MCAT Psychology Part 1 (500)

Escape learning and avoidance learning are reactions to which type of operant conditioning?

negative reinforcement

Elaborative rehearsal ∙ Provide another name for it. ∙ What is it?

(a.k.a., Semantic Rehearsal): The rehearsal of new information by thinking about its meaning, purpose, and relationship to previously-known concepts

What are the 2 ways one can learn to associate two events?

1) Automatic - unconscious, unintentional - stimulus-driven (i.e. association determined by the event (stimulus) experienced) 2) Rule-based processing - conscious, intentional - driven by 1) the stimulus and 2) by language/cognition/reasoning

What are the 4 tenants of Social Cognitive Theory?

1) Cognitive processes 2) Situational Influences 3) Observational learning 4) Self-Efficacy **Think: CSOS (Christie SOS)

What two rxns do people have to negative reinforcement? Describe what each are.

1) Escape learning - adopt behavior to reduce/end unpleasant stimulus 2) Avoidance learning - adopt behavior to avoid unpleasant stimulus in future

What are the 4 processes that aid in encoding memories? List in order of effectiveness (in producing strong memories).

1) Method of Loci - mentally go through your house, and associate {words you want to memorize} with each piece of furniture, door, objection, location, etc. (also works for hiking trails, backyards, etc.) 2) Peg-word - 1-run, 2-blue, 3-tree, etc., and link {words you want to memorize} with each object. - Important: you keep the same list (1-run, etc.), just change the {words you want to memorize} associations each time 3) Chunking - chunk info into groups (Ex: telephone #, notecard bullets, powerpoint groupings, etc.) 4) Mnemonics - Letter/symbol patterns to aid encoding (ex: ROY G BIV, Every Good Boy Does Fine, FLAT PEG, etc.)

Types of observational learning

1) Modeling: mimicking others' behavior 2) Not modeling behavior: e.g. avoiding hot stove b/c big brother got burned 3) Engaging in totally different behavior: decide that their way didn't work, so you try something different (e.g. I saw Facebook eating up students' time, so I decided to learn knot-tying instead)

What are the memory Interference Effects?

1) Proactive interference: old memories interfere with new ones - Ex: hard to remember new phone number, keep reverting to old one 2) Retroactive interference: new memories interfere with old ones - Ex: Short term memory is limited, so you have to forget some memories to put in new ones

What 4 factors limit the applicability of associative learning?

1) Rule-based Processing ∙ Humans (in particular) will learn to expect/anticipate unconditioned stimuli 2) Latent Learning ∙ Humans/animals can still learn w/out conditioning (think maze in mice's cage) 3) Biological Predispositions ∙ every organism has biological predispositions ∙ decreased likelihood that conditioned responses will endure if contrary to biological predispositions 4) Instinctive Drift ∙ operant conditioning only ∙ when subject changes conditioned response → instinctual response ∙ Ex: hard to train racoons to pat ground, b/c will revert to food foraging instinct

When do mirror neurons fire?

1) When we watch someone else perform a behavior/emotion facial expression 2) When we perform the same behavior/emotion facial expression

3 distinct processes of memory

1) encoding 2) storage 3) retrieval

What is sensation?

1) sensory receptors detect environmental stimuli 2) stimuli converted to electrical impulse 3) impulse transmitted to CNS

What categories fall under somatosensation (one of the 7 senses)?

1) touch 2) texture 3) pressure 4) vibration 5) pain 6) stretching 7) temperature

What are the 7 seven senses?

1) vision 2) hearing 3) taste 4) smell 5) somatosensation 6) kinesthetic sense 7) vestibular sense

What are the 3 types of encoding? Describe each.

1) visual - encoding of image/visualization 2) acoustic - encoding of sound 3) semantic - encoding of meaning, understanding, context, etc.

Without rehearsal, the duration of working memory lasts about ______. However, if the info is encoded correctly, it can be stored in _______ memory.

10-15 seconds; long-term

What is the capacity of working memory?

7 ± 2 (most adults can store b/t 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory)

Say you can detect a temperature change from 25°F to 27°F (JND = 2°F). What would be a reasonable JND for a temperature of 70°F?

76°F 25° is ~1/3 of 75°; therefore JND of 2° would correlate to JND of ~6° (slightly less, really 5.6°)

What is "spontaneous recovery" in classical conditioning?

