observations (actor, object, context) to determine the cause of the behavior Theory of attribution asserting that people rely on consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness of information when assigning causes for events.

Xenocentrism

a belief that another culture is superior to one's own

horizontal mobility

a change in occupation within the same social class

vertical mobility

a change upward or downward in occupational status or social class

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors. delayed language development and unusual communication

Dysthymia

a form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depression

Microarray

a grid of DNA segments of known sequence that is used to test and map DNA fragments, antibodies, or proteins.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

a hypothalamic hormone that regulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary

DNA methylase

adds a methyl group to cytosine and adenine nucleotides in order to block transcription machinery such as RNAP and decrease gene expression, DNA demethlase does the opposite

What are the pKa values for the amino group (NH2) and carboxyl group (COOH)?

all 20 amino acids have these two functional groups Amino group: 2 Carboxyl group: 9

silent mutation

alters a base but does not change the amino acid and thus has no effect

social cognitive theory

an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

law of reflection

angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Chemoreceptors

chemical sensors in the brain and blood vessels that identify changing levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide located in the respiratory center at the base of your brain, monitor the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen by detecting changes in the pH levels of the cerebral spinal fluid. Ex. taste buds, carotid bodies and aortic goodies. Both smell and taste use chemoreceptors

Belief perseverance is a type of ______

cognitive bias

somatoform pain disorder

complaints of severe pain with no physical cause

Aldol formation

compound of 2 carbonyl groups is treated w/ base and heat => enolate nucleophile + carbonyl of another compound => aldol (aldehyde + alcohol)

optically active

compound that rotates the plane of polarized light, chiral carbons, not symmetric

Isobaric

constant pressure

amphipathic molecules

containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions - phospholipids - Amino acids with non-polar side chains

Where does RNA to protein translation occur?

cytoplasm (a ribosome in the cytosol)

Why might uracil be excluded from DNA but not RNA?

cytosine degradation results in uracil; DNA repair enzymes recognize uracil and correct this error by excising the base and inserting cytosine

CD8 T cells

cytotoxic T cells and suppressor T cells that secrete cytotoxic chemicals when activated Cytotoxic T cells express CD8, and are responsible for removing pathogens and infected host cells. Kill bad cells.

which of the following would result in the shortest bond in an atom? a. one σ bond only b. two π bonds only c. two σ bonds only d. one σ bond and one π bond only

d. one σ bond and one π bond only

Gi protein

decreases cAMP -> opens K+ channels

Habituation

decreasing response to the same stimulus with repeated exposure to it, stimulus is presented many times but was NOT there originally

health disparity

difference in health outcomes linked to social, economic, and/or environmental disadvantage

Discrimination

differential treatment, in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

conscientious

diligent, careful, hardworking, organized

highly proliferative cells

epithelial cells (neurons are stuck in g0) that line the gastrointestinal tract

equivalence point

equivalence point is where the curve is most vertical thus has the biggest slope, this occurs when the moles of acid equal the moles of base in a solution

exoskeleton

external skeleton; tough external covering that protects and supports the body of many invertebrates

Mores

fixed customs or manners; moral attitudes based on strong feelings

Small differences in boiling point require the use of __________ distillation and large differences in boiling point require the use of __________ distillation.

fractional . . . simple Simple distillation is used to separate molecules that have very different boiling points. Fractional distillation is used to separate molecules with small differences in boiling points (But can also do large differences)

Deposition

gas to solid

paramagnetic

has unpaired electrons, attracted to magnetic field (weakly)

hyperglycemia

high blood sugar - caused by decrease in inulin

Strong bond implies

high melting & boiling points, sigma bonds

Higher Boiling point implies what bonds, branching, and weight?

higher molecular weight, stronger bonds, and less branching

Elbow joint

hinge joint

growth hormone

hormone secreted by anterior pituitary gland that stimulates growth of bones and muscles, increases cell turnover rate

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Ligaments vs. Tendons

ligaments - bone to bone to form a joint tendons - muscle to bone

What is the pathway for rods?

