MCAT_SOCIOLOGY

Max Weber

(sociologist) studied structure of organizations, 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of goal of organization (organization can be for business, charity, etc). All should show these characteristics: 2) Division of labour - people are trained to do specific tasks. Pro - people are better at tasks, and increased efficiency. Con - increase alienation in workers, separating them from other works (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. Can lead to less satisfaction which leads to less productivity. Also can lead to trained incapacity, where workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture. Ex. Administrators don't teach classes at university and professors are not responsible for building maintenance. 3) Hierarchy of organization - each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. Pro - clarify who's in command Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals allows them to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members). 4) Written rules and regulations Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) Con - stiffens creativity, and if too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization) Impersonality - how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner Pro - equal treatment Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group 5)Employment based on technical qualifications -hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favouritism/personal rivalries Pro - decrease discrimination Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). Leads to Peter Principle, where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further).

mass media

-dissemination of information, and how information is transmitted within a culture. Includes print media (books, music, newspaper and magazines) and digital media (TV, media, radio, and the internet). -How it's consumed changes across cultures in each group. (Ex. Older people might get their info via TV and newspaper while younger people can get it via the internet). -Can look at the role media plays through society through different sociological perspectives.

Culture

-idea/things passed on between generations in society - Knowledge, beliefs, values, language, and customs. Varies as we travel around the globe. -rules that guide way people live Differences in culture around the globe: Ex: America toothpaste/toothbrush and other cultures use twigs from trees (African cultures) People sleep in beds while others sleep on animal skins or mats English - 500M speakers, Chinese- 1B speakers, Hindi - 480M speakers. 400M Spanish speakers around the world (official language of 20 countries) Many like meat and vegetables, while others eat tofu and grasshoppers. Ways of greeting differ, ex. In Japan they bow, and depth of bow is defined by relative status. And in Europe men and women kiss on both cheeks. -Each social unit has a unique way of life due to differences in culture Culture provides guidelines for actions and interactions within a society.

Meso-level

-population size falls between micro and macro levels. -They are medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, and tribes.

Aggression/aggressive behavior comes from combination 3 things:

1) Biology: 1. Genes: evidence: identical twins, if one is more aggressive the other is as well. With fraternal twins - not the case, and we can breed animals for aggression 2. Brain structure impact on aggressive behavior: No one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits in brain can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The amygdala (part of limbic system which is composed of structures from telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon) facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making, and importantly impulse control, and correlation studies have shown criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation.(perhaps those who commit violent actions can't inhibit violent behaviors) 3. Testosterone is hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. Higher in men = why men are more aggressive than women. Also why 70 y/o man is less aggressive than a 17 y/o adolescence man. High levels of high testosterone can lead to aggression, muscle building, and wider faces (rather than long round one). Can lead to irritability/assertiveness/impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration. Drugs that reduce testosterone levels tend to reduce aggressive tendencies. 2) Psychological: Frustration-aggression principle, the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration. -Ex. Physical pain or presence of crowd. Higher temperatures can also lead to frustration.(more violent crimes when the weather is hot) Reinforcement-modeling can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too (parents can model aggressive behavior - child can observe and pick up behavior of parents). 3) Socio-cultural People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) - deindividuation - you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. If people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. This also explains why there is poor behavior on the internet (they are anonymous here, and those around them model poor behavior). Social scripts - when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act. -Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act. -Ex. Lash out at someone when something goes wrong

Mating strategies when searching for a mate (animals)

1) Random mating- all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. {Bridge: hardy Weinberg equilibrium assumes this} 2) Assortative Mating - Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. Can result in inbreeding which is a problem that occurs if animals too genetically similar mate. Tends can be harmful to species overall. Increase likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring. 3) Disassortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating) - opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.

what are the various types of social constructs that allow for social mobility?

1) caste system 2) class system 3) meritocracy

What are the 2 different ways of thinking about poverty?

1) does it threaten survival or a person? or 2) does it exclude that person from society?

when thinking of social positions, how can one move within the system?

1) individuals can either move HORIZONTALLY - move within the same class Ex. Accountant switches job to different accounting company. 2) individuals can move up or down the social hierarchy move up or down the social hierarchy. Ex. Manager at restaurant becomes CEO of fast food restaurant. But if he gets demoted to serving food, fall downwards.

