MEH Chapters 16-17

Unified French State: Religion

-"one king, one law, one faith" -Louis believed Huguenots were rebellious republicans, so revoked Edict of Nantes (no more toleration) -Huguenots that did not convert were forced to flee. -Many left for the Dutch Republic England or America. -This exile deprived France of a commercially skilled group right as the struggle over global commerce domination was beginning. -Protestants still in France had to quarter troops in their houses -Protestant peasants in the rural south homes were burned by the armies. -Peasants started guerrilla war against the armies. -News of the terribly behaved army spread with the exiles and resulted in an unflattering image of Louis as a vicious tyrant. -Most Catholics supported the king's policy.

Peter I the Great

-After Ivan the Terrible's death, there was a 30 year period of political instability. -Then the fist Romanov tsar, Michael, took the throne. He was succeeded by Peter I the Great. -spent time in the Dutch Republic, where he learned about the technologies, especially shipbuilding. -applied western customs to Russia (forbade growth of beards, mandated western dress and assemblies) -1700: Great Northern War: Two decade long struggle with Sweden for control of Baltic Sea. Decisive battle: Poltava, in which the Russians destroyed the Swedish army and Charles XIII fled into Turkish territory. Swedes never recovered and Peter was proclaimed the emperor of Russia. -Built St. Petersburg, which proclaimed his victory in the Baltic sea, used western planning principles to create city, forced citizens to move there. -reorganized Russian army along western criteria: drafted soldiers and incorporated western drills and modern weaponry. -imposed new taxes. abolished household tax and imposed new head tax that all unprivileged people had to pay more. -introduced mercantilism by encouraging exports, not imports and sponsoring new industries in metallurgy, mining and textiles. -Traditionally Russia was a three-tiered hierarchy (serfs, landlords, emperor). Peter demanded more taxes and military service from the serfs and required landlords to serve for life in the military or civilian administration. Candidates for state service had to start at the bottom and work their way up- advancement was based on merit. This system = the Table of Ranks. -established training schools -abolished the patriarch in the Russian Orthodox Church, who typically had great influence and served to counterweight the tsar's power -however the patriarch was weakened by a schism when the Old Believers rejected his authority and denounced him as the Antichrist -people were unhappy about Peter's westernization and looked to the patriarch for support. -Peter was Lutheran, replaced patriarch with the Holy Synod, a council of clergy members, which reduced church to a simple department of the state.

Glorious Revolution

-After James II left, Parliament determined Mary would rule. -Mary accepted the crown if William of Orange could rule jointly with her. -Parliament passed the Bill of rights, upheld the view of a monarch's contract with their subjects, overturned the monarch's suspension of Parliamentary law, denied the monarch right to raise army on hi own, guaranteed subjects right to petition the government , trial with a jury, but still only property owning adult males could vote for members of the House of Commons. -Parliament repealed the most oppressive portions of the Clarendon Code with the Toleration Act, which granted toleration to all dissenters, except Unitarians (who did not believe in the Doctrine of the Trinity). -implemented the contract theory of government by strengthening the Parliament and giving subjects more rights. -Large scale land owners controlled Parliament and local government, as opposed to the royal absolutism in other European countries. -royal judges were given life tenure, creating an independent judiciary, strengthened the rule of law as set out in the Bill of Rights. -William accepted the crown as part of his strategy to defeat Louis XIV, so he could take England into the War of the League of Augsburg on the Dutch side. -Whigs supported William's pursuit of Louis XIV, while Tories disliked the increasing land taxes. -Parliament controlled taxation while the crown controlled foreign policy. -Glorious revolution set foundations for a constitutional monarchy.

Louis decides to rule france by himself

-Cardinal Jules Mazarin dies -King Louis XIV choses the next cardinal: himself -he orders the Chancellor and secretaries of state to sign nothing without his permission. -everyone is surprised because Louis did not appear interested in serious things. -broke from family tradition, everyone else relied on strong prime ministers to help them. -Louis credited Mazarin for keeping the throne secure during tax revolts following the 30 years war. M also gave fortune to king after death. -Louis ended up not appointing a prime minister for 54 years until his death. -determined to control all the affairs of state.

Unified French state: Government and Tax Reorganization

-Continuous warfare forced Louis to find ways of getting new revenue. -sold offices -imposed a tax, the capitation, on all subjects without exception. -employed intendants to supervise collection of taxes, also gathered information about local conditions, appointed on the basis of ability and loyalty to the crown. Allowed better policy making and the king being more informed about the state of the economy. -Reduced power of royal courts, known as parliaments, which were forbidden to criticize royal edicts. members guaranteed to their right to hold office and were encouraged to enforce the law. -administration became more efficient, which bettered relationship between kind and subjects. -people went to parliaments because they offered fairer rulings -better organization of tax collection and shift to indirect taxation, made people less angry about taxes. -army was well disciplined, troops were seen as protection. -coaxed most powerful nobles to court, tying them directly to fortunes of the crown (out of fear of rebellion like the Fronde, in which nobles revolted causing little Louis to flee twice)

