McKay 17, 18, 20
What was the relationship between rapid population growth and industrialization in Britain?
Rapid population growth in Britain was key to industrial development. More people meant a more mobile labor force, with many young workers in need of employment and ready to go where the jobs were. Sustaining the dramatic increase in population, in turn, was only possible through advances in production in agriculture and industry.
What is the difference between the cottage industry and the putting-out system?
The cottage industry involved rural workers using hand tools in their homes or work sheds to manufacture goods for sale in a market, while the putting-out system centered on a merchant capitalist who loaned, or "put out," raw materials for rural workers to process and return as finished products. There were many variations on the basic system, including the possibility of breaking production into many stages.
Why did the cotton-spinning jenny and the water frame prove to be crucial breakthroughs for industrialization?
The cotton-spinning jenny and the water frame permitted textile manufacturers to overcome the constant shortage of thread that inhibited the growth of the textile industry. Because it required waterpower, the water frame further led to the creation of large specialized mills, which formed into factories. Cotton goods became much cheaper, and demand for them increased.
What was the Zollverein, or customs union, meant to accomplish?
Early in the nineteenth century, German states had limited markets because each state had tariffs that had to be paid if one wanted to ship goods across a state border. The Zollverein was an organization that had spread to most of the German states by 1834. It allowed goods to move between member states without tariffs, thus creating a large, free market for goods. It also erected a single uniform tariff against other nations.
What new vision of childhood emerged in the eighteenth century?
Enlightened authors began to promote greater tenderness toward children as a celebration of nature and the natural laws that should guide human behavior. Rousseau advocated breast-feeding and natural dress for children and plenty of exercise. Boys were to receive education and training in a practical craft, while girls were to be limited to training for domestic duties.
Describe the key features of European mercantilism.
European mercantilism was a system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state. Mercantilism aimed particularly at creating a favorable balance of foreign trade in order to increase a country's stock of gold. A country's gold holdings served as an all-important source of wealth that could be drawn from in times of war. As such, trade was managed to ensure that the state profited. For example, the British Navigation Acts required all colonial trade to be carried out by British seamen and to first transit through Great Britain.
What was the experience of girls working as servants in the eighteenth century?
Girls worked long, hard hours with little independence. Mistresses watched them constantly, and they frequently suffered physical and verbal abuse while their wages often went to their parents. They also suffered lecherous attention from their master and his sons and could be simply dismissed if they became pregnant, often not allowed to return home.
How did the industrious revolution manifest itself, and what were its most important effects?
In the countryside, the spread of cottage industry can be seen as one manifestation of the industrious revolution, while in the cities, there was a rise in female employment outside the home. By working harder and increasing the number of wageworkers, rural and urban households could purchase more goods, even in times of stagnant or falling wages. The effect of these changes is still debated. While some scholars stress the negative impact of longer work hours and stricter discipline on traditional family life, others insist that poor families made decisions based on their own self-interests. With more finished goods becoming available at lower prices, households sought cash income to participate in an emerging consumer economy.
What challenges did western European countries face as they attempted to catch up to industrialized Britain?
In the newly mechanized industries, British goods were being produced very economically, and these goods had come to dominate world markets. In addition, British technology had become so advanced that few engineers or skilled technicians outside England understood it. Moreover, the technology of steam power had grown much more expensive, and continental business people had difficulty amassing the large sums of money the new methods demanded. Finally, continental laborers bitterly resisted the move to working in factories.
How did new patterns of food consumption develop in the eighteenth century?
Thanks to market gardening, a greater variety of vegetables appeared in towns, along with many new types of vegetables from the Americas. Particularly important was the potato. Also, semitropical fruits such as oranges and lemons began to arrive in the major port cities. And sugar, tea, coffee, and chocolate all became widely available and affordable.
When did most people marry in eighteenth-century western Europe?
The average person married surprisingly late, many years after reaching adulthood and many more after beginning to work. Studies of western Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries show that both men and women married for the first time at an average age of twenty-five to twenty-seven.
What is meant by the idea of the industrious revolution?
The industrious revolution emphasizes the change in household production and consumption patterns whereby poor workers shifted from working to produce goods for self-consumption to working for wages, which could then be used to purchase consumer goods. The result was a growth in the consumer economy as households worked harder to be able to purchase more desired goods.
How did the enclosure movement alter land-use patterns?