4 main points of culture

1. People share culture in society: All people share culture with others in their society, provides rules and expectations for carrying out daily rituals and interactions. 2. Culture is adaptive - it evolves over time and adaptive. Normal in hunter/gathers (cooperativity encouraged) different than today's information/technology age (individualism/competition). 3. Culture builds on itself - creation of culture is ongoing and cumulative, and societies build on existing cultures to adapt to new challenges and opportunities. Normal values are shaped by your culture. Ex. Putting a baby in a crib is strange in other parts of the world. Culture differs around the world. 4. Culture is transmitted (cultural transmission) - from one generation to the next. We teach a way of life to the next generation. Humans are only mammals with culture to adapt to environments (to survive on equator and artic). Culture is transmitted generation to generation by factors such as music, etc.

2 parts of dramaturgy

:Both help us explain how humans behave in a social setting. -Front stage - when people are in a social setting. Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball. Manipulating how he's seen to gain/make friends. "Putting on a front and acting for an audience" perhaps use this to your advantage one day. Say "oh I love baseball" even though you don't really like baseball -Back stage - more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. You can do what you feel makes you comfortable. Private area of your life. Some things in backstage maybe nobody knows about, few people who are close to you might know about some things in your backstage Ex; guy who said he loved baseball might come home and like watching cooking shows, cooking nice meals, hanging out with his cat. Nobody knows this about him. It is things we do behind stage. Ex; putting on makeup! Things we do to prepare for front-stage when nobody is around. Some people are crossing over from back stage to front stage due to social media - putting on a front in their backstage to make a good impression.

absolute poverty

An absolute level at which if you go below, survival is threatened. Minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive. This level no matter where you are. -Approx. $1-2 a day, talking about developing countries. -However, someone in Arctic needs a lot more than somewhere else. There's variability absolute poverty does not consider -The median level of income in a society can gradually rise as country gets richer. When it does, we find less people live in absolute poverty - decrease in poverty

Society vs. culture

Culture = rules that guide way people live, and society = structure that provides organization for people. -Society includes institutions, ex. family, education, politics, which all meet basic human needs. Society provides structure. Groups of people. -Analogy: The hardware on a phone, the actual phone/phone case -Culture provides guidelines for living. -Culture is learned, reshaped from generation to generation. Culture makes a society run. Rules and input that allow society to run. Way of life of people. Analogy: software or apps on a phone (can't physically be touched) and are constantly being updated. Need human ideas from culture to allow a society to work. Analogy: need apps to allow a phone be useful Culture and society need to both exist to function

Dramaturgical Approach

Erving Goffman (1940) studied nature of people's interactions. He noticed people planned their conduct, people want to guide and control how they're seen, and act differently alone than in public. They put the best presentation of themselves that they can. Says people do all these things through process of dramaturgy.

Individual discrimination

Individual person acting to discriminate based on something (sex, religion, race, age etc) ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class. (in this example sex discrimination)

Evolutionary game theory

Introduction to Game theory: usually talked about in reference to decision making, but can also use it for evolution and animal behavior. Game theory - social science/economics typically but also can explain everyday behavior. Game theory tries to predict behaviors we would expect to see when an individuals are playing a game. It looks at individual strategy and looks at the behaviors of what other animals will do. Ex; effect of a decision effect not just an individual but the overall group. Evolutionary game theory tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations. -Reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory. -Reproduction important to game theory because it can't happen in isolation and it needs to involve others -Environment - how organism fits in with social and physical environment. Work with other organisms to find food, raise young, deal with predators. [Fitness also depends on behavior of group] Predicts the availability of resources and social behavior (important for who they mate with). Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players. A important difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory: Game theory involves intention, where participants reasoning about behaviours of others. Evolutionary game theory different because decisions might not have a conscious intention on part of players. Evolutionary game theory helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population. Evolutionary game theory predicts the appearance of (helps us see) evolutionary stable strategies (behaviours that persist in population once present). Ex. Altruism - 2 groups of monkeys, one selfish and one not. Selfish group doesn't alarm others of predators. Non-selfish group alerts others and leads to overall success of group over time. Making a call at their own expense is sometimes good (the one who makes the call might not survive, but those similar to it can be helped...this is better strategy for the population). Altruism increases fitness of group!