Science and Religion

-Descartes argued that the universe was made up of tiny particles that moved mechanically by standard laws of attraction and repulsion. Struck many as atheistic. But Descartes believed that God had endowed humans with the ability to reason and Descartes reasoned his way to God's existence. He said that humans were finite beings, but had knowledge of god, an infinite one. Therefore, since the idea of infinite beings cannot be conceived by finite ones, the idea of God must be an innate idea given to humans by God himself. -the belief sprouted that Newton's regulated universe was created by God (argument from design). -Newton insisted on God's regular activity in maintaining the universe. -universe was a book of nature: should be consulted for knowledge of the Christian god and leads to proper interpretation of the scripture. -Pascal: Jansenist, who didn't like reliance on observation and reason. Introduced another source of knowledge: the heart, used intuition "Heart has its reasons that Reason does not know." written in his Pensees.

Unified France under Louis XIV

-During famine, Louis issue a letter directly asking his subjects for help. Although this appeal went against the ideas of absolutism, it was well received and the king and his subjects bonded to meet the crisis and forged a new sense of collective identity. National Unity caused by: -the religious regulation -efficient royal administration of tax collection -establishment of better relations with his subjects.

Pugachev Rebellion:

-During the Turkish Russian War, a Cossack, Emelian Pugachev, claiming to be Peter III, led a rebellion against Catherine the Great. -Thousands rose with him, including many serfs. -After the Turkish war ended, Catherine turned her troops on his revolt and it fell. -sign of deep social crisis in Russia: the elimination of compulsory state service for the landlord class had destroyed the traditional structure of Russian society as the landlords typically worked for the emperor as the serfs worked for them. -As landlords were freed of their obligations, serfs got anfry when they weren't freed of theirs. -They demanded an end to serfdom, taxation and military draft. -Catherine responded by organizing Russia into fifty provinces with a landlord at the head to control peasants. -gulf between landowning elite and serfs was vast (because of westernization and modernization.)

Prussia's Territorial Consolidation

-Frederick William von Hohenzollern was the Great elector controlling a wide spread of territories. -Although he was one of the eight princes entitled to elect the Holy Roman Emperor, his own lands were weak. -Most had ben devastated by the 30 years war and some were still under foreign occupation. -When Sweden went to war against Poland for the Baltic seas southern shore, first Frederick declared neutrality. but then as the Swedes suffered losses, he allied with them on the condition that they recognize Prussian independence from Poland. -When the Poles began to lose, he joined them, demanding they abandon their claim on Prussia. -In the end, he was the master of an independent Prussia. -His lands were scattered from the Rhineland to the Russian border.

Voltaire

-French philosopher and author -became France's most popular author of tragedies with Oedipus and Henriade, about Henry IV of France. -quarreled with a noble and was sent to Bastille, a royal prison. He was freed and made to exile to England -Here he became familiar with Locke and Newton's writings. -Published Philosophical Letters on the English, a scathing denunciation of contemporary France. -French authorities ordered it burned and issued a warrant for his arrest. -He fled to Paris with his mistress, Emilie du Chatelet, who deepened his understanding of Newton. -published Elements of Newton's Philosophy, which introduced Newton to France. -Wanted to improve the criminal justice system and end the use of torture. Used the Calas Affair (son was murdered. father accused. Father tortured then killed in torturing. Truth never discovered) to demonstrate barbarity of judicially sanctioned torture. turned the Calas affair into a scandal which discredited the use of torture. -attacked traditional Christianity. -wrote Candide, or Optimism about the earthquake of Lisbon in Portugal. in which he ridiculed Alexander Pope, English poet and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz, who argued we live in the best possible world. Voltaire endorsed limited optimism. -huge network of correspondence.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

-Genevan Calvinist, who converted to Catholicism and then deism (wrote emotional defense of deism in Profession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar) -did not embrace materialism or atheism. -Rejected idea of original sin, believed humans were good by nature, but civilization had corrupted them: alienated Voltaire and Diderot, who believed civilization was a sign of progress. -wanted to reform civilization. -The Social Contract advocated a democratic society and pioneered modern democratic theory. -good society is where all members voluntarily give up their individual rights and submit to the general will (dictated by the community's majority). -wanted people to participate in politics and act openly -wrote Confessions, recounted in detail his personal affairs-Rousseau's intent was to demonstrate that he hid nothing and presented himself fully to other human beings. if others were as open, society would transform. -rejected refined aristocratic society (this was supported by a collection of pamphleteers, who mixed political criticism with pornographic stories of kings: severely undermined the legitimacy of traditional government)

Forty Years of Warfare Result

-Increased the size of France by 12% -strengthened eastern borders -bankrupted France, left economy in shambles -other European states (especially Dutch and English) feared that the Sun King was trying to upset the balance of power, which aimed to prevent any one state from establishing permanent military dominance in Europe.

Context 1648-1740

-Louis =embodiment of absolutism - Royal absolutism was a way to build power and effectiveness of the central state. -Out of fear of religious warfare, rulers created strong central governments and instituted either policies of toleration or crushing religious dissent. -religious warfare decline. -wars became about expansion of territory, especially over overseas empires. -states increased taxes, created officials accountable to the king, increased services to their subjects, national identities were strengthened.