The scattered, long, and narrow strips of land divided among various families on open fields were consolidated into fields that were then fenced and could be farmed more effectively. Common pasturelands were also divided into individual shares that were enclosed.
While England was building a pre-eminent world empire and the greatest economic power base in Europe, its society was undergoing profound changes. Describe these changes, being sure to identify their causes and consequences.
Throughout the 17th century England's economy remained largely based on agriculture and traditional industries. London, however, was at the center of a growing international network of trade, both with the East and with colonies across the Atlantic. Great Britain, and England in particular, became one of the most prosperous economic regions in the world between the late 1600s and early 1800s as a result of being the birthplace of the industrial revolution that began in the mid-eighteenth century. Mercantilism was the dominant economic system from the 16th century to the 18th century. Mercantilism was based on the idea that a nation's wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and reducing imports. The economy of England was mainly agricultural until the 18th century, but the Industrial Revolution caused it to evolve gradually into a highly urbanized and industrial region during the 18th and 19th centuries. The economy in the 1700s was based in farming, local production, fur trading, and Atlantic jobs like ship building. In the 1800s Americans changed how they moved, who worked, and how they worked. Political power and influence were in the hands of rich landowners. At the top were the nobility. Below them was a class of nearly rich landowners called the gentry. In the early 18th century there was another class of landowners called yeomen between the rich and the poor.
What was the connection between premarital sex and community controls?
In most of Europe before 1750, premarital sex did not result in a large number of illegitimate births. Communities believed that an unwed mother with an illegitimate child threated the stability of the community. Thus, patterns of cooperation and common action in traditional villages worked to maintain stability by pressuring young couples faced with unexpected pregnancies to marry.
Why did guilds become controversial in the eighteenth century?
In most of Europe, the guild system peaked in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It featured a detailed set of privileges, including exclusive rights to produce and sell certain goods, train apprentices, and open shops. In the second half of the eighteenth century, critics like Adam Smith attacked guilds as old-fashioned institutions that obstructed technical progress and innovation. In addition, rural industry was undermining the traditional guild system. An ongoing reassessment of guilds emphasizes their ability to adapt to changing economic circumstances.
Trace the growing intervention of the state in ordinary people's lives in eighteenth-century Europe.
In the period between the 1670's and 1750's, sweeping changes transformed both the public social lives and private family lives of the British people. Increased literacy, combined with The Restoration led the British people to an increasingly public life. There were also clear class distinctions that were prevalent in the realms of both home life, outward social life, and education. The family lives of people were separated by two distinctions, roles for men versus roles for women, and social class. In general, men were the breadwinners, providing income for the family, whereas the mothers were in charge of the household. Marriage was also very closely tied to social class; women were seldom married into lower social rungs. It also came with heavy social implications for the family's legacy and reputation among their peers. Many issues and concerns were brought up during the process of arranged marriages. English society had been strictly patriarchal, where women were supposed to be under a man's care for the duration of their life. The concept of a strictly male-controlled, nuclear family began spreading once puritanical influence intensified in the 17th century.
How did the background of industrialists change as the Industrial Revolution developed?
Industrial pioneers came from a variety of backgrounds, for individuals drew on networks of friends and family for financial support. Artisans and skilled workers as well as ethnic and religious groups that had been discriminated against found opportunities to prosper. As the pace and sophistication of industrialization increased, however, it became more difficult for people of modest background to gain fame and fortune. Instead, formal education and training became more important as machines became more complex, and leading industrialists were more likely to have inherited wealth.
What was the impact of industrialization on the women of Britain? How does the evidence of the Ashley Mines Commission (Viewpoints) broaden our understanding of this process? How have historians interpreted these changes?
Industrialization brought new opportunities for employment, changing ideas of work, and economic cycles of boom and bust. During this period, women's roles changed dramatically. Industrialization redefined the role of women in the home, at the same time opening new opportunities for them as industrial wage earners. But women were seen as less physically strong and skilled than men and were paid less. Many employers were quick to exploit this cheaper option, and soon, tasks such as printing and working at spinning machines that didn't require as much strength and were easy to learn, became seen as women's labor. The Industrial Revolution helped establish patterns of gender inequality in the workplace that lasted in the eras that followed. After industrialization, many could no longer work at their own pace or rely on opportunities such as weaving for their income. Children were expected to go to work in factories along with their parents and lose the time they formerly had to spend with their families. Women were not valued the same as men in the workplace, and were often paid much less than men. For example, while male British industrial workers were often paid about 10 shillings per week, women were paid half that. Along with poor pay, women were also subjected to horrible conditions in the workplace. In factories, women routinely faced discrimination. Employers commonly paid women one-half to two-thirds of what a man doing the same job received. The wages were pitiful. Women in the working class, worked during the Industrial Revolution with lower wages than men and oftentimes started working as children. Women during this time also had to be the caretaker of the house, so they might have worked all day and night to keep up their daily routine.
