Media Studies 102 Midterm
McCombs and Shaw
"The Agenda-setting function of mass media" - hypothesize that the mass media strongly influence topics, but have little influence over what viewers think about those topics media is unabel to influence people's opinions Study during 1968 presidential campaign
Neumann
"The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public opinion" - spiral of silence, environmental pressure
Davison
"The Third-Person Effect in Communication" - people overestimate the influence that mass communications have on the attitudes and behavior of others
Christenson
"Equipment for Living: How Popular Music Fits in the Lives of Youth" - uses and gratifications, affective uses focuses more on how music affects people instead of its content
Berkowitz
"Film Violence and Subsequent Aggression Tendencies" - Bandura study - viewers of justified aggression would be more likely to take violence in their own lives frustration-aggression hypothesis - frustrations drive individual aggression until they are able to achieve a cathartic release of tension
Entman
"Framing" - selection and salience
Gerbner et al
"Living with Television: The Violence Profile" - TV is a cultural force - violence affects aggression - cultural assumptions - cultivation
Robinson
"Mass Communication and Information Diffusion" - little evidence education has any effect - key element may be in the pattern of one's interpersonal social contacts
Lazarsfeld and Merton
"Mass Communication, Popular Taste, and Organized Social Action" - Admin school - critiques of Frankfurt School - audiences not all powerless and duped -empirical research is important
Tichenor
"Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge" - knowledge gap implies a communication gap and a special challenge in resolving social problems
Katz
"Two-Step flow of communication" - opinion leaders, networks of interconnected individuals Findings of The People's Choice voting study
Berelson
"What Missing the Newspaper Means" - role of newspaper
Luscombe
"porn and the Threat to virility" - PIED
Gottlieb
"protest News Framing Cycle: How the NYT covered Occupy Wall Street" - framing of protest movements, focus on conflict instead of protest news
Empiricism
- systematic and objective investigation using experimentation or observation to test a hypothesis - a reaction against speculative critical theory Administrative School
Adorno
- "A Social Critique of Radio Music" - "On Popular Music" -Standardization -Imitation -Pseudo-individualization -plugging -glamour -baby talk
Media use for physical pleasure (porn)
- "E" of I <3 PIE - entertainment - sexual arousal and pleasure (porn) - the "forbidden" U+G - Tech fuels addictive porn uses and gratifications - audience is actively using media for particular purposes
Personal Influence
- 1955 Katz and Lazarsfeld - the part played by people in the flow of mass communications - Two-step Flow's origins - The long road to Decatur - a history of personal influence
Pseudo-individualization
- Adorno - mass culture creates a false sense of individuality in cultural consumers - "Pseudo" means fake. "Pseudo-Individualization" thus means fake individuality. By this he simply means the elements of a song included to make it seem different from all other standardized commodity songs. - covers a wide range of features: a singer's voice, the subject material of a song, a creative use of instruments, a syncopated beat, auto-tune, a new synth sound, etc. Crucially, while details of a song can be pseudo-individualized, the structure of a song remains the standardized. That is, a listener can still expect songs to maintain a 4-4 beat, a standard structural form, and anticipatable build ups and breakdowns. - Pseudo-Individualization leads listeners to believe that they have a vast range of choices. Adorno would argue that these choices are illusions - we are in fact choosing from structurally identical products.