The Sun King at Versailles

-Louis XIV "oversaw" ten thousand nobles in his court -for the nobles a relationship with the king brought honor, military position and pensions. so nobles flocked to the king's court. -At the court, the day was centered around the king. Even at Mass, the court faced Louis in his balcony. -all the rituals proclaimed Louis was the only real political player in France, as he alone laid down policy and law. -Louis exquisite manners created a trend that enforced polite speech and good manners as qualities of highborn. Thus curtailing the often violent and crude behavior of nobles. -Versailles was his palace-gardens with fountains, the sun god apollo was the symbol, the palace celebrated the king's gloire- his renown.

Forty Years of Warfare: Dutch War

-Louis began to worry about the strength of the France's eastern border. -this resulted in the Dutch War. - Louis resented Dutch "maggots" because of their domination of Europe's trade and shipping, so he ordered his army to invade. -In réponse, the Dutch stadholder William broke the dykes and flooded his country. -This created many hardships for the Dutch but also bogged down the French. -Neither country could defeat the other so peace was signed in 1679. -Results: alienated William, who became dedicated to the defeat of France.

Forty Years of Warfare: War of the League of Augsburg

-Louis refuses to declare war in the Turks when they attack Vienna. -This decision is in line with France's traditional anti-Habsburg policy, but because he refused to help a Christian state, attacked by Muslims, many Europeans were shocked. -Louis then went to war on France's eastern Frontier against Austria. The Dutch joined in. -Louis strengthened the eastern frontier by conquering Alsace and the city of Stratsburg with his large army. -However, his finances were shot, coupled with crop failures during Little Ice Age, there was a famine, in which tons died from starvation and disease.

Louis XIV's brief Rift with the Pope

-Louis supported the French clergy's adoption of the Four Gallican Articles, which said the church councils were superior to the pope and the pope could not alter the way which the French church was governed. -This made the pope angry. so the attack on the French Huguenots was in part to heal the rift with the pope. -Louis relationship with the pope improved further when Louis supported the Pope's condemnation of Jansenist (austere Catholics whose ideas of human sinfulness seemed too Calvinist).

Immanuel Kant

-Prussian -wrote What is Enlightenment? -never advocated democracy or social/political reform -People free to seek the truth, but should submit to the current political/social order in which they found themselves in.

Peter III

-Russia was allied with Austria against France -this alliance brought Russia into the system of European international politics. -landlord class was freed from Peter's compulsory state service obligation. -Peter I's grandson, Peter III became emperor. -violent, crude and dimwitted. He feared Russians and loved Germans. As a Lutheran, he ordered the icons removed from Russian churches and the Orthodox clergy to dress like Lutheran pastors. -then he married Sophie, a princess from a minor German state.

Catherine II the Great

-Sophie, the wife of Russian emperor, Peter III, plotted with his courtiers to depose of Peter in a coup d'etat as he was murdered, Sophie was named his successor. -She became Catherine the Great. -continued Peter III's seizure of all ecclesiastical land, which decreased the church's independence from the state. -gave land to her favorites, which increased the number of serfs. -exempted landlord class from compulsory state service and taxation. -expanded Russian borders with the Partition of Poland (Prussia and Russia instigated a civil war in Poland by demanding full toleration for Protestantism and Orthodox, claiming they were ending this war, Austria, Prussia and Russia divided up Poland among themselves. Two more partitions ended Poland's independence.) -fought wars with the Turks, in which Russia seized the north shore of the Black Sea and the Crimean peninsula and the northern Caucasus. -encouraged colonization, by urging the move of Russian landlords and sponsoring German immigrants. -increased cultural diversity and slowed development of a unified national identity.

James II

-The principle of hereditary succession won out and James II became king of England. -He kept up Anglican appearances and people were satisfied because his two daughters that would succeed him were Protestant. -James promoted religious toleration, allowed Catholics and dissenters to worship in public and exempted people from the Clarendon Code. -Anglicans got angry, because they thought the king was promoting Catholicism. -James resurrected church courts, purging Anglican opponents from local governments and replacing them with Catholics and dissenters. -Had a baby boy, James III in his second marriage who was Catholic. -Anglicans freaked out because they didn't want a Catholic king again and asked Mary's husband, the Dutch stadholder, William of Orange to come to England in defense of Protestantism. -James led an army against William, but could not find him, so he fled.

Mercantilism: French

-To challenge the Dutch dominance of economy, the financial minister of France, Jean-Baptiste Colbert created mercantilism, to increase national wealth. -Consumers were encouraged to buy French products. -Monopolies were given to trading companies that would challenge the Dutch in overseas markets. -French colonies were encourage to expand: Canada, Gulf of Mexico, New Orleans, Saint-Domingue (specialized in cash crops). -Colbert's mercantilism established a new goal for the monarchy to develop national economic policy.