The Industrial Revolution profoundly affected the British working classes. Describe its impact on working-class men, women, and children, and determine whether the Industrial Revolution was beneficial or harmful for the working class.
Industrialization brought new opportunities for employment, changing ideas of work, and economic cycles of boom and bust. During this period, women's roles changed dramatically. Industrialization redefined the role of women in the home, at the same time opening new opportunities for them as industrial wage earners. Women in the working class, worked during the Industrial Revolution with lower wages than men and oftentimes started working as children. Women during this time also had to be the caretaker of the house, so they might have worked all day and night to keep up their daily routine. With the first stages of industrialization, these patterns changed. Increasingly, men began working outside of the home. Rather than selling goods they had produced, these workers sold their time to factory owners, who, in turn, sold the mass-produced goods. Men dominated this new realm of work. Working children were often hurt due to industrial accidents on unsafe machinery, uneducated since there was no time for school after working over 12 hours a day, and were infected with illness and disease due to the unsafe working conditions in which they were exposed. As industrialization moved workers from farms and home workshops into urban areas and factory work, children were often preferred, because factory owners viewed them as more manageable, cheaper, and less likely to strike. Growing opposition to child labor in the North caused many factories to move to the South. People began to move into cities to get jobs in industry. It also improved transportation, communication and banking. The Industrial Revolution improved the standards of living for most people, but resulted in tragic living and working conditions for the working class. Working Conditions During the Industrial Revolution. The working class left harsh conditions in their homes to face harsher conditions in factories and textile mills. Most 19th-century laborers worked significantly long hours for very little pay. Much of the work assigned was monotonous but dangerous.
The Industrial Revolution not only transformed British industry and society but also called forth a multifaceted reform effort to cope with the societal problems created by industrialization. What were the goals and motivations of both the parliamentary reform movement and the labor movement in nineteenth-century Britain? What were their successes and failures?
Legislatures have as their main purposes, first, the setting of broad policy through the imposition of laws, taxes and expenditures and, second, the oversight of government in its execution of those purposes. In 1832, Parliament passed a law that changed the British electoral system. It was known as the Great Reform Act, which basically gave the vote to middle class men, leaving working men disappointed. A Reform Bill is a proposal to reform or change voting in the British parliament. Some examples of these include the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884, to increase the electorate for the House of Commons and remove certain inequalities in representation. Important reforms included legislation on child labour, safety in mines and factories, public health, the end of slavery in the British Empire, and education, by 1880 education was compulsory for all children up to the age of 10. There was also prison reform and the establishment of the police. For those in the industrial sector, organized labor unions fought for better wages, reasonable hours and safer working conditions. The labor movement led efforts to stop child labor, give health benefits and provide aid to workers who were injured or retired. Much of the labor movement's history is a response to dangerous work conditions. Making sure that workplaces are safe is one of the driving reasons that working people organize to express their voice. After the failure of the Minimum Wage Bill displayed the British government's commitment to laissez-faire policy, laborers began to express their discontent in the form of the first large scale strikes in the new factory districts. Their goals were to have better hours, pay and working conditions. How were the Knights of Labor and American Federation of Labor similar and different? Knights of Labor members were skilled and unskilled workers, rallied for shorter work days, equal pay for men and women, and to end child labor.
How did the putting-out system function, and how did its structures change as industry expanded?
Merchants loaned or "put out" raw material to cottage workers. The cottage workers processed the materials and returned the finished product to the merchant, who then paid the workers. As industry expanded and became more complex, merchants would pass the raw material among different groups of workers, each of whom would perform one part of the manufacturing process.
During the eighteenth century, the population of Europe sharply increased. What factors influenced that growth? What were the social consequences of population expansion?