Monopolization
- Adorno's analysis of pop culture, monopolization of music/entertainment industry production by few companies - 90% of American media owned by 6 companies, maximize strategy and integration - Lazarsfeld on Media Propaganda - monopolization uses a solitary voice to influence others' thoughts
Passive audience
- Audience is not actively interpreting, no individual differences (media hits you like a bullet) Magic Bullet/hypodermic needle - media messages are too powerful to resist -1920s-1940s
"What missing the newspaper means"
- Bernard Berelson (1948-1949) - People say they miss the newspaper, but they don't know what they're missing/aren't missing real information
The media might not tell us what to think, but they certainly tell us what to think about
- Bernard Cohen - The Press and Foreign Policy 1(1963) - agenda-setting's origins - media shape what issues are seen as "important" in public opinion
Vertical Integration
- the combination in one company of two or more stages of production normally operated by separate companies. - FS Concern: monopolization and monetary power
Stalagmites/stalactites
- Cultivation - Stalagmite - social reality perceived as same as media representations over time, especially among heavy viewers (society could possibly become like media representations?) - Stalactite - repeated media representations over time (Mass Media) - Over time, repeated media representations shape our perceived reality of the world, especially among heavy media viewers and users
War of the Worlds Broadcast (1938)
- Fake Radio War October 30, 1938 masses freaking out over something they could not quite understand, powerful effect on people - Orson Welles = apologizes
Capitalism
- Force that dominates how our society is structured and how it functions - Frankfurt School - our unconscious is shaped by capitalism Adorno - while watching media, we are still at work because we are reproducing the capitalism society we're seeing Powerful media keeps us in line with capitalism
Trivialization
- Framing social movements/issues - Bill O'Reilly investigates Black Lives Matter - trivializing issues, making things seem less important than they really are
Mass culture
- Frankfurt School - More leisure + disposable income + technology = mass culture - mass culture starts to become all the same from standardization from technological advances and lowered material costs, also a burgeoning middle class with more time and disposable income for leisure
Standardization
- Frankfurt School - structural standardization, using the same formula to appeal to the masses (Adorno) on popular music
Media frames
- Gitlin - "Media frames, largely unspoken and unacknowledged, organize the world both for journalists who report it and, in some important degree, for us who rely on their reports" Framing: involves selection and salience, select some aspects of a perceived reality
Long tail
- Graph - economic strategy, busying/producing media - No longer just "big hits" - a "long tail" of perpetually in-stock products would revive interest in non-mainstream culture.
Social comparison
- Information diffusion - From social psychology - Process of comparing ourselves to others to figure out hoe we "rank" on appearance, attitudes, abilities, and beliefs
Private attitudes/Public morality [enforcement of norms]
- Lazarfeld's Knocks on Critical Theory - Social functions of media = enforce social norms - close the gap between private attitudes and public morality (Clinton Lewinski scandal)
Narcotizing dysfunction
- Lazarfeld's Knocks on Critical Theory - Social function of media = narcotizing, we have knowledge but might do nothing (it's our fault) - "Exposure to [a] flood of information may serve to narcotize rather than energize the average reader or listener" (Lazarsfeld, 105). Mass media encourages people to abstain from action and instead to watch, perhaps vicariously participating in activities they might other actively engage in.
Status conferral
- Lazarfeld's knocks on critical theory - Social function of media: status conferral - legitimize status to certain individuals, ideas, etc. - "The mass media confer status on public issues, persons, organizations, and social movements" (Lazarsfeld, 101). By recognizing issues and people, the mass media legitimate their status as worthy of public attention.
Supplementation
- Lazarsfeld on media propaganda administrative school - Media messages reinforced in social relations - Mass media messages are not absorbed directly by each individual audience member. Instead face to face discussions, or what later was termed interpersonal communication, play a major role in modulating or modifying the meaning and significance of mass media messages. We don't just watch the news, we discuss it with our friends and colleagues, and thereby derive our opinions on importance subjects.
Fordism
- Make a standardized profit, reduce costs, produce a lot in order to fuel consumption - Frankfurt School context - fordism fuels mass consumerism (assembly line production