Turkish siege of Vienna and Reconquest of Hungary

-Turkish army led by the Ottoman grand vizier, Kara Mustafa, besieged Vienna. -Leopold rallied the support of Christian kinds, many responded and a united force (with the pope's blessing) defeated the Turks and sent Mustafa south, where he was executed by the sultan. -This allowed the Habsburg reconquest of Hungary -Leopold summed the Hungary Diet and convinced them to decree that the crown was no longer elective but hereditary and the Hungarians renounced their right of rebellion against a ruler who violated the laws. -Turkish occupation and the reconquest devastated Hungarian countryside. To restore these lands and eliminate Hungarian revolts, Leopold encouraged the move of Serb, Bohemian and German peasants to settle these lands, promising limited freedom from taxes and the obligation of serfdom. -This reduced the proportion of Hungarians in Hungary. -As Leopold was focused on France during the War of the League of Augsburg, Turks tried to take Hungary again unsuccessfully. -At Zenta, Leopold destroyed the Turks before the Sultan's eyes, which resulted in the Treaty of Carlowitz: confirmed Habsburg's conquests. But Ottoman's had control over Balkans and continued to challenged Russians over the black sea region. -During the War of Spanish Succession, a Transylvanian prince, Francis II Rakoczi, resenting Leopold's preference for Germans, led a rebellion during a plague. this failed however as Habsburgs could now rely upon the non-Hungarian population making up the kingdom. -Peace of Szatmar: united Hungary to the Habsburg lands through a common ruler.

Enlightenment Religion

-Voltaire and many others embraced deism, a rational religion solely based on the observation of nature. -It drew off of Locke's sense-based psychology, argument from design and Newton's regulated universe. - It denied the Christian doctrines of Trinity and the divinity of Jesus and the authority of the Bibles, as well as Newton's theory that god's continual intervention is necessary for the universe. -emphasized need for humane treatment of human beings and religious toleration. -religion was a matter of individual conscience over which no state or authority had jurisdiction. -As deism became increasingly popular, Louis XVI of France, signed an edit granting limited religious toleration to the Huguenots. United States also proclaimed religious toleration in the Bill of Rights. -Voltaire denounced atheists, although more and more philosophers believed the existence of God couldn't be proved. materialism (soul and immaterial things don't exist) could account for everything. This was argued by Juilien Offroy de La Mettrie (French physician) in his Man The Machine and Man the Plant, in which he also preached the gospel of pure physical pleasure.

Forty Years of Warfare: Succession to the Spanish Throne

-When Charles II of Spain died childless. -Both the French Bourbons and Austrian Habsburgs had claims to the throne. -Even though Charles had given the throne to the Bourbons, the Austrians disputed and launched a war. -This was devastated Louis' finances. -At the end of the war, Phillip (French) remained king of Spain -The treaty of Utrecht: France and Spain could never be united as a single state. Austrians received northern and southern Italy and Spanish Netherlands.

Successor of William and Mary

-When Mary and William died childless, the crown was given to Anne, Mary's Protestant younger sister, who also had no heirs. -So when Anne died, Parliament chose George to become king. -After Scotland, an independent nation ruled by an English monarch, suffering under economic depression and financial collapse, agreed to the Act of Union, which united with England to create one Great Britain ruled by a single Protestant monarch.

Enlightenment Debates: Men and Women

-Women participated actively in the Enlightenment -Women's new social, intellectual and professional activities raised the issue of similarity and difference between men and women. -Descartes: women were intellectual equals because of Cartesian dualism: the mind was not shaped by the body. It floated free in a nonmaterial, sexless world. -Locke: women were intellectual equals because the mind began as a blank sheet, and was subject to stimulus from the senses. -Diderot: men and women not that different because a woman's sexually based role as a mother and wife were only one part of her life (Montesquieu too). -Voltaire also rejected idea of distinct male and female minds. -many philosophers assigned them separate social roles: women should enforce the rules of civilization in society to tame men's unruly behavior as mothers who cultivated their kids. -Rousseau rejected gender equality. women were inferior and irrational and should play no public role in society. their roles were a symptom of civilization's corrupting effect. they belonged at home. -medical literature supported Rousseau's ideas. Pierre Roussel's The Physical and Moral Makeup of Women said that women;s nervous systems didn't allow them to develop rational capacities. their job was to nurture babies and husbands. -Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, thought women should take charge of children, but are not inferior to men. Defects were due to inadequate education women were permitted. -ideas about a universal human nature and gender neutral minds mice with traditional ideas of women's inferiority. -debate conducted increasingly on nonreligious terms.

Moses Mendelssohn

-a German jew -wanted Judaism to be stripped of miracles and supernatural phenomena. -believed its basic truths could be proved by reason. -denied the Jews were the chosen people, but believed they were an oppressed people, so worked tirelessly to end discriminatory legislation. -urged Jews to be more open to European culture, stop using Yiddish and write in German. -Jews should stop persecuting Jewish sects.

Leopold I

-became the Holy Roman emperor and head of Austrian Habsburg. -was aware of the political implications of Louis XIV's Versailles, so created is own palace, Schonbrunn to rival his. - it was an imposing residence with fountains and tons of rooms. sat at the bottom of a hill.

Eighteenth Century Warfare

-characterized by complex, ever shifting alliances. -growth of large professional armies reinforced the idea of inevitability of ongoing warfare -armies were standard features of states, except Britain who supported their allies monetarily. -armies were disciplined, resulted in less damage to civilians. -military engineering (French Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban-fortresses) and drill manuals passed down to army officers to their soldiers. -warfare enforced the balance of power.