Population growth in Europe in the eighteenth century was due to many factors. The Agricultural Revolution of the mid 18th century led to new farming techniques and new inventions that helped to mass produce food for a larger, growing population. A large population increase happened during this time. Population was increased by new technology allowing for better crops and farming. Increase in health care and living standards increased life spans and birth rates. Another contributing factor was a fall in mortality, which was particularly marked during the first half of the century. The fall affected all socioeconomic groups and does not appear to have occurred for primarily economic reasons. During the mid 18th century eastern and central Europe were under autocratic monarchies. Europeans did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture, they even spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups. It was divided into many estates and ruled by different rulers.It was in western Europe, with the Industrial Revolution, that the second population revolution began. Europe's population doubled during the 18th century, from roughly 100 million to almost 200 million, and doubled again during the 19th century, to about 400 million. The most significant effect of population growth in Europe from 1700 to 1800 was urbanization and the creation of large cities which was marked by poverty, crime, and poor sanitation.
Why was Britain the first industrial nation?
Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. The Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century in Great Britain. It was only the first stepping-stone to the modern economic growth that is still growing to this day. With this new bustling economic power force Britain was able to become one of the strongest nations. Historians have identified several reasons for why the Industrial Revolution began first in Britain, including the effects of the Agricultural Revolution, large supplies of coal, geography of the country, a positive political climate, and a vast colonial empire. Britain was the first country to experience modern industrialization due to its political stability under the monarchy. Due to this, the kingdom had common laws, a single currency, and a market that was not fragmented by local authorities. Another major reason why the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain was that it had an abundant supply of what economists call the three factors of production. These factors of production are land, labor, and capital. Many different factors contributed to the rise of the Industrial Revolution in Britain. The new inventions, access to raw materials, trade routes and partners, social changes, and a stable government all paved the way for Britain to become an industry-driven country.
What criticisms of Europe's traditional economy did Adam Smith offer? What reforms did he advocate?
Smith criticized guilds for their stifling restrictions, a critique he extended to all state monopolies and privileged companies. Far preferable, in his view, was free competition, which would protect consumers from price gouging and give all citizens an equal right to do what they did best. Smith advocated a more highly developed "division of labor" that entailed separating craft production into individual tasks to increase workers' speed and efficiency.
How did Jansenism seek to reform Catholicism?
Sometimes described as the Catholic version of Pietism, Jansenism called for a return to the austere early Christianity of St. Augustine. It emphasized the heavy weight of original sin and the doctrine of predestination. Among the urban poor, a different, more emotional strain of Jansenism took hold. Prayer meetings featured ecstatic worship and sometimes speaking in tongues.
The Dutch dominated European trade with Asia in the seventeenth century. How did they achieve this ascendency? What led to the decline in their position in the eighteenth century?
Taking advantage of a favorable agricultural base, the Dutch achieved success in the fishing industry and the Baltic and North Sea carrying trade during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries before establishing a far-flung maritime empire in the seventeenth century.A technological revolution in shipbuilding led to a competitive advantage in shipping that helped the young Republic become the dominant trade power by the mid-17th century. In 1670, the Dutch merchant marine totalled 568,000 tons of shipping, about half the European total.A drawing depicting a 17th-century trade scene between Dutch merchants and Native Americans. Common trading items were beaver pelts, Dutch tools, and wampum beads used as currency. In the 18th century, the Dutch colonial empire began to decline as a result of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of 1780-1784, in which the Dutch Republic lost a number of its colonial possessions and trade monopolies to the British Empire, along with the conquest of the Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey by the East. The Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century, when costly conflicts, including the Franco-Dutch War and War of the Spanish Succession fuelled economic decline. A series of wars with the more powerful British and French neighbors weakened it. The English seized the North American colony of New Amsterdam, and renamed it New York.
What were the most important elements of the agricultural revolution in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries? What factors explain the Dutch leadership in this revolution? Why and how did it spread to England?