Types of altruistic behavior:

Kin selection - people act more altruistically to close/kin than distant/non-kin people. -Same when people share last names, especially true if people have rare last names. -Morphing faces increase trust we have in other person. -Is this behavior altruistic if it gives us an evolutionary advantage, to pass on our genes (the genes of those closest to us)? Is it really altruism if we are helping select for genes of our kin? Reciprocal altruism - People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. -We feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us. This is why charities send out small gifts. By helping you out now, they hope you respond by giving them a larger gift in the future. -Cost signalling - giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. Signals that the person is open to cooperation. -Altruism has ulterior motive in the above three. There is always a reason (not completely selfless!)

Social Support

Let's say you had a bad day at school or work? You would call friends, parents, reach out to people online, and your other social network in this time of stress. Social support is from more than just friends/family - it's from everyone we reach out too. Individual people can give you different kinds of social support. 4/5 Kinds of social support: 1. Emotional support. 2. Esteem support 3. Informational support 4. Tangible/instrumental support 5. Companion support Emotional support - affection, love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing. Can include physical support (hugs/pats on back). Provided by those closest to you (family/close friends) Esteem support - expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they belief in you. Can come from family+ friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches. Informational support - sharing information with us or giving us advice. Can come from family/friends or even articles online. Tangible/Instrumental support - financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. Taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs. Companionship support - the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity. Social support network is huge! Can come from family, friends, pets, coworkers, partners, community organizers, healthcare workers, etc. Social support is important! Social support is a major determinant of health and well-being. Good social support = less mental health issues, more likely to behave in healthy behaviors, exercising, not smoking, Can help us deal with stress. People with low social support report more symptoms related to depression/anxiety, more mental disorders, more likely to have alcohol and drug problems. Also higher risk of deaths from cancer and heart disease. -Why it's important to provide support for people around you too and also to pay attention to your own social support. You are a part of the web of social support for other people just like others are a social support for you!

Jim Goes to College Subculture

National Society is a population of people usually living within a specific geographic area. Connected by common ideas and work towards common goals. -Within a nation many smaller groups - ethnic, regional, tribal subcultures made of people who identify closely with each other. So a subculture is culture of a smaller community that distinguishes itself from larger society. -Different cities, states, regions in US may have their own unique subcultures. Ex. Jim, grew up in Florida his whole life, but got into university in Washington DC. Notices a lot of differences between the two- Ex. Has to Parallel Park, watch for pedestrians, and has to pay for parking. Driving in DC not same as in Florida, much more traffic. Jim learns it is a better option to ride the metro in DC.

Animal Behavior: Foraging

One of most important animal behaviors is Foraging - the search for food in animal's environment. Can't survive or reproduce without it. Cost-benefit analysis associated with foraging - Cost: going out to get food can take up time and energy. Benefit: it survives. Goal is to get highest energy yield while expending least amount of energy. -Includes looking for food, and stalking prey. 2 main foraging strategies - solitary foraging and group foraging 1) Solitary foraging - animal looks for food by itself. Ex. Tigers do this. 2) group foraging - animals look for food in groups. Hunting based on both your behavior and those around you. Can lead to competition within a group if food is scarce. Benefit of this strategy is that animals can take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit. ex. Lions do this. Foraging behavior is driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning, ex. young primates copy adults and this is how they learn to forage. This teachers them how to hunt and what kinds of things they should be hunting.

What causes some to have secure attachment while others have insecure attachment?

Parenting style - mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. Insensitive parenting does not mean child abuse/neglect. -Difference in parenting style can be observed by a parent looking at phone while child calling for attention - do they continue to look at the phone when child is calling for attention or do they stop looking at their phone.

Popular Culture

Popular culture is the accumulated store of cultural products such as music, art, literature, fashion, dance, film, television, and radio that are consumed primarily by non-elite groups such as the working, lower, and middle class. -One argument is that popular culture is used by the elites (who tend to control the mass media and popular culture outlets) to control those below them because it dulls people's minds, making them passive and easy to control. -A second argument is just the opposite, that popular culture is a vehicle for rebellion against the culture of dominant groups.