light turns rods off -> bipolar cell turns on -> retinol ganglion cell turns on-> optic nerve -> brain

Freezing

liquid to solid

blood from the small intestine goes to the

liver (regulates nutrient distribution and removes toxins)

pKa2

located in between pkA1 and the 2nd equivalence point

high signal detection threshold

loosening the criteria for it to fit into a category Ex. feeling sad could be a symptom for depression

A patient comes in with a tumor of the pituitary gland, which grows upwards into the optic chiasm and causes a visual field defect. The most likely defect from compression of the optic chiasm is:

loss of the temporal visual fields in both eyes

skewed right

lower on the right

envelope conformation

lowest energy form, in aqueous solution

Which cytoskeletal structure is linked with the movements of a macrophage?

microfilaments

ion exchange chromatography

molecules separated based on net surface charge (pI values)

Molarity (M)

moles of solute/liters of solution

Unsaturated

more double bonds or triple bonds.

Taboos

mores so strong that their violation is considered to be extremely offensive and even unmentionable Mnemonic: oo scary

Stages of human embryo development

morula, blastula, gastrula (Remember: More Baby Girls)

Guanine and Cytosine

most stable and strong base pairs (stronger than A-T), have 3 hydrogen bonds

The formation of α-d-glucopyranose from β-d-glucopyranose is called:

mutarotation

Nociceptors

pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain (ex. tissue damage)

electrotonic conduction

passive current flow through neurons that accompanies activated electrical currents, electrotonic potential spread down the axon

Conservative force

path taken does NOT matter, Example: gravity

Case-control study

patients who already have a condition are compared to people who do not, first identify the diseased then retrospectively determine past exposure/risk factors (Remember: first find case then control)

(Syles) General Adaption Syndrome

pattern of responses that the body goes through after being prompted by a stressor. There are three stages: Alarm: sympathetic nervous system acts Resistance: adapt to stress, release cortisol Exhaustion: death if the body is unable to overcome the threat.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs, (such as LSD, PCP, Psilocybin), that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input, Hallucinogens have low risk of dependence

What is reduced/oxidized in fermentation?

pyruvate is reduced to lactate and NADH is oxidized to regenerate NAD+. - this is the opposite of glycolysis which oxidizes the pyruvate because it is anaerobic

If you're calculating deposition of something at the anode/cathode, use this equation:

q = It and q = nF, thus we get: It = nF Mol M = It/nF, where Mol M is "moles of metal," I = current, t = time, n = moles of electrons, and F = Faraday's Constant. Mnemonic: "Calculating Moles of Metal? It is Not Fun."

heat transfer equation

q = mcΔT where heat = (mass)(specific heat) (ΔTemp)

primary active transport

relies directly on the hydrolysis of ATP, transport against concentration gradient

electron configuration of transition metals

remove electrons from s orbital before the d orbital

Ksp

shows the solubility of ionic compounds Ksp=[A+]^m[B-]^n = products/ reactants do not include concentration of pure solid/liquids Increasing the temp will increase the solubility

Sugars

simple carbohydrates found both in food and in the body, can be monosaccharides or polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

simple sugars that can't be hydrolyzed into simpler components (Ex. glucose, fructose, galactose)

Pons

sleep and arousal brain part Bridge between cerebellum and forebrain. Derived from the hindbrain. Remember: Ponds are dreamy and relaxing

Lacunae

small cavities in bone between the lamellae that contain osteocytes

Cofactors

small inorganic nonprotein molecule required for protein and enzyme functioning, usually metal ions, negative, activate the enzyme to turn it on

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. - If the task is something that the individual finds easy, their performance will improve. - If the task is something that the individual finds difficult, their performance will be impaired.