The Agricultural Revolution in 17th and 18th century Europe had many important factors contributing to it. One important factor of the Agricultural Revolution was the invention of new tools and advancement of old ones, including the plough, seed drill, and threshing machine, to improve the efficiency of agricultural operations. It was linked to such new agricultural practices as crop rotation, selective breeding, and a more productive use of arable land. Arguably the most important development throughout the Agricultural Revolution was the intensification of agricultural output through new farming techniques, namely the development of crop rotation systems that involved turnips and clover. The Dutch were the leaders in the agricultural revolution because they were, in a way, forced to innovate. The area was very densely populated, so it was necessary to get as much out of the land as possible. They made room for new farmland by draining swamps and marshes.The Dutch was a strong leader in farming, due to it being densely populated, making laborers more common throughout the land, and peasants having different regions of farming in which they specialize the best, ultimately benefiting them. The Dutch had enclosed fields, rotated crops, fertilizer and a variety of crops by the mid 17th century. Their free and capitalistic society gave incentives for farmers to be productive. Used drainage because marshland was covered by ocean waters, and became world leaders in reclaiming wetlands through drainage. The Agricultural Revolution in Britain proved to be a major turning point, allowing population to far exceed earlier peaks and sustain the country's rise to industrial preeminence. It is estimated that total agricultural output grew 2.7-fold between 1700 and 1870 and output per worker at a similar rate. The British Agricultural Revolution, or Second Agricultural Revolution, was an unprecedented increase in agricultural production in Britain arising from increases in labor and land productivity between the mid-17th and late 19th centuries. For many years the agricultural revolution in England was thought to have occurred because of three major changes, the selective breeding of livestock, the removal of common property rights to land, and new systems of cropping, involving turnips and clover.
Technological innovation was critical to the industrial development of Britain. Assess the impact of technology on the British economy by examining innovations in textile production.
The British textile industry drove the Industrial Revolution, triggering advancements in technology, stimulating the coal and iron industries, boosting raw material imports, and improving transportation, which made Britain the global leader of industrialization, trade, and scientific innovation. Production was limited by reliance on the spinning wheel and the hand loom; increases in output required more hand workers at each stage. Invention dramatically changed the nature of textile work. The flying shuttle, patented by John Kay in 1733, increased the output of each weaver and led to increased demand for yarn. Nanotechnology had a large impact on the British textile industry. This Technology allows the textile industry to manufacture clothing with a more scientific lookout, such as fire repellent, self-cleaning, and water repellent, and produce products using less energy, making them sustainable. The British textile industry triggered tremendous scientific innovation, resulting in such key inventions as the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, water frame, and spinning mule. These greatly improved productivity and drove further technological advancements that turned textiles into a fully mechanized industry. The application of technology and the factory system created the levels of mass production and cost efficiency that enabled British manufacturers to export inexpensive cloth and other items worldwide. The British textile industry was created because of the demand for clothing. As the population increased, the supply could not meet the existing market. This led to inventions that rapidly increased production and made it possible to meet demand.
What were the Combination Acts of 1799, and why were they bitterly resented by many craft guilds?
The Combination Acts were British laws that outlawed unions and strikes. Many craftworkers viewed the Combination Acts as capitalist attacks on artisan guilds and work rules, Printers, papermakers, carpenters, tailors, and other craftsmen continued to take collective action. Societies of skilled factory workers also defied the law by organizing unions. Faced with widespread union activity, Parliament repealed the Combination Acts in 1824.
Explain how available forms of credit catalyzed or inhibited the Industrial Revolution in different countries.
The changes set in motion by industrialization ushered Europe, the United States of America, and much of the world into the modern era. Most historians place the origin of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain in the middle decades of the 18th century. Having credit enables consumers to buy goods or assets without having to pay for them in cash at the time of purchase. Having a good credit record means that a person has an established history of paying back 100% of his or her debts on time. As the revolution grew and more opportunities presented themselves, there was a demand for more capital. While technology costs were coming down, the infrastructure demands of large factories or canals and railways were high, and most industrial businesses needed funds to start up and get started. The world moved gradually toward global free trade. Western countries in Europe and North America turned increasingly to service and high technology economies as manufacturing moved to the cheap labor markets of developing countries. The important new inventions of this phase were the computer and the Internet. The most significant role of the banks in those earlier years of industrialization was discounting bills of exchange, basically, providing liquid capital to help transactions along between merchants and industrialists. Industrialization results in a wider gap between the rich and poor due to a division of labor and capital. Those who own capital tend to accumulate excessive profits derived from their economic activities, resulting in a higher disparity of income and wealth.
Explain the concept of "separate spheres" and why it was widely accepted.
The concept of "separate spheres" involved a gender-based division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner. Factory discipline conflicted with child care in ways that work on a farm or in the cottage had not. By staying at home, women solved the issue of child care. Another reason for separate spheres was the difficulty of running a household in conditions of urban poverty. Finally, separate spheres increased the segregation of jobs by gender, in part as an attempt to control the sexuality of working-class youths.
While Britain was the "workshop of the world," industrialization began to spread to the European continent soon after the fall of Napoleon in 1815. Trace the course of industrial development on the continent and determine the key features of this development. What were the positive and negative aspects of being a follower nation?