Physical Attraction

There are cultural differences, but some things are universally attractive - attractive across cultural backgrounds. Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. For women, low waist-hip ratio and full breasts. For men, muscular chest and V-shaped torso (broad shoulders, narrow waste). -Facial attraction is more important than body attraction. For women, high forehead/small chin and nose/full lips/high cheekbone are attractive. For men, strong chin, jaw, cheekbones, and long lower face. -Both men and women are attracted to high level sexual dimorphism - the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits. [We are attracted to strong facial features of opposite gender] -Also averageness is attractive - turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Attractiveness is related to averageness. Most respondents pick 32 face average "face morph (faces digitized and averaged)" as most attractive, and 2 face average less. -Even if you average 32 different faces, still looks the same as the average of 32 other faces. Suggests there's some prototype. (there is facial averageness). -More subtle things also influence attractiveness - ex. red background more attractive than white background. -Unrelated physiological arousal also influences attraction - individuals who just walked across narrow bridge (sympathetic arousal) leads to increased rating of woman. Because during attraction sympathetic arousal occurs as well, ex. fast heartbeat. (you rate a woman while crossing a bridge higher because you are experiencing sympathetic arousal as when compared to rating the same woman while walking across the street.) -When you are physically attracted to someone you experience this fast heartbeat (sympathetic arousal too). Our brain recognizes the sympathetic arousal from high height and being attracted together.

Harlow Monkey Experiments

What causes attachment (a close bond) between mother and child? Scientists used to think it was food (mom has food). This is not true...mother provides more than that! Scientists conducted the Harlow monkey experiments -Separated monkeys from mothers at young age (controversial today), then given choice between 2 substitute mothers (vaguely monkey-shaped structures) that were placed in cage with baby monkey. -First option was wire mother - vaguely face like shape on top of it, and chicken wire wrapped in cylinder. And in middle was feeding tube. This mother provides food. -Second mother was the cloth mother - same shape/size as mother, but instead of chicken wire had soft cloth blanket around it, so this mother can provide comfort. -Baby monkeys overwhelmingly preferred to cloth mother - spent a large majority of time clinging to her. If had to eat, tried to eat while staying attached to cloth mother. Shows that attachment basis to mother is due to comfort, not food! -Cloth mother acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there. -If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother.

Does this parenting style have any long-term effects after childhood?

Yes. Early attachment style forms basis of adult relationships later in life, especially with comfort with intimacy/relationships. Secure attachment with mothers leads to secure attachment with partner. -Feel secure and trusting of partner Insecure attachment with mother means they feel anxious about their relationship with partners as adults. -Might avoid being too attached to any one person. -Attachment style with infants effect our attachment with our own children. -Secure attachment people tend to have secure attachments with their children and insecure attachment people tend to have insecure attachments with their children. -How comfortable we feel with parents with first year of life affects us into adulthood.

clinical trial

a highly controlled interventional study

regression (statistics)

all variables examined are continuous Linear regression - degree of dependence between one variable and another -data is on scatter plot, one-way influence of one variable on another -choose independent value X and Find Y - a normal experiment

correlation (statistics)

all variables examined are continuous. Unlike regression makes no assumptions about which variable is influencing the other -if correlation coefficient is 1, perfect. If -1, opposite. 0, random -just correlate from the sample between X and Y values.

class system

allows for degree of social mobility, combination of background and movement, often by education. Less stability.

longitudinal study

an observational study where data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, which can take years or decades

Aggression

any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy. Ex. Physical, verbal, or spreading a malicious rumor

Organizations

are institutions designed for a specific purpose, collective goal, and try to achieve maximum efficiency. Ex. Postal Service (purpose: deliver mail) , McDonalds (food), Time Warner Cable (TV/Internet access) etc.

theory of intersectionality

asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination -Originally coined in 1989 by Crenshaw as a feminist theory, but has since expanded out and use it to explain oppression in all parts of society

Prejudice

attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. Ex. CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team.

universally attractive

attractive across cultural backgrounds.