Scientific Networks

-first scientific society's were developed in princely courts. -Prague- Rudolf II, Florence- Cosimo II, Bacon called for a royally funded research institute, Charles II of England gave grants to the Royal Society of London and Louis XIV of France gave a charter to the French Royal Academy of Sciences. -membership was mostly male. -in meetings, demonstrations of observable physical phenomena were important. Detailed descriptions of experiments were made, thus experiments could be reproduced. -Robert Boyle believed that the members of the Royal Society of London, which he founded, were "priests of nature" because they revealed God's work through experimentation and observation.

The Enlightenment and Politics: England

-increase popular participation in politics -Election to House of Commons stoked discussion -commoners with widely held support could force the king to accept them as government administrators like William Pitt accepted by George II. -Parliament tried to shield its debates from the public by forbidding the publication of its proceedings until the growth of the press, forced parliament to allow its proceedings to be publicly distributed. -popular discussion of politics intensified.

Ancient and Medieval Astronomy

-knowledge was based on philosophies of Aristotle and astronomer Ptolemy, synthesized with Christian theology. -earth was at the center, fixed by God. Earth is the lowest element in the cosmic scheme. It was the place of decay. -each organism strives to realize their potential. Objects are urged along by their inner natures to come at rest in their rightful place. -human beings are moved by God's decree. -Above the moon, there is no change or decay. The sun and planets are made out of a pure and perfect substance and move in circles, a perfect motion. -stars are fixed, but move in circular motion, propelled by angels. This creates a music called the harmony of the spheres. -Beyond the stars, heaven exists. -These views were believed to be the revealed truths of the scripture.

The Enlightenment and Politics: France

-monarchy clung to absolutist principles, proclaiming only one political player: the king. -this was increasingly difficult to maintain because of prolonged disputes over Jansenism between the parlement and the king, during which parlement published all their grievances, making it clear others beside the king, had a claim to a political role. -growth of newspaper press and rise of rational discussion encouraged subjects to discuss political matters. -public opinion played a growing role in politics -rulers had to contend with public opinion and had to explain and justify their policies.

Restoration of Charles II

-monarchy was restored, when Charles II was crowned the king of England and Ireland (he was already the king of Scotland) -led the restoration. -The King could: conduct foreign policy, choose his ministers, dismiss and gather parliament, veto legislation, override parliamentary law. -The Parliament could: impeach royal ministers, control state finances and levy taxes. -balance of power between the two. Religious Problems: Charles II was Anglican, but wanted religious toleration. The Parliament, of a strong Anglican majority, wanted Anglican alone and to promote the Common Book of Prayer. -Resulted in the Clarendon Code-required clergy to take an oath supporting Anglican theology and prohibited non-Anglican protestants to worship in public. Dissenters were those who supported the king's toleration policy. -In the Dutch War, Charles allied with his cousin, Louis XIV, who gave him a subsidy to release him from the Parliament's monetary control in exchange for Charles' conversion to Catholicism. Succession of the Crown: -Because Charles II had no heirs, Catholic James was next in line of the hereditary succession. -Parliament split into the Tories and the Whigs Tories: supported the right of James to get the throne, because hereditary monarchy was divinely instituted. Whigs: wanted Protestant monarch at all costs. Believed in John Locke's theory that the English monarchy was based on a contract and his subjects. -uncensored politically active press emerged during these debates

Enlightenment Debates: European and Non-european- New World

-natural factors like geology and climate were increasingly used to explain differences in humans, as opposed to Christianity and No Christianity. -Debate centered around the New World and South Pacific. New World -Abbe Raynal in The Philosophical History of the West Indies stated that Indian native in West Hemisphere were inferior human beings. Natural world in America was degenerate as the human one, because it formed later than Europe, explaining its cold and damp climate as it rose more recently from the sea. New world's vegetation and animals were lesser than those European counterparts. -Also said that Europeans who migrated began to degenerate. -This attack was countered by Thomas Jefferson in the Notes on the State of Virginia, which cited the mammoth and Benjamin Franklin as examples refuting Raynal's degenerate claim. -When Franklin was sent to France as a diplomat, he refuted Raynal at every turn. He presented himself as the intellectual equal of any European and showed no trace of deformity. -Raynal retracted his opinion.

Enlightenment Sociability

-new institutions sprang up in which people could discuss what they read and put into practice the central method of the Enlightenment. Coffe/Tea houses: -coffee and tea houses, consumption increased as a result of expanding colonial trade and the improving European economy. -began in Restoration London where Whigs discussed at Old Slaughter's and Tories gathered at Cocoa Tree -informal atmosphere, however conversation was suppose to be polite and orderly. Salon: -educated and well born hosted them. -guests were to converse politely about scientific, artistic or political matters assigned for the discussion by the hostess. -informal institution in which ability to converse well counted more than wealth or social class. Masonic Lodges: -Freemasonry began in London when a group of middle-class men formed a club to discuss issues of current interests. -polite conversation, downplayed social and economic differences with the brotherhood membership. -stressed ideals of human equality.