The industrial revolution in Europe didn't happen overnight but only spread over the continent very gradually. One of the triggers was the unusually high growth in the population which set in around the middle of the 18th century and produced a gigantic reservoir of workers. The Industrial Revolution transformed economies that had been based on agriculture and handicrafts into economies based on large-scale industry, mechanized manufacturing, and the factory system. New machines, new power sources, and new ways of organizing work made existing industries more productive and efficient. The most important of the changes that brought about the Industrial Revolution were first, the invention of machines to do the work of hand tools, second, the use of steam and later of other kinds of power, and third, the adoption of the factory system. Between 1750 and 1914, Europe experienced three major waves of industrialization. One peaked in the period between the 1780s and the 1820s, a second crest appeared in the decades between 1840 and 1870, and a third rolled through in the last two decades before the First World War. The factors of production are land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. The state of technological progress can influence the total factors of production and account for any efficiencies not related to the four typical factors. The new inventions, access to raw materials, trade routes and partners, social changes, and a stable government all paved the way for Britain to become an industry-driven country.
What caused the new pattern of population growth in the eighteenth century?
The population of Europe increased in the eighteenth century owing to a decline in mortality. One of the primary reasons behind this decline was the disappearance of the bubonic plague. Advances in medical science did not contribute much, but early public health measures were of some help, including vaccination against smallpox and water treatment methods, which limited the diffusion of typhus and typhoid. Advances in agricultural production in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries also aided population growth. Overall, the European population grew in the eighteenth century because the death rates were less catastrophic than in the past.
What was the consumer revolution?
The prosperity of the 1920s led to new patterns of consumption, or purchasing consumer goods like radios, cars, vacuums, beauty products or clothing. The expansion of credit in the 1920s allowed for the sale of more consumer goods and put automobiles within reach of average Americans. An increased supply of consumer goods from England that became available in the eighteenth century led to a phenomenon called the consumer revolution. Consumer products linked the colonies to Great Britain in real and tangible ways. The consumer revolution contributed to a class of people in America with wealth. With wealth came power and political demands. The consumer revolution was a major part of history that influenced societies views on good and the status that comes along with wealth. We see an increase in ease of credit, travel, and more efficient production which allows people to now display their wealth and status in society. The consumer movement seeks to make the consumers aware about their rights and helps them to fight for the issues they face. These issues include but are not limited to fraud, unfair trade practices, and adulteration.
What were some of the economic consequences of the railroad?
The railroad dramatically reduced the cost and uncertainty of shipping freight over land. As transportation costs were lowered, markets became larger, even national. Additionally, the construction of railroads created a strong demand for unskilled labor and a sizable demand for coal and iron.
How did the surge in childhood education in the eighteenth century affect literacy rates?
The surge in childhood education in the eighteenth century led to a remarkable growth in literacy between 1600 and 1800. Whereas in 1600 only one male in six was barely literate in France and Scotland, and one in four in England, by 1800 almost nine out of ten Scottish males, two out of three French males, and more than half of English males were literate. In all three countries, most of the gains occurred in the eighteenth century. Women were also increasingly literate, although they lagged behind men.
What was the connection between the transatlantic slave trade and the rise of plantation agriculture?
The transatlantic slave trade formed a key element in the Atlantic economic system. It intensified dramatically after 1700 and especially after 1750, with the growth of trade and the demand for slave-produced goods like sugar and cotton. These and other goods were produced by plantation agriculture, which required large numbers of slaves. The trade reached its peak in the eighteenth century and ultimately involved more than 12 million Africans.
Why was wet-nursing a widespread, flourishing business in the eighteenth century?
Wet-nursing for aristocratic and upper-middle-class women was generally a matter of convenience. To the wealthy, breast-feeding appeared undignified, and it interfered with women's social lives. Working women turned to wet nurses because they needed to earn a living. Those who could afford it had live-in wet nurses, but many had to send their baby to the countryside to a rural wet nurse. Though popular, reliance on wet nurses ultimately raised levels of infant mortality for a variety of reasons.
While the Enlightenment was spreading among the educated elites, religion remained a strong force in the lives of the common people. What were the patterns of popular religion for both Catholics and Protestants in the late eighteenth century? How did the church leaders, Protestant and Catholic, respond to popular religion?