Types of parenting styles

authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative (best). -Authoritarian parenting: very strict, break will of child. Punishment. Authoritative: also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. -Permissive parenting/Indulgent parenting: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

perceived similarity

because over time interests/beliefs are more aligned. Become similar as time goes on. -Perceived similarity can be just perceived - they think the other person is similar to them (but actually aren't similar to their partners at all)

Altruism

care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. Beneficial to society and also individuals

intergenerational mobility

change in social class between generations -ex. Parent is working class and son is working class

intragenerational mobility

change in social class that happens in a person's own lifetime

Primary groups

closest members of the group to you. Close intimate long-term relationships. ex. in a wedding the bridesmaids/groomsmen (usually close friends and family members). Primary groups give a sense of belonging and shared identity. You have a sense of loyalty to each of the group members (group members care about you and you care about them as well). The value of the group is just being part of it itself, not in it for some sort of goal. Primary groups provide an anchorpoint. You are born into a primary group - your family. You often meet with those of your primary group face to face and you know a lot about their lives. These close relationships w/ primary group is often seen as a source of close human feeling/emotion (love, cooperation, and concern)

t-test (statistics)

compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups (ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value) -can also compare means of 2 groups -two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, one-tailed = one direction.

meritocracy

concept that people achieve social position solely based on ability and achievements. Highly idealized. Birth/parental background doesn't matter. Extreme social mobility. Equal opportunity.

Inclusive fitness

concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves. This inclusive fitness concept can solve problems with evolution which states that animals (including humans) can be predisposed to act selfishly. But people are kind to others/help others. We are helpful/altruistic of those who are similar to us!

Role conflict

conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different status compete for someone's time. Ex. someone who's is a parent, friend, husband, and worker. Ex; as a husband he has an anniversary and a friend is calling for their monthly get-together. OR ex. Paper due for school and son is injured and at hospital. Or ex. as a worker has to go to work and as a husband wife wants him to clean the garage.

gatekeeping

describe the process by which a small number of people and corporations control what information is presented on the media, and describes information (things that appear in newspaper, stories made into movies, what TV shows are turned into pilot) and how the information moves through a series of gates before they reach the public. -In some countries this is decided by the government, in others decided by large media corporations. -Gatekeeping has more effect on some media than others, ex. Lots of control on big-budget movies, but little overhead control on what's posted online. -Also describes how mass media reflects the dominant ideology. Giving time, space or privileging certain political, economic, and social interests at the same time limiting other views. -People who make the choice of what media is produced- the gatekeepers are predominantly white, male, and wealthy. -Portrayal of racial minority groups/LGBT groups, working class people, women (minorities in general), etc can be underrepresented or stereotyped - unrealistic generalizations of certain groups of people. -There have been some attempts to fix underrepresentation/stereotyping But these attempts have sometimes wrongly resulted in tokenism instead of diversity. [One minority character is added to a movie as a stand in for the entire group]

Discrimination

differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. ACTIONS ARE BEING TAKEN on negative-attitude (going a step further from prejudice) Ex. say there's a woman who's very good at the job, but doesn't promote her just because she's a women. Ex. Discrimination examples: Jews in WWII in Germany required to where yellow stars and in Apartheid in Africa from 1948-1994 where negative attitudes and action against minority (a sign that says for use by white persons only). Actions taken in both situations.

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation

done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. This research focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregiver ones). Experiment: #1. Mother and child in room with a stranger (stranger was part of experiment). Child allowed to explore. Neither stranger nor mother interact with child. Purpose: would they explore the space? #2. Then mom leaves the room (without calling too much attention to herself) and quietly leaves. Baby left alone with stranger. Purpose: what is child's response when mother leaves (does child keep playing or does child start crying) #3. Then mother returns. Mother + stranger + baby in the room. Purpose: What is the child's response when mother returns (are they happy, sad about her return, or ignore her) Researchers found children could be split into 2 groups - those with secure attachment and those with insecure attachment. -60% were secure attachment #1: Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room (aka. child might walk back to mother at times or look back at mother, but comfortable exploring) #2: When parent left, child became really distressed/upset #3: when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy -40% were classified as having Insecure attachment #1: children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. #2: When mother left became upset/distress #3: distress did not go away when she came back. -Others were avoidant - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.