post-Fordism
- Manufacturing jobs going down - Largely self regulated media + primarily consumer mandate + deregulation = concentrated industry power - almost everything we do is mediated - more competitive
Pluralistic Ignorance
- Mistaken idea that everyone thinks like they do - Two explanations: 1. Psychological - individual is not processing information correctly 2. Social - problems in visibility/prominence of issues or structural biases - Ex. murder on the streets of New York, "jabberwocky" Better Off Ted
Social distance/Social Identification
- Perceived degree of similarity or dissimilarity between the respondent and the comparison group on critical (demographic) dimensions - level of education, age, ethnicity, gender, religion - third person effect
Catharsis
- Process of releasing pent up emotions - Aggression can be discharged, harmlessly released by watching violence scenes S. Feshbach - 1 of the 5 hypothesis for the relationship between media violence and its consequences - catharsis = example of media use for mood management? (uses and gratifications) - Viewers of TV violence, in other words, would enjoy a cathartic purge and would thereafter feel no need to take violent action. Violence on TV could thus provide a safevicarious outlet for individual aggression and thereby benefit society. -Berkowitz disagreed
Cultural Indicators Project
- Project started in 1967, George Gerbner, concern about media violence - key argument: TV "cultivates" or creates a worldview that becomes reality because we believe it to be reality. Our judgments about our everyday world are based on our sense of "reality" 1973
Formats
- Reproduce same product, transplant it elsewhere (The Voice in different countries) - FS Concern: standardizing to guarantee success
Formulas
- Serve up what's expected "tried and true" (Big Bang Theory, Friends) - FS Concern: standardize to guarantee success
Limited effects
- The Ghost of Joe Klapper - Media's primary influence is to reinforce, not change, existing attitudes and behaviors - Uses and Gratifications
"the whole world is watching"
- Todd Gitlin - founder of the media studies program at Cal - identifies framing of social movements/issues
Opinion leaders
- Two-step flow - Opinion leaders pay close attention to the media and receive information - Pass interpretations and media content to those with whom they have social contact
Tupperware ladies
- Two-step flow's relevance - example of business models and strategies relying on two-step flow logic - get everyone in a room and share ideas - "Be like brownie"
Goal-oriented media use
- Underlying assumption of Uses and gratifications - people use media for a reason, to achieve a goal or fulfill a purpose
Mood management
- Use media/music to get over a break-up, get ready, deal with awkwardness, laugh - Uses and gratifications
Selective interpretation
- Uses and Gratifications - Cognitive dissonance - inconsistent thoughts and beliefs
Selective exposure
- Uses and Gratifications - Media controls what people see, friends and social groups influence what you are exposed to
Selective recall or retention
- Uses and Gratifications - choose to forget somethign because it's so difficult, i.e. 9/11
Selective attention or perception
- Uses and Gratifications - people pay attention to things they want to see
Cognitive dissonance
- Uses and gratifications - selective interpretation - the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change.
Education for Death
- Walt Disney cartoons as propaganda - demonizes the Nazis - Administrative school - Lazarsfeld on Media Propaganda
Authenticity
- Walter Benjamin (1892-1940) - mass production leads to loss of aura and authenticity, machines dilute and obfuscate human experience
Integration and social interaction
- What needs do media fill? - Social empathy, conversation topics, connect with family and friends, substitutes for real-life friends - The "I" in I <3 PIE
I <3 PIE
- What needs do media fill? Information - current events, practical advice, satisfy curiosity, learning, security in knowledge Personal identity - discover, reinforce personal values, seek models of behavior, identify with (specific) others Integration and social interaction - social empathy, conversation topics, connect with family and friends, substitutes for real-life friends Entertainment - escape, relaxation, cultural/aesthetic enjoyment, filling (killing) time, emotional release, sexual arousal and pleasure - Uses and Gratifications
Interpersonal Message Diffusion
- When message is talked about and further spread through personal contacts, helping reinforce the message
Canalization
- don't alter core values, but change and influence choice - Lazarsfeld on Meida propaganda - serves important social ends - Values are harder to change, but advertising is capable of shifting certain patterns of behavior. We cannot be convinced to stop brushing our teeth, but we might be convinced to try a different brand of toothpaste.