Changes in Reading Culture

-religious publications declined dramatically, replaced with publications of the novel. -newspapers and political pamphlet production increased, especially in Dutch Republic and Britain (because of lax censorship) -most readers would finish the latest bestseller then quickly turn to something else. -newspapers were read privately and silently. -lending libraries popped up. -many were eager to make a living from writing and it was feasible, because publishers paid them. -Publishing became big businesses by meeting and shaping readers' demands and taste. when a type of novel sold, they encouraged writers to produce similar works. -Increasing numbers of europeans could afford books and newspapers and lending library fees, because their disposable incomes rose. -literature became less about God, more about information and pleasure.

The Habsburg monarchy

-ruled over socially polarized lands -at the top of the hierarchy were the wealthy magnates, their cooperation was essential to the Habsburg rule and they dominated the administration at both the local and central arena. -the majority of the people were serfs living in the countryside, who had been bound to the land as a labor force to substantiate the demand for grain and timber. -During the 30 years war, landlords tied them more to the land to prevent fleeing to more peaceful places. -Leopold tried to reduce the number of uncompensated workdays to three a week, but his success was limited, because his policy had to accommodate noble self-interest. -Because of this limited power, Leopold was unable to establish a centralized state like Louis XIV. -High hungarian ethnic and religious diversity, which Habsburg manipulated, enhancing sense of difference between the communities.

Enlightenment Debates: Slavery

-slave trade was well-institutionalized -Declaration of Independence declared universal rights, but did not release slaves. -As demand for slave produced commodities increased, the slave trade increased, justified with biblical passages and the subhuman nature of Africans. -Hobbes and Locke endorsed slavery. -Voltaire attacked slavery in Candide, though reluctantly accepted it as a fact of human life. -Montesquieu argued against it as it undermined society's well being (gave owners too much power, slaves not enough) -Protestant groups called for its abolition- the Quakers, who believed god's inner light was in everyone and slave trade was kidnapping. -Anglicans condemned the trade as it went against Jesus' gospel of love. -Novelists, playwrights and poets increased sympathy for slaves, showing they possessed physical traits and moral qualities europeans admired and where upright blameless human beings, who had suffered terrible cruelty and injustice (Oroonoko by Aphra Behn). -London Committee for the Abolition of Slave Trade and the French Society of the Friends of the Blacks campaigned tirelessly to end the slave trade and abolish slavery.

George I

-succeeded William and Mary -emerged victorious from the wars against Louis XIV and his right to have the British throne had been recognized by the Treaty of Utrecht, also giving England Britain Gibraltar, Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, and the asiento-gave Britain exclusive right to import African slaves to South America, also allowed limited rights to trade with Spanish colonies. -spurred development of navy and establishments of trading posts, intensified contest for control of Canada between France and Britian. -James II's son, James, led up uprising in Scotland to regain the crown. Tories expressed sympathy for the claimant to the throne and the Whigs accuses them of treason. -This and George's preference for the Whigs led the Tories to be the minority group. -leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who promoted policy of peace with the rest of Europe and consolidated the religious and political gains of the Glorious revolution. Created political stability. -formation of collective British identity. Scots also identified with national unity, as they profited from British overseas and colonial trade.

Frederick William II

-succeeded his father Frederick I -strict Calvin, believed he was responsible to god alone for his rule. -violent, crude, "tobacco evenings" -pursued the strengthening of royal administration while enlarging the army. -Excise tax was expanded to new commodities and land tax imposed directly on nobles -Income from his personal domain was increased even more and he replaced town councils with royal administrators. -created the General Directory: consisted of all the officials who collected taxes, managed the royal domain, supervised economy of kingdom. Improved efficiency san centralization. -worked completely in private (no ministers), a personal absolutist. -Command of the troops was given to the Prussian nobility (bound them to the government), and recognized landlords rights to control serfs on their estate. -drafted his own subjects into the army, quartered soldiers in civilian homes, where they paid for their housing and food. -Prussia was known as the "barracks state"

Frederick II

-succeeded his father Frederick William I as king of Prussia. -was very refined -first act as king was to attack Charles VI's Maria Theresa. seizing Silesia, her richest country and thereby starting the war of the Austrian succession, the first of two world wars.

Encyclopedie by Diderot

-was a huge commercial success -Diderot wanted to present the current knowledge on all subjects in a single multivolume reference work. -wanted to display how all knowledge was interconnected and rests on observation, experiment and reason. -used works of Bacon, Descartes, Locke, Newton, Montesquieu and Voltaire. -Encyclopedie had articles on craft and manufacturing: testified to the importance of craft tradition in the Scientific Revolution. -wanted reference source to be useful. -Diderot worked under the conditions of press censorship, snuck in inflammatory material with clever cross referencing.