Iron rule of oligarchy

even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? Conflict theory explains it. Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up. (those with power have vested interest in keeping it) Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable.

Cultural Acculturation

explains the process of cultural change and psychological change that results following meeting between cultures

Microsociology

face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of the society, look at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society. Ex. doctor-patient interactions, or family dynamics. Symbolic interactionism - social theory that's a microperspective, focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives.

Culture Shock

feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, or even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices. Ex. Moving countries, move social environments, or travels to another type of life (urban to rural). -In foreign places, weather, language, landscape, food, values and customers, way business conducted differently, stores open/close at different times, food can be completely different. Everything you are used to is no longer in place. -As a result of culture shock may feel sad, lonely, homesick, confused, etc, and have questioned your decision to move to this new place. -Ex. of culture shock: When people from Islamic countries (like Algeria) visit countries in Western Europe (Spain/Italy). Individuals from Islamic countries might experience culture shock when unmarried couples are kissing/holding hands in public and women are wearing what they consider revealing clothing. This would be a culture shock because they are experiencing things different from (in this case frowned upon) in own cultures

the conflict perspective

focuses on how the media portrays and reflects and exacerbate divisions that exist in society, ex. Race/ethnicity/gender/social class.

Secondary groups

formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Do a few goal-directed activities with these people ex. You do things like attending a lunch meeting to talk business. You are only part of the group to accomplish a task or for example, earn money (means to an end) Example: wedding: Bride and groom sit with close friends known for a long time/close family (bridal party). Primary group Groom played football in college. His teammates are in his primary group because they know each other well (countless hours practicing with each other) Neighborhood of bride really were close to each other. Went to the beach, had cookouts, and the neighborhood was a giant community. This would be a primary group of the wife. Secondary group: parents work friends, distant family, acquaintances (guests there to keep strong relationships in the future. Distant family there to avoid family drama/avoid people's feelings)

Counterculture

group with expectations and values that strongly disagree with the main values from the larger society

Unintentional discrimination

how policies can discriminate unintentionally Side-effect discrimination - talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. (Institutions - economics, politics, law, medicine, business and are all interrelated, and discrimination in one area can effect another- it is an side effect). Ex. a small town where African American always get unfair verdict of guilty because they didn't think they could get off on a fair verdict (so they take lesser crime). Then while applying to a job later, don't get the job because of criminal record. Criminal justice reached unfair verdict, and potential employers are swayed too (employer is swayed and unjustly discriminates unintentional because of another institution - in this case the court system). Past-In-Present discrimination - how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present. Ex. After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom. ( Negative attitude of the past coming forward to the present and causes minority to be discriminated against unfairly)

similarity bias

implies we will not befriend people different from us.

relative poverty

in developed countries, use a different marker - a % level below the median country of the country. Ex. In Us, instead of $1-2 a day, median income is above $80/day <60% of the median income. -If a country's income rises up, absolute poverty line won't change, median income level would. -Relative poverty is not about survival, its people whose incomes are so low in their own society they're being excluded from society

Society

is a group of people and culture talks about rules and instructions within a society that teach them how to live. -is the way people organize themselves - bunch of people who live together in a specific geographic area, and interact more with each other than outsiders. Share a common culture over time. -structure that provides organization for people.

Status

is a person's social position in society. Each person has many statuses ex. One individual can be a Son, student, and friend, etc. -They affect the type of interactions we have - some situations people are equal (ex. you and your friend, you feel comfortable talking things out) some not - you hold an inferior (ex. with professor - you are submissive/respectful, and less negotiate) or superior to the other (ex. President of an organization. You have control over your members. Your members respect you more so. In short: Friends are equal, but if you are interacting with professor they are superior to you. Of if you're president of school organization you can be superior over members.

subculture

is culture (ideas) of a meso-level (medium) subcommunity (small community) that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of larger society/community -Subculture smaller than a nation but unlike a microculture, it is large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan. -Subcultures affect your life on a longer period than a microculture -Meso-level = population size falls between micro and macro levels. They are medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, and tribes. -It is a subcommunity = smaller community in larger one. Subcultures are unique to the larger society but still share some of the culture of the dominant society. -A microculture can't support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one's life. Ex. Girl scouts, college sororities, boarding school. -Subcultures include ethnic groups like Mexicans or orthodox Jews, or groups like the elite upper class. Subculture can cause tension with dominant group-which have the power to determine the cultural expectations of society.