After extinction (i.e. conditioned stimulus has been extinguished), the animal will suddenly show a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus (spontaneous recovery)

Anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia

Anterograde: ∙ can't make new memories ∙ keep old memories ∙ Ex: can't remember new things after car accident Retrograde: ∙ can't remember memories before traumatic event ∙ new memories can be formed (after event) **How to remember: think proactive and retroactive interference ∙ Anterograde "interference" = can't make new memories ∙ Retrograde "interference" = can't remember old memories

Automatic vs. controlled processing

Automatic processing: ∙ doesn't require attention/conscious effort ∙ Ex: - walking while talking on cell phone - tasks you perform habitually while driving Controlled processing: ∙ requires active attention and effort ∙ Ex: - solving math problem - studying for MCAT

What is associative learning?

Broadest sense: any learning except habituation More narrow def: classical and operant conditioning

Classical conditioning: think... Operant conditioning: think...

Classical conditioning = instinctual responses Operant conditioning = reinforcement of voluntary behavior

How to elicit extinction in classical conditioning? What about for operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning: Repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus w/out the unconditioned stimulus Operant conditioning: behavior results in no consequences

Deep processing ∙ Definition ∙ What is another term for deep processing?

Deep processing = semantic processing ∙ encoding meaning & context of a concept ∙ making relational connections to previously-encoded memories ∙ involves elaborative rehearsal ∙ makes strong, long-term memories

What is the difference threshold, and what's another term for it?

Difference threshold: difference needed to detect the difference in intensity between 2 stimuli Also called: JND (just noticeable difference)

Generalization and discrimination in classical conditioning.

Generalization: conditioned response to stimuli that are similar (but not identical) to the conditioned stimulus Discrimination: when individuals learn to respond to only the conditioned stimulus, and ignore other similar stimuli (generalization)

How does emotion affect encoding?

Heightened Emotional State (HES): ∙ memories made during HES are stronger ∙ memories made before/after HES are weaker Positive Memories: ∙ recalled more easily (than - memories) ∙ recalled in greater detail (than - memories) Similar Emotional State (State-Dependent Learning): ∙ being in the same emotional state/mood as when memories were encoded aids recall

During recall of a source memory, which two methods might someone use to determine the source of the memory?

Heuristic Judgments: ∙ unconscious determination of source ∙ based on clues/short-cuts associated w/ the memory Systematic Judgments: ∙ Conscious determination of source ∙ Based on intentional logical evaluation of details remembered

Implicit vs. Explicit memory ∙ Definitions ∙ Include other terms for implicit/explicit memory

Implicit = non-declarative = procedural: ∙ automatic, unconscious recall ∙ for skills, procedures, conditioned responses Explicit = declarative ∙ requires conscious, intentional recall

Weber's Law

JND is proportional to magnitude of original stimulus Ex: ∙ Easy to differentiate between 100 Hz and 101 Hz (JND = 1 Hz). But the JND at a higher pitch may be 10 Hz. ∙ Harder to distinguish as pitch gets higher (more intense) To calculate JND, divide: [difference between 2 values] / [smaller (less intense) value]

latent learning

Learning that exists WITHOUT the presentation of a reward, but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is presented. Ex: mice are in a cage with a maze. When you put food at the end of the maze, the mice "suddenly" already know how to navigate the maze.

What is the opposite of sensitization, in the context of: ∙ learning ∙ drug effects

Learning: habituation Drug Effects: tolerance

Memory vs. learning

Memory: storage and retrieval of info Learning: a relatively long-lasting change in behavior resulting form experience

Which types of memory are affected the most/least by aging?

Most Affected: ∙ Episodic Memory (autobiographical) - Ex: what did I do last Friday night? - Ex: where was I on 9/11? ∙ Source Memory (autobiographical) - Ex: Where did I read/learn about that? - Ex: Who told me about JFK's assassination? Least Affected: ∙ Semantic Memory ∙ Implicit Memory (including Procedural Memory)

List the 8 retrieval cues/testing effects you should know.