Consonance
- from Spiral of Silence lecture - what the spiral depends on in digital spaces - Reports that share a surprisingly similar perspective on any given issue; aka "pack journalism"/Larry Sabato - similar assumptions about public's taste in news, tendency to confirm own opinions, use of same sources across journalists, journalists watching and emulating each other, journalists seeking acceptance among peers, uniformity of views due to journalists' background similarities
False Consciousness
- influence on Frankfurt school: (especially in Marxist theory) a way of thinking that prevents a person from perceiving the true nature of their social or economic situation. - people don't realize the injustice of their situation
Spiral of Silence
- media as main source of "climate of opinion" Argument: The more a dominant opinion is spread and reinforced, the more divergent individual voices stay silent - Individuals have opinions, but in addition to opinions, they also have a fear of being the only one with an opinion. When it becomes obvious that the opinions to which an individual subscribes are in decline, an individual is likely to notice this and to raise their own opinion less and less. In essence, an individual is likely to fear ostracism and so they cease to raise opinions that the majority does not support. 1970s-1980s Social Context Models: Takes social connections and perceptions into account Powerful Media Effect Audience: active, but some made helpless Media producers: powerful research approach: content analysis, public opinion, surveys
Active Audience
- media audiences do not just receive information passively but are actively involved, often unconsciously, in making sense of the message within their personal and social contexts. - 1940s-1950s - Uses and gratifications assume active audience
Social context models
- the study of media effects with attention to social relations and/or systems
Agenda-Setting
- media shape what issues are seen as "important" in public opinion - Agenda-setting often shows relationship between news agenda and public opinion. No claim can be made for causation - Media don't tell us what to think - They might tell us what to think about (agenda-setting) - The definitive statement for agenda-setting theory comes from Bernard Cohen: the press "may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about." 1970s-1980s Interpretive Effects Models - looks at interpretation and cognition Moderate Media effect Audience: active, but not in control; possibility to be manipulated Media producers: possibly powerful Research approach: content analysis, public opinion
Framing
- media's treatment of important issues shape the reality we come to know (and possibly feel) about those issues - Framing essentially involves selection and salience. to frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text (entman, p. 52) - Like a picture frame - Framing of social movements: gay rights, environmental activism, economic inequality, civil rights - Media don't tell us what to think but they might tell us how to think about what's important - Four steps: 1. Define Problems: The mass media highlights issues and suggests why they are worth the public's attention. 2. Diagnose Causes: The media identify causal agents. 3. Make Moral Judgments: The media assess responsibility and determine who or what is at fault. 4. Suggest Remedies: The media offer and justify solutions to problems. Four components of framing: 1. Communicator: The media practitioner or institution responsible for creating frames. 2. Text: The product created by the media practitioner, composed of a series of frames. 3. Receiver: The audience interpreting the text. Crucially, the way the receiver understands and thinks about frames may not correspond with the intentions of the communicator. 4. Culture: A collection of commonly invoked frames. Receivers may have different cultures than communicators, resulting in a mismatch between the intentions behind and the reception of frames. 1970s-1980s Interpretive Effects Models: Looks at interpretation and cognition Moderate effect
Social prestige
- reputation or influence arising from success, achievement, rank, or other favorable attributes. 2. distinction or reputation attaching to a person or thing and thus possessing a cachet for others.
Knowledge Gap
- research sparked by a sense that new mass media were not really living up to their potential for information dissemination - Gap visible I. at any given point in time - those with higher education will acquire more knowledge - higher correlation between acquisition of knowledge and education for topics highly publicized in the media than for topics less highly publicized 2. Over time - knowledge about heavily publicized topic will be acquired at a faster rate among better educated persons "creation of greater differentials in knowledge across a society is itself a profound social effect, and may be a central factor in future social change." - 5 factors producing the gap 1. Communication Skills: Individuals who attend college are better prepared to comprehend news reporting on current affairs or scientific developments. 2. Stored Information: College-educated individuals can draw on a depth and breadth of knowledge unavailable to high-school-educated individuals to make sense of topics that appear in the mass media. 3. Relevant Social Contacts: Individuals who attend college are more likely to develop a social network of equally knowledgable people, thus maintaining and boosting their awareness of public affairs and scientific advances. This factor points to the concept of interpersonal networks. 4. Selective Exposure to andRetention of Information: Those who attend college are more likely to take an interest in topics outside the sphere of their daily life. 5. The Nature of the Mass Media System: College-educated individuals are predisposed to consume and comprehend print media, whereas their high-school-educated counterparts may be more comfortable watching TV. 1970s-1980s Social Context Models - Takes social connections and perceptions into account Possible strong media effect Audience: active, but not in control or knowledgeable Media producers: not necessarily powerful; need to be responsible Research Approach: Surveys of media use, knowledge, and education