Discrimination

is differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. Can be based on different factors including race, age, religion, etc. Can occur at individual or at the organizational/institutional level.

feminist theories

is similar to conflict theory, in that mass media stereotypes/misrepresents society towards the dominant ideology. -Specifically, message about men and women are represented in the media. Depictions of men and women often stereotyped, emphasizing traditional sex roles/gender roles. -men are considered normal and women are considered the "other". Ex. ("pens" and "pens for her" or "razors" and "razors for women"). -Women are depicted as victims, men as aggressors -Women are depicted as shallow or being obsessed with looks. Makes it more likely they will be sexualized/objectified.

Culture lag

is the fact culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems. -Common in societies because material culture changes rapidly, while non-material culture tends to resists change. Examples: Many Technology (material culture) outpace cultural adaptation examples Cars first invented no laws to govern driving (no speed limits, no guidelines, lanes, stop signs, stop lights, etc). Very dangerous when cars first started entering roads but laws soon written to fix problem. Computer and emails invented, and businesses took time to use technology.

Cultural assimilation

is the process by which a person or a group's language and/or culture come to resemble those of another group.

Diffusion

is the spread of an invention or discovery or ideas from one place to another. Spread of ideas such as Capitalism, democracy and religious beliefs have brought change in human relationships around the world. -Spread of music, phone technology, computer hardware/software have made a difference in how people connect with others across the globe. -Involves expansion of ideas across the globe -Can occur in many ways. Exploration, military conquest, missionary work, mass media, tourism, internet. Ex of Diffusion: Food in America seen all around the world - McDonalds in Asia. Nike in Japan or Australia. Spanish is one of fastest growing languages. Or the ALS ice bucket challenge. -Diffusion between cultures has occurred throughout history but today it can happen faster because of social media/internet.

False consensus

is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.

case-control study

it is an observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor -an example would be a study that compares patients who have a disease or outcome of interest with patients who do not have the disease or outcome, and looks back retrospectively to compare how frequently the exposure to a risk factor is present in each group to determine the relationship between the risk factor and the disease

cohort study

it is an observational study where the cohort is a group of people who share a comment characteristic -it is a type of longitudinal study

functionalist perspective

its main role is to provide entertainment. Occupy our leisure time. Also says it can act as an agent of socialization (ex. Collective experience of watching Olympics on TV, and community building - entire internet communities) and act as an enforcer of social norms (learning the norms and values of society) -Also tells us what society expects of us through rewards and punishment, ex. Seeing criminals. But can also glorify behaviours that are wrong in society, like intense physical violence. -Also functions as a promoter of consumer culture. At the turn of century average US child saw 20000 commercials a year on TV. -Only increased from there, and not clear what impact this may have on next generation.

Macrosociology

large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups. Broad social trends in cities, and statistical data (as long as you're careful about not making wrong interpretations). Deals with matters like poverty, war, health care, world economy Functionalism comes from macrosociology - looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning. Conflict theory is also a macroperspective - the idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved.

interactionist perspective

looks at mass media on microlevel to see how it shapes day to day behavior. How mass media blurs line between solidary and group activities - ex. watching a movie (can be watching with other people but because of societal norms/theater rules you can't talk about it with those who you are watching with). -Looks at how we connect with others using media changes over time (email/text message instead of phone, or online dating increase).

Utilitarian Organizations

members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time).

Normative Organizations

members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose.

Coercive Organization

members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave).Usually highly structured and have very strict rules

Polygamy

more than one spouse

polygyny

more than one wife,

Geographical proximity effect

nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. -People date, like, marry people of the same neighborhood or those that sit next to in class or work in the same office. -Mating starts with a meeting - Why is proximity so powerful for relationship formation? 1. We aren't going to fall in love with someone we don't meet. You can't start a relationship/befriend those who live far away. Even with social media, and easy travel/connection with individuals far away - rule of proximity is still true (even if you take internet dating into account).