Note: Effects 1-4 increase recall and verification rate (not just recall speed) 1) Priming Effect - present related word first = quicker recall 2) Typicality Effect - typical example = quicker recall - atypical example (even if familiar) = slower recall - Ex: dog is a mammal vs. whale is a mammal 3) Familiarity Effect - more familiar w/ example = quicker recall - Ex: dog is a mammal vs. aardvark is a mammal 4) Category Size Effect - category w/ few members = quicker recall - category w/ many members = slower recall - Ex: poodle is dog vs. poodle is mammal 5) True/False Effect - true statements are verified more quickly than false statements are negated 6) Serial Position Effect - Primacy Effect - Recency Effect 7) Interference Effects - proactive interference - retroactive interference 8) Automatic Spreading Activation - Primer = category name - Target = example w/in category

Observational learning vs. social cognitive theory

Observational Learning: any learning that results from watching others' behavior (general term) Social Cognitive Theory: psychological perspective that attempts to explain behavior, learning and other phenomena ∙ 4 tenants (Think: CSOS) - Cognitive processes - Situational Influences - Observational learning - Self-Efficacy

What is long-term potentiation?

Persistent strengthening of a synapse due to increased activity May include: ∙ ↑ pre-synaptic NT bundles ∙ ↑ post-synaptic ion channel receptors ∙ increased gene expression (necessary to make proteins for ion channels, NT vesicle transport (cytoskeleton), etc.)

Which factors can influence how many + vs. - memories are recalled?

Ppl w/ depression: ∙ often remember + and - memories equally Older adults / Elderly: ∙ stronger recall bias for + vs. - memories

Primary vs. secondary reinforcer

Primary: biologically reinforcing stimuli that all people desire Secondary: reinforcers that can be exchanged for 1° reinforcer; things we have learned to value

Differentiate between: ∙ recall ∙ recognition ∙ relaerning

Recall: ∙ retrieving a memory and 1) actively stating it or 2) applying it correctly Recognition: ∙ associating info with existing memory Relearning: ∙ increased learning efficiency when reinforcing existing memory

Rods vs. Cones ∙ colors perceived ∙ # of possible pigments (provide name if applicable) ∙ sensitivity ∙ detail resolution ∙ location in eye ∙ relative # of rods vs. cones

Rods: ∙ 1 color: black and white only ∙ contain only 1 pigment (rhodopsin) ∙ highly sensitive ∙ poor detail res ∙ located everywhere in retina, except in/near fovea ∙ 20x more rods than cones Cones: ∙ 3 colors: (approximately) red, blue, and green ∙ 3 pigments ∙ less sensitive ∙ fine detail res ∙ located in fovea ONLY ∙ 1 cone for every 20 rods

Which type of encoding creates the best memories? Also, define "best".

Semantic encoding ∙ strongest/most enduring memories ∙ recalled more easily ∙ recalled more rapidly

What is a semantic network? What does the theory explain?

Semantic network: web of interconnected ideas; thinking of one node will trigger thoughts connected other nodes, etc. Theory: explains how our LTM stores concepts and relationships *Note: shorter lines between nodes = more closely connected ideas

_________ is a strictly physiological response, while _________ is a psychological phenomenon. Both phenomena explain a scenario in which a person's sensitivity to a stimulus decreases over time.

Sensory Adaptation = physiological - physiological change to receptor, making it less sensitive to stimulus Habituation = psychological (may or may not have physiological component) - focus on something else, forget about/ignore stimulus

Provide an example of sensory adaptation vs. habituation

Sensory Adaptation: ∙ Candle store - smell initially overwhelms olfactory receptors - after a few minutes, smell less intense b/c olfactory receptors have adapted to stimuli, and are now less sensitive to them Habituation ∙ Party - general merriment quite loud - but you barely notice when you're having a conversation b/c you're focused

Describe the pathway of memory storage, through long-term memory.

Sensory memory → Working memory → Short-term memory → Long-term memory

What is the Serial Position Effect?

Serial Position Effect: presentation order impacts recall 1) Primacy Effect - first few concepts presented are recalled better 2) Recency Effect - last few concepts presented are recalled better

Signal Detection Theory ∙ What is the commonly associated picture? ∙ What 2 factors does it combine? ∙ What may cause the criteria to shift? What is the effect?