Lowenthal
-:Historical perspectives of popular culture - Strikes the admin school
Incremental Innovation
-Adopt now to gain a possible increase in desired value in the future (new fashions, new crop seed) - Types of innovation - information diffusion
Imitation
-Definition: "copy cat" behavior; copying actions of something you just saw -Importance of study: Media violence: Bandura was concerned that young viewers of media violence would imitate the violent behaviors in real life - important to study consequences of media violence -Relevance/Example: abusing Bozo (kid watches a video in which an adult hits bozo with a bat, when the kid was given the same equipment he copied)
Horizontal integration
-Definition: Absorption of companies within sectors -Importance of study: FS fear monopolization, consolidates media into hands of few and creates illusion of choice ("duped" audience) -Relevance/Example: Comcast → E! Entertainment TV, Golf Channel, NBCSN
High production costs and low reproduction costs
-Definition: Idea that it costs a lot to produce media, but cheap to reproduce it over and over again and to disseminate / it is very easy and cheap to reproduce, especially today in the digital world -Importance to study: critique of the Frankfurt School ideology; digital technologies allow media industries to maximize economies of scale and reach -Relevance/Example: It is costly to produce a hit song, but once it becomes popular, it spreads like wildfire and can be found on almost any music media website and is inexpensive to reproduce (but the media producers are making substantial profits in the process)
Hierarchy of Needs
-Definition: The theory proposed by Maslow that proposes the stage of growth that humans go through. (Top-to-bottom: Self-actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety, physiological) -Importance of study: Helps us to understand audience desires/needs and serves as the basis for our media decisions -- unlike FS, U&G says audience have certain needs and media fits those needs -Relevance/Example: One of our needs is love/belonging can be fulfilled by our relationships with friends and family
Consuming Kids
-Documentary - marketing specifically aimed towards children, lifetime consumers -rewiring childhood - imagination isn't good enough, consumerism will help
Leisure as work
-Frankfurt School - watching media = work, because you are reproducing the capitalism society you're seeing (Adorno) - fetishizes the product, consumption becomes our work, video games embedded with product placement
Manipulation
-Lowenthal - empiricism is a form of manipulation; it is flawed - social research is nothing but market research, an instrument of expedient manipulation
Two-Step Flow
1. Opinion leaders pay close attention to the media and receive information 2. Opinion leaders pass interpretations and media content to those with whom they have social contact Assumptions humans have agency (media not all-powerful) some people pay more attention to media than others "followers" may not gain info/pay attention directly to media Important implication media don't have direct influence could have limited effects via human relations Social Context Models: takes social connections and perceptions into account Moderate media effect 1950s
Preventative Innovation
Adopt now to avoid (potential) loss of desired value in future (seatbelt, fire alarm) - Information diffusion - Preventative innovations are adopted more slowly
Uses and Gratifications
Audiences have needs and desires (sometimes needs can't be controlled) marshmallow experiment - instant gratification key argument: media use depends on our needs, impulses, desires, and/or goals Active Audience Model: Examines audience uses, needs, and choices Limited Media Effect Media Producers not powerful Research approach: surveys 1940s-1950s
"equipment for living"
Christenson - Equipment for living how popular music fits in the life of youth, bridge gap between Adorno and administrative school, content is not as important as progress, social function of music more significant than content of music
Cultivation
Cultivation Theory - over time, repeated media representations shape our perceived reality of the world, especially among heavy media viewers and users - often focuses on TV Cultivation mechanism is like cave formation - Stalactite - repeated media representations over time (mass media) - Stalagmite - social reality perceived as same as media representations over time, especially among heavy viewers (society could possibly become like media representations? Cultivation: empirically based, but rooted in critical theory (i.e. Frankfurt School thinking) Cultivation studies long-term impact analyzes content, viewing habits, and perceptions of reality Cultivation's "weakness": gives us correlations/relationships and NOT causation - Power of TV media, pervasive and represents reality - When a group is represented on TV, it confirms that group's social identity and status. - When a group is not represented on TV,symbolic annihilation has taken place and that has powerful consequences for that group in the real world. 1970s-1980s Society and Media Model: long-term impact of media (especially TV) on perceptions of reality Possible strong effect, especially over time Audience: active, but not in control; possibility to be manipulated Media producers: possibly powerful Research approach: Content analysis, surveys
The S-Curve of adoption
Information diffusion looks at spread of ideas and technology - ideas spread slowly, and then gradually increases when the majority starts catching on - consumption spreads faster today - s-curve gets steeper
Who says what to whom and with what effect?