Louis XV

-was the successor of Louis XIV -continued absolutist policy Police Force: -established a police force and removed this task from the army. Poor Relief: -also, the state assumed control of poor relief, caring for the children and the elderly. Some say the goal of these programs was to isolate the socially undesirable. While others, cite the state run poor relief as the beginning of a modern state funded welfare program. Jansenism: -During his reign, the problem of the Jansenists remained. -Louis continued to condemn them, but the Parlement of Paris declared, using the Four Gallican Articles, that the pope was illegally intruding into French church's affairs. -The Duke of Orleans, the regent of Louis XV, had allow Parlement to criticize the royal decision. -The Parlement of Paris was openly defying Louis on the Jansenism issue and challenging absolutism. -Neither side was silenced and it seemed Louis XV could not maintain religious peace.

Why the Scientific Enlightenment occurred

1) renaissance humanist's discovery of other ancient authors that contest the widely held beliefs of Aristotle, like Plato. 2) More people engaged in the study of nature, outside of universities. 3) mathematics became useful. Craftsmen gained attention and motive for experimenting and improving their products, such as the astrolabe. 4) alchemy became popular. careful observation and experimentation with chemical and natural process. 5) developments in anatomy led by Andreas Vesalius, who dissected a body in his class for the first time and made discoveries. William Harvey also discovered things about anatomy. -Scientific Revolution found the word as a place full of motion.

The Nature of History

Ancients: traditionalist believers that history was a downhill slide from an earlier golden age or a cycles through high points and low points. Moderns: inspired by the Scientific Revolution, using laws of Newtons as evidence, said that history was the story of intellectual progress. -Debates between the two continued until the 18th century.

A New View of the Universe

Copernicus: wanted to improve Ptolemy's predictions of planetary movement, assumed the planets moved about the sun in On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies. Tycho Brahe: made planetary logs, found a new star, disturbing the theory that the universe above the moon was changeless. thought planets moved about sun, sun moved about earth. Johannes Kepler: planets moved in elliptical motion, orbits around the sun and their speed varied. Galileo: used a telescope, planet and the sun rotated on their own axes and earth does the same. material bodies were naturally in motion. good relationship with Pope Urban VIII, but came under the heat of the roman Inquisition, which made sympathetic protestants move to his side. Sir Isaac Newton: In Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, said planets, rotating on their axes, travel around the sun in elliptical orbit. Speed and orbit controlled by gravity. Gravity also explained behavior of things on earth. universe was infinite.

Prussian Taxation

Frederick William von Hohenzollern, the Great elector, two goals were to expand his army and reorganize finances to pay for it. -increasing taxes led to confrontations with the diets, as they usually controlled the taxes. -The Diet of Brandenburg gave him a six year grant that he continued to collect on his own authority throughout the warfare with Sweden and Poland. -then he proposed supplementing the grant with the excise tax (indirect tax of consumer goods) -because this violated the nobles traditional tax exemption, they objected, which led the elector to ask only the towns to pay it. -So the dominated by nobles countryside only had to pay land tax, while the towns had the excise. thus splitting the rural and urban taxpayers unified opposition to new taxes. -This system was introduced to Prussia as well. -Diets withered away, without the power to tax. -Hohenzollern private property produced even more revenue for the elector's treasury. -also, encouraged economic growth (mercantilism) by increasing exports and introducing new manufacturing centers. with the help of exiled Huguenots, the Prussian economy recovered from the 30 years war.

Two World Wars: 1740-1763

I. -Frederick II of Prussia attacks Maria Theresa of Austria, beginning the War of the Austrian Succession, because he wants Silesia, the richest Austrian territory. -Bavaria and Saxony join against Austria. -Britain was already at war with Spain over trading rights. -Britain joined Austria to fight Prussia. - Britain attacked French in North America and India -France allied with Prussia. -Prussia emerged victorious. II. -Austria and Prussia fight over Silesia, with Russia allied with Austria against Prussia. -France and Britain were at war in North America with the Seven Years War. -Britain joined Prussia against Austria and France

Models of Scientific Knowledge

Inductive Knowledge: Sir Francis Bacon-knowledge needs to be gained from careful observation and experimentation. Deductive: Descartes, Discourse on Method, "I think, therefore I am"-submitted every statement to doubt, reconstruct according to previously established points to those that followed logically from them. Scientific Method: Newton-Combination of inductive and deductive. 1) observation and experimentation. 2) then the findings had to fit logically with all the other previously discovered findings.

The Early Enlightenment

John Locke: England was a center for the enlightenment. Locke applied newton's ideas to the study of the human mind. Published An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, in which he argued ideas only arise through the experience of the world with our senses. Used the reasoning criteria of the Scientific Revolution, repudiated the notion of innate ideas and cast doubt on the reality of divine revelation as authority for guidance in people's lives. Central concern of Enlightenment =study of human beings. led to modern psychology. Baron de Montesquieu: Another center of Enlightenment was France. Published The Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Laws. Focused on humans in a group, assumed there was a universal human nature. Found that the cause for this was environmental factors. Thus, he argued that climate and geography shaped the features of any given society. laid foundations for modern sociology.

The Second Treatise of Government (Doc)

John Locke: men are in perfect freedom of their actions. government is there to restrain violence of men. Absolutism as run by one man, is simply in the state of nature, which is bad. Every man has a right to his property.Need consent to place a man under government. As a man is part of one political body, he has an obligation to that body to obey the laws. Legislation exists for the perseverance of property. If a single person sets up his own arbitrary laws, the government should be dissolved.