Signal detection theory: ∙ the decision whether or not a stimulus (i.e. signal) is present ∙ combines 2 factors: 1) sensory processing 2) decision making ∙ there are 4 outcomes (shown in the chart above) ∙ we may change our criteria for determining if a stimulus is present/absent based on our *expectation/motivation* ∙ Ex: a new mother - sleeps through neighbor's loud car alarm (response criteria shifted upwards) - instantly awakes when her baby makes a quiet cry (response criteria shifted downward) ∙ Shifting criteria sets up *response biases* - some subthreshold stimulation may be recognized as a signal - some supra-threshold stimuli may go unnoticed

What causes Korsakoff's syndrome on a social and biological level?

Socially: alcohol (inhibits conversion of thiamine → TPP (active form)) Biologically: vitamin B₁ deficiency

Source Monitoring Errors: ∙ Definition ∙ What's another term for it?

Source Monitoring Errors: attributing a memory to the wrong source (i.e. thinking someone told you, when in reality, you read it in Reader's Digest) Also called: source amnesia **occurs b/c source memory is not specifically labeled during encoding (or so experts think)

What are the 1) stimulus and 2) response types in classical conditioning?

Stimulus: ∙ neutral ∙ conditioned ∙ unconditioned Response: ∙ conditioned ∙ unconditioned

encoding

The initial process of memory creation, including sensation and the transient storage of the information in working memory

self-reference effect

The more info relates to yourself, the easier it is to memorize (This is why abstract concepts are hard to retain...like the first time you learned the steps in glycolysis, they didn't relate to self at all, and were therefore hard to commit to memory.)

What happens to neurons when long-term memory traces are formed?

The neuron physically changes by: ∙ growing additional dendrites (strengthen neuronal connection) ∙ altering the synaptic membrane to increase/decrease strength of individual synapse

What are the biological markers associated with Alzheimer's Disease? Where do these changes specifically occur in/around the cell?

Think: NEURODEGENERATION 1) ∙ β-amyloid plaques - portions of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) aren't snipped off like normal - APP (different structure, folds differently) aggregates, forming β-amyloid plaques - β-amyloid plaques occurs *in between CNS neurons*, *outside the cells* 2) ∙ Neurofibrillary tangles - Tau protein (stabilizes microtubules) is hyperphosphorylated - modified Tau protein aggregates into neurofibrillary tangles (insoluble) - neurofibrillary tangles occur *inside* the brain cell 3) ∙ Most of brain decreases in size: - temporofrontal cortex - frontal cortex - hippocampus 4) ∙ Some portions increase in size: - ventricles

Which condition precedes Korsakoff's Syndrome? How does it differ from Korsakoff's Syndrome?

Wernicke's Encephalopathy ∙ milder than Korsakoff's (i.e. no severe brain damage) ∙ fully treatable via: - IV vitamin injections - cessation of alcohol use

Can controlled processing become automatic processing? Under what conditions?

Yes, if repeated over a long period of time ∙ Ex: - reciting the alphabet

Do long-term potentiation and long-term depression refer to various connections in the brain, or a single synapse?

a single synapse

What type of lens is the human eye? What type of image does it produce?

converging lens; produces PRI image

Which structures in the eye bend light rays?

cornea (primarily) lens (fine adjustments)

habituation

decreased response to stimulus attention is shifted away from stimulus after stimulus has been presented multiple times **Psychological!! (Not physical change in sensory receptors, i.e. sensory adaptation)

Other terms for sensory memory

echoic memory iconic memory

What is the only type of reinforcement schedule that results in a fluctuating response rate?

fixed interval Ex: you only practice the day before your weekly music lesson

What is testing from a psychological standpoint? (memory-wise)

forced active recall

Opposite of sensitization

habituation

sensitization

increased response to a stimulus after the stimulus has been presented multiple times Ex: a kid keeps poking you, causing you to become more annoyed each time

dishabituation

increased response to stimulus after habituation has already occurred (person responds to old stimulus as if it were new) *usually occurs after habituation, when second stimulus is introduced

spacing effect

long-term memory is enhanced when learning events are spaced apart in time, rather than massed in immediate succession (i.e. teach children science for 1 hour the entire year, rather than 8 hours for 1 month)

absolute threshold

minimum stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time practically, absolute threshold = threshold of conscious perception Ex: ∙ How bright/dim a light must be to be detected 50% of the time ∙ How loud a sound must be to be detected 50% of the time

Is shaping a classical or operant conditioning process? What is is?

operant; Shaping = reinforcement of successive approximations for some target behavior

long-term depression

persistent weakening of a synapse based on decreased activity (opposite of long-term potentiation)