Across Europe the Catholic Church was in a weak position. In the major countries, it was largely controlled by the government. The Jesuits were dissolved in Europe. Intellectually, the Enlightenment attacked and ridiculed Catholic Church, and the aristocracy was given very little support.From its seat in Rome, the Catholic Church dominated southern Europe, spanning Portugal, Spain, France, and Italy, through most of eastern Europe, especially territory held by the Hapsburgs. A panoply of Protestant faiths occupied northern Europe, with small Catholic enclaves throughout.Christianity in the 18th century is marked by the First Great Awakening in the Americas, along with the expansion of the Spanish and Portuguese empires around the world, which helped to spread Catholicism. Religion inculcated a belief in progress, in the abilities of social reforms to perfect society, in a special role for American women as the arbiters of morality, and in the rules of conduct that appealed to the Northern middle class, a class that increasingly set the tone for American life.
How was the disease of smallpox conquered?
Although an English aristocrat, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, had introduced the Muslim practice of inoculation with pus from a smallpox victim in the early eighteenth century, it was Edward Jenner, a country doctor, who made the crucial breakthrough. Starting with the observation that dairymaids who had contracted cowpox did not get smallpox, he collected data for many years and in 1796 successfully vaccinated a young boy using matter taken from a milkmaid with cowpox. Use of the new method spread rapidly, and smallpox soon declined to the point of disappearance in Europe and, eventually, throughout the world.
How did European colonists in the Americas form new views of their place in the world?
As colonists were increasingly born and raised in the colonial environment, they continued to copy European cultural patterns; however, they also came to consider their interests and characteristics as different from those in Europe. They began to resent the regulations and taxation imposed on them for the benefit of people in Europe.
Why did both mill owners and families initially favor the family unit form of employment?
By working as a unit, families earned more and continued the labor practice to which they had been accustomed on the farm. Parents were able to watch over children while they worked. Mill owners permitted parents to discipline their children so that the firm discipline of the workshop would be socially acceptable.
What was carnival, and why was it such an important part of popular culture?
Carnival was a time of reveling and excess in Catholic Europe, especially in Mediterranean countries. It preceded Lent, the forty days of fasting and penitence before Easter. In addition to the partying, plays, processions, and raucous spectacles worked to turn the established order upside down. Carnival gave people a chance to release pent-up frustrations and aggressions before returning to the usual pattern of hierarchy and hard work.
Why did continental European countries, when they began to industrialize after 1815, have advantages that Great Britain had lacked?
Continental countries had strong traditions of trade and urban crafts that enabled them to adapt to new market conditions. Even more to the point, continental economies could borrow technology from Great Britain that the British had taken decades to develop, as well as hire the engineers who built and ran the machinery. Additionally, some continental powers had state governments willing to aid industrial development and fashion industrial policies.
What were marriage and family life like in eighteenth-century western Europe? What had changed from previous eras?
During the 18th century, society encouraged young people to select their marriage partners based on their romantic attachments. This was a decided change from past practice when marriages had been arranged to cement relationships between families or clans and to consolidate fortunes. Many lived in one or two room houses that were often crowded with large families, as well as lodgers that shared their living space. Women typically gave birth to eight to ten children, however, due to high mortality rates, only five or six children would survive. During the course of the eighteenth century, marriage and family life dramatically changed due to changes in employment opportunities, more personal choice in selecting marriage partners, and a loosening of social controls.
The eighteenth century was an era of improving health and increased life expectancy. Why? What impact did improving health and longevity have on European society?
During the eighteenth century, improvements in healthcare were made increasing life expectancy in Europe. However, contagious diseases could be particularly devastating. Cholera, smallpox and typhus were all present in 18th century towns, and disease regularly carried off scores of people in only a matter of days. Smallpox was particularly frightening. The 18th century saw advances in technology, including the invention of the stethoscope, and the first researched and documented text on the ancient techniques of midwifery. It enhances healthy lifestyles, physical health and functional abilities and promotes recovery from illness. It also has important social benefits on educational attainment, economic productivity, social and family relationships, social cohesion and overall quality of life across the entire population. During this period, there was no health insurance, so consumers decided when they would visit a physician and paid for their visits out of their own pockets. Often, physicians treated their patients in the patients' homes. Many families were forced to live in single rooms in ramshackle tenements or in damp cellars, with no sanitation or fresh air. Drinking water was often contaminated by raw sewage and garbage was left rotting in the street. Problems with the disposal of the dead often added to the stench and decay.