Institutional discrimination

organization discriminating - including governments, banks, schools etc. Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated.

Impression management

our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way. There are multiple social situations which require different scripts from you as an actor and hence there are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different frontstage role every time. Ex; All front stages - football team captain (he had to get people fired up!) and perhaps on the weekends he volunteers at the hospital (very different front stage, his role is be there for the patient and offer them help as a volunteer) and then perhaps he goes to school and in chem-class he needs to get a rec from his chem-teacher to get into grad school (he pretends to be interested in professors research and gives impression he is a curious student).

McDonaldization

policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control - These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment, ex. movie theatres all look and work similarly, with same concession stans look same, carry same brands and same popular movies, with same seating arrangements, look the same, and #of screens is the same. All ticket systems now the same (especially online). Same pre-show entertainment. Not necessarily a bad thing. Pervasive throughout society.

Bureaucratization

process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you.

Material culture

refers to physical and technological aspects of our daily lives, like food and houses, and phones and non-material culture (symbolic culture) doesn't include physical objects, like ideas/beliefs/values, which tend to resist change.

Mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it. Applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects, etc. -There are exceptions, but in general true. Especially with attraction. Exceptions: you start hating orange juice, start to despise song you hear over and over on the radio. This is called "burn out" but most things do not violate the mere-exposure Ex. Study 1: focus on attraction. Researchers had undergrads rate attractiveness where males rated women's attractiveness, then took 2 women rated similarly and placed them in same class as the male rater. After 5,10, or 15 classes males rated the woman who was with them in 15 classes higher than those women who they attended classes with 5-10 times - even though they rated the two the same initially before the repeated exposures. Whom we say day to day are more attractive and likeable. Ex. Study 2. study with individuals who had anterograde amnesia (retrograde amnesia is loss of all memory before an accident that causes amnesia, anterograde amnesia individuals can recall memory that was formed before an incident but cannot form new memory after accident). Showed them faces, and then showed them faces again at later date, with some new faces along with some old. Ask individual if they've seen before, say no. But if ask which one attractive, they still pick the face they've seen before -Even if they are incapable of forming the memory they have seen a person before, they still consider them more attractive. Shows us how subtle this mere exposure effect is. -Advertisers know this effect. They depend on the mere exposure effect to sell you different products. More times we see a brand more likely we are to form a positive opinion about it.

ANOVA (statistics)

similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups -if value doubles, 100% increase

subcommunity

smaller community in larger one

theory by KARL MARX

states that workings in the working class don't realize that they're being exploited and oppressed by a fairly wealthy individuals who hire workers who offer their labor, but don't own any of the business -workers can develop either class consciousness or false consciousness

Achieved status

status you earn yourself after working for it, ex. Olympic athlete

Ascribed statuses

statuses you can't change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. High empathy = high in altruistic behaviors. -Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic. -Early developmental trajectory - Helping behaviors begin early. Some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies distress). Helping behavior begins around age 2, children share toys and play act helping/altruism. Age 4 begin actually begin helping. -Says that altruism might be a normal human behavior because it occurs at such a young age. We have a tendency to help other people without an alternative motive.

randomized control trial

the people studied are given one of the treatments under study- it is the GOLD STANDARD for a clinical trial and it is used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs

cross-sectional study

to look at a group of different people at ONE MOMENT in time

false consciousness

unlike class consciousness, instead of seeing they have solidarity with one another, they're unable to see their oppression -and owners can promote this false consciousness by controlling classes, making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression

caste system

very little social mobility, because your role is determined entirely by background you're born to and who you're married to. A lot of social stability -Ex. The Hindu caste system.

chi-square (statistics)

when all variables are categorical, looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other -null hypothesis vs. alternative hypothesis

projection bias

when we assume other share the same beliefs we do.

Role strain

when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week.

Backstage

where you work on impression management. Ex. put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits (training area for impression management)

polyandry

woman has multiple husbands

class consciousness

workers can develop class consciousness, and realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression and exploitation -involves seizing and obtaining means and redistributing the means of production among the workers