Harold Lasswell 1. "WHO" invokes control analysis "big business finances the production and distribution of mass media...Since the mass media are supported by great business concerns geared into the current social and economic system, the media contribute to the maintenance of that system" (Lazarsfeld, P. 107) 2. "SAYS WHAT" involves content analysis create a numerical description 3. "TO WHOM" requires audience analysis Methods: surveys and polls Goal: gather demographic information plus attitudes/opinions 4. "and with WHAT EFFECT" engages effect analysis interviews (although not wholly trusted) experiments - controlled and quasi-experiments
Media mandate
Lotz and Havens - a media outlet's purpose, commercial, non-commercial
Media Violence
Media violence research took off in the 1960s - lots of violence, rioting Increase of media violence in everyday lives 5 early studies - mostly inconclusive 5 hypotheses for relationship between media violence and its consequences 1960s-1970s Interpretive Effects Models: looks at interpretation and cognition Possible Strong effect
Frankfurt School
One of the first, sustained arguments about impact of changing media landscape emerged in late 1920s-1940s - Critical theory of society - explain functioning and effects of mass media in modern culture - Claims powerful, totalizing effects 1. on society as a whole 2. on individuals within society - Freud, Hegel, Marx, Kant - Powerful media keeps us in line with capitalism - There is no escape - If we escape, we are ostracized Two primary critiques of the Frankfurt School 1. Conservative and elitist (Adorno was a classically trained musician) 2. Are the people truly duped? Is there false consciousness? "retreat to the Grand Hotel abyss": it must be nice to sit comfortably in the armchair of criticism Frankfurt School's relevance Today Post Fordist era - manufacturing jobs going down largely self regulated media + primarily consumer mandate + deregulation = concentrated industry power Frankfurt School concerns are present today: monopolization and concentrated control, standardization, formulas, repetition, mediated cradle-to-grave consuming existence, ostracism if do not conform (Institute for Social Research) Adorno, Horkheimer, Lowenthal • 1. Critical theory; historical, philosophical, and qualitative • 2. Benefit of society/people • 3. Expose societal structures • 4. Awareness, social change, undermining structures Passive Audience Model: observes all-powerful media; powerless audience Powerful media Effect Media producers: possibly powerful Research approach: Content analysis, Surveys
Magic Bullet / Hypodermic Needle
Powerful media effect Messages too powerful to resist Passive audience; no individual differences (media hits you like a bullet) Passive Audience Model: observes all-powerful media; powerless audience Powerful Media Effect
Transmission Model
S ---- (message) ----> R
Mainstream
The process of maintaining and propagating "middle-of-the-road" attitudes and values already present in culture - Cultivation
Project Revere
Univ of Washington - 1951-1953, Stuart Todd, US Air Force Funding - information diffusion - testing the effectiveness of dropping leaflets to lead to action - Doubling the number of leaflets will not insure doubling the amount of communication or diffusion of a given message. Dropping from four to eight leaflets per person achieves maximum efficiency. Regardless of how many leaflets are dropped, only about one-half of the people will pick them up. Only about 6% of the people hear the leaflet messages orally from others. About 33% of the people never hear the message at all. More people saw the leaflet than knew the message, and more people knew the message than acted upon it.
Third Person Effect
We might think media affect others more than us The feeling that "bad things" won't happen to us is dangerous - PSAs work to remind us of our vulnerability - Third-person effect hypothesis predicts: 1. "People will overestimate the influence that mass communications have on the attitudes and behavior of others" (Davison, 3). 2. That fear will lead them to take action. - 3 person effect hypothesis requires three components: 1. A Mass Media or Propagandistic Source and Message. . An Ostensible Audience - the supposed target of the propaganda or message. 3. A Concerned Observer who worries about the effect of the message on the ostensible audience. Notice that the third-person effect hypothesis challenges the key assumption of the magic bullet and hypodermic needle hypotheses: that audiences are powerless against the mass media. 1980s-1990s Social Context Models: Takes social connections and perceptions into account Possible strong effect
Information Diffusion
how information and innovations spread and get adapted by people Process of innovations spreading to memebers of s social system over time Primarily concerned with messages with new ideas Four stages Invention Diffusion Time Consequences Diffusion through social system via: media messages, advertising, education/government intervention, word-of-mouth, social perception Cell phone - 1983-2016 Pragmatic area of investigation Cuts through disciplinary boundaries Nixle - police warning alerts "It's On Us" Campaign - judge how people are responding to it Google analytics - likes/dislikes Social Context Models: takes social connections and perceptions into account Moderate Media effect 1960s-1970s
Justified violence
if fantasy aggression is socially justified, the audience is more likely to act aggressively towards their own personal villains Berkowitz