In what context is the term "sensitization" most commonly used?

positive feedback system -- increasing strength of biological response

state-dependent learning

recall is better when you're in the same state you were when you made the memory (ex: same place, setting, sight, sound, smell, etc.)

maintenance rehearsal

repetitive rehearsal of new information without thinking about its meaning or context Ex: ∙ repeating aloud ∙ rewriting it ∙ re-reading it Maintains info in: ∙ working memory ∙ short-lived, long-term memory

What is spreading activation in relation to? What is it?

semantic networks Working memory: ∙ focus attention on 1° node ∙ activates 2° nodes connected to the 1° node ∙ 3° nodes are then activated ∙ ...and so on

Opposite of habituation

sensitization

Unless information in sensory memory is focused on and transferred to _________ memory (a.k.a., working memory), it will be lost in ________.

short-term a matter of seconds

testing effect

testing during learning dramatically increases retention

prospective memory

the ability to remember to do something at some future time

Misinformation Effect

the presentation of inaccurate post-event information can cause an accurate memory to be altered or recalled inaccurately

Which vitamin does alcohol affect and how?

thiamine; alcohol inhibits conversion of thiamine → thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) (active form)

psychophysics

using precise, quantitative measurement of physical stimuli to understand the relationships between external stimuli and the sensations/perceptions they elicit.

Which reinforcement schedule is exemplified in gambling?

variable ratio

Which type of reinforcement schedule has a slow extinction rate?

variable ratio

What is "extinction" in classical conditioning?

when animal/person stops exhibiting conditioned response to conditioned stimulus

What is "acquisition" in classical conditioning?

when neutral stimulus → conditioned stimulus

What type of memory is used when your actively thinking about something from your childhood?

working memory (b/c you're actively thinking about it) The memory from your childhood would be stored in long-term memory.

Confabulation ∙ What is it? ∙ In which types of patients is it often observed?

∙ Definition: fabrication of memories that are: - false - usually vivid/detailed - fill in the gaps in a coherent story/memory Observed in patients with: ∙ Alzheimer's ∙ Korsakoff's syndrome

What causes amnesia?

∙ brain damage ∙ injury ∙ psychological trauma

Dementia

∙ gradual, long-term decline in mental function/capability ∙ severe enough to affect daily life ∙ umbrella term that may include: - AD - Parkinson's ∙ Symptoms can include: - loss of memory - loss of other mental functions ∙ can be due to: - gradual decline of CNS - disease-based damage of CNS

Shallow processing ∙ What is it? ∙ What two types of processing does it involve? Describe these two.

∙ maintenance rehearsal ∙ weak, short-lived memories 1) structural processing - encoding what things look like - Ex: words on a textbook page 2) phonemic processing - encoding what things sound like - Ex: repeating a term aloud/in your head

What are the noticeable effects of Alzheimer's Disease?

∙ memory loss ∙ impaired thinking ∙ language deterioration Late-stage symptoms: ∙ loss of judgment ∙ confusion ∙ drastic mood changes ∙ drastic personality changes

In a semantic network, what affects the speed of connection between nodes?

∙ more closely related semantic connections ∙ frequently used connections

conditioned reinforcer

∙ no reinforcing value, in and of itself ∙ takes on reinforcing value b/c it has been associated with primary reinforcer **also called secondary reinforcer

Which phenomena are mirror neurons responsible for?

∙ observational learning (motor behaviors) ∙ empathy

What should you think of when you hear Albert Bandura?

∙ originator of Social-Cognitive Theory ∙ Bobo doll experiment ∙ observational learning

Where are mirror neurons located?

∙ primary motor cortex (also called somatomotor cortex) ∙ somatosensory cortex ∙ possibly other parts of the brain

In which respects can the priming effect be observed?

∙ semantic relatedness - Ex: showing DOCTOR before NURSE (related meaning) - Ex: showing WOLF before DOG ∙ conceptual relatedness - Ex: showing DOCTOR before NURSE (same category) ∙ associated relatedness - Ex: showing SNOW before cone - Ex: showing BASKETBALL before PLAYER ∙ perceptual relatedness - Ex: showing NURSE before PURSE

Neural plasticity physically changes which parts of the brain?

∙ synapses ∙ dendrites ∙ glial cells