After Leopold I's death...

Leopold had two sons: Joseph I and Charles Vi. Joseph died during the war of the Spanish Succession, so Charles VI took the throne as the only Austrian and Spanish Habsburg male. Thus, he inherited Austrian territories, Spain, Netherlands, Italy and America. -Fearing an upset of the balance of power, other European powers supported the division of lands between the Habsburg and Bourbons in the Treaty of Utrecht. -Charles devoted his reign to ensure his daughter succeeded him on the throne. So Charles persuaded the magnates and other European rulers to recognize Maria Theresa's reign. -However, after his death, in the War of Austrian Succession, Frederick II of Prussia attacked Maria Theresa. -This showed how weak the Habsburgs had become.

Vindication of the Rights of Women

Mary Wollstonecraft -women are the way they are not by science, but because of their environment -they have been weekly educated

The court of Louis XIV (Doc)

Memoirs of Duke of Saint Simon: Louis was not very smart, but his ministers were good. eloquent and refined, loved hearing praises.vanity, easily controlled by ministers. had spies. encouraged nobles to spend lavishly so they became dependent on him for income. Duchess of Orleans: expose that the courtiers are obsessed with status. W.H. Lewis: rituals of etiquette-extreme. king was OCD about them.

Two World Wars Winners and Losers

Prussia: winner. controlled Silesia, although his finances and military were strained, Prussia was saved by Peter III's breaking of Russia's alliance with Austria and signing peace with Prussia. Austria: Loser. The shock of losing Silesia threw Maria Theresa into frenzy: reformed army, overhauled tax structure, made state taxation permanent. During Seven Years War, her reforms failed. So she instituted more reform, mostly to increase revenue for a better army. Tried to reduce uncompensated work of peasants. Landlords were upset. Serfs took matters into their own hands by staging local rebellions. Maria imposed tax of Catholic church. Clergy were taxed without pope's permission and the church was forbidden to acquire new tax-free land. attacked weaker states. Maria was succeeded by Joseph II, who was determined to strengthen Austria against Prussia. abolished serfdom, imposed state taxes on former serfs. Landlords resisted but peasants supported reforms. Resulted in rebellion. Succeeded by Leopold II, who reinstituted serfdom. Britain: Winner. In the seven years war, Britain drove French off north America and secured predominant place in India.

Religion in Absolutism (Doc)

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes: all must become Catholic. Duke of Saint-Simon: depopulation and the ruin of commerce. death, families separated. Louis XIV's mistake was in carrying it out, not revoking religious toleration. Declaration of the Gallican Church: kings have no religious power, church has no power over kings. Louis XIV's letter to his heir: have respect for religion. Kings have disposal of all property, ecclesiastical or otherwise.

The Enlightenment and Politics: cameralism

Scandinavia, Russia and Germany: Enlightenment rationalism combined with political tradition and created cameralism. -aimed at increasing the states' wealth through direct management of people and resources. -government should intervene in people's lives to make them better fed, better housed and better behaved to increase productivity. -emphasized need for rational assessment. -the state= a machine -the head of the bureaucracy was the ruler, whose job was to see that the "machine" ran smoothly. -kings were viewed as supreme politically managers, as opposed to god appointed rulers with the divine right to authority.

Enlightenment Debates: European and Non-european- South Pacific

South Pacific: -James Cook and Louis-Antoine de Bougainville led scientific voyages through the region and published accounts, feeding French and British thrust for travel literature. -Diderot wrote the Supplement to the Voyage of Bougainville, in which he fictionally described the sexual activity of the Tahitians. -part of a sustained discussion about European civilization and Europe's place in the larger world. -many Europeans continued to think in Eurocentric terms and assert their superiority. -Rousseau attacked civilization as a corrupter, believed Europeans had harmed indigenous peoples. -Diderot denied civilization's corrupting qualities, but agreed European colonization had introduced corruption and inequality to other peoples. -Shows that people were increasingly seeking nonreligious explanations for differences among human beings and tried to articulate a sense of European identity in non-Eurocentric terms.

Science and the State

The Sun King: Descartes' endorsement of the heliocentric universe was used to support the absolutism of Louis XIV. Thomas Hobbes: took Descartes idea of people are matter in motion to mean that if left to themselves people would just attack each other. so they need authority. the people created the absolute ruler to end the self-defeating violence. Absolutism based on contract with the people, not God's will. Wrote Leviathan. John Locke: opponent of absolutism, believed there needed to be a contract between ruler and ruled. wrote Two Treatises on Government. People entered into voluntary contract and could withdraw whenever from the ruler. Purpose of government was to protect private property rights. Influenced the American Revolution. Supported by the overthrow of James II, repudiation of absolutism and the landowners' control of Parliament.

An Essay on Crimes and Punishments (Doc)

by Cesare Beccaria (used Enlightenment analysis of the legal and penal system) -all punishments that go bond keeping the bond between individuals united are unnecessary. -cruelty= torture -punishment of death is unnecessary. -better to prevent crimes than punish them.