Phonology

study of speech sounds (Ex. pronunciations)

diathesis-stress model

suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress

Total Mechanical Energy

sum of kinetic and potential energy (KE + PE) E = 1/2 mv^2 + mgh

vasa recta

supplies nutrients to medulla without disrupting its osmolarity form

social loafing

tendency for people in a group to exert less effort/be lazy when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. The fovea centralis is a zone of densely packed cone cells in the center of the macula lutea of the retina. Because of this it is the region capable of the highest degree of visual acuity.

inter-rater reliability

the degree that multiple different raters give consistent ratings when scoring the same behaviors

cultural imperialism

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture

ionization energy

the energy required to remove an electron from an atom in its gaseous state

covert orienting

the movement of attention from one location to another without moving the eyes/body

Define frequency

the number of waves per second (Hz) f = 1 /T where T is time period/interval Frequency is the inverse of time/period

social-cognitive perspective

views behaviour as influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context. people's behaviors and traits shape their environments, which in turn have an effect on their identity.

occipital lobe

vision (Remember: OCCtopus with lots of eyes)

membrane potential

voltage difference across a membrane due to a slight excess of positive ions on one side and of negative ions on the other

tertiary structure

- 3D model of a polypeptide with R groups of the amino acids making up the chain. Tertiary = 3R. - Can be primary or secondary if R groups are replaced by Hydrogens. - Hydrophobic interactions, acid-base interactions (salt bridges) - Disulfide bonds are unique to the tertiary structure. Ex. Myoglobin

Separate a racemic mixture

- By reacting the mixture with an optically active chiral compound (must bind to either R or S). - Chiral stationary phase binds to either R or S to separate the racemic mixture(has both R and S) by its confirmation. - Chiral Column Chromatography

Acetone

- CH3COCH3 - It exists in two forms, a pair of tautomers (readily interconvert, relocation of a hydrogen atom). - Keto form predominates. - Keto predominates because the carbonyl in the keto form is much stronger than the carbon-carbon double bond. - Low conductivity/high resistance because acetone is not ionic.

surface tension

- Force that acts on the surface of a liquid and that tends to minimize the area of the surface - Result of cohesion between the same type of molecules on the surface of the fluid - Allows the surface of a liquid to support light things, such as a leaf or an insect, which would otherwise sink.

Equation for heat energy (thermal energy)

- Heat energy(Q)= mc(Tf-Ti). - Total kinetic energy of the particles that make up an object. - Mnemonic: mcAt

Myelin sheath (function, make up, affect on capacitance)

- Insulating layer, or sheath that forms around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. - Made of protein and fatty substances. - It speeds up action potential transmission. - Protects the axon and speeds the signal down the axon. Increases speed of conduction in the axon. - Where a membrane is myelinated, the capacitance is decreased because the myelin sheath increases the charge seperation.

Enantiomers (same as racemization)

- Isomers that are mirror images of each other - Same physical and chemical characteristics - Angle that plane polarized light is inverted differs (R- or S-), but doesn't say which direction the light will bend

Lipase

- Pancreatic enzyme that digests fats to lipids - Hydrolyzes fatty acids - Lipase's ability to catalyze the hydrolysis of fats and similar molecules reveals that some enzymes interact with several different substrate molecules that have similar chemical linkages. Remember: lipo like fat and ase like cutting

Venturi effect

- When the area where a liquid flows decreases, then the velocity increases (to maintain continuity) and the hydrostatic pressure decreases (to conserve mechanical energy). - Velocity in a constricted area will increase and its static pressure will decrease - Bernoulii's principle: when a fluid speeds up, its pressure decreases - Oxygen pressure is the sum of the oxygen static pressure P and the oxygen flow pressure ρv2/2. - In the area of the mask openings, Pair = P + ρv2/2, thus Pair > P (Remember: Air Vent).P1 + 1/2 ρ v12 + ρ g h1 = P2 + 1/2 ρ v22 + ρ g h2...

Rf

- distance travelled by solute/solvent front line - In thin-layer chromatography - A lower Rf has a more polar solute that travels less - Rf is always less than one

Pauli's Exclusion principle

No more than two electrons of opposite spin can occupy a given orbital.

dependent variable

The one being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

thin lens equation

1/f = 1/di + 1/do f is the lens strength from the center point to one side, looks like a radius - Convex/converging: positive f (+) - Concave/diverging: negative f (-) - Image on opposite side as object (inverted): + - Image on same side as object: - magnification = image/object