MGMT 467

five conflict management styles

A low concern for your own needs and a high concern for others' needs results in passive behavior. A high concern for your own needs and a low concern for others' needs results in aggressive behavior. A moderate or high concern for your own needs and others' needs results in assertive behavior.

guidelines for Rational Persuasion

Explain the reason why the objective needs to be met. Explain how the other party will benefit by meeting the objective. Provide evidence that the objective can be met. Explain how potential problems and concerns will be handled.

The Development-Driven Model

Focus. The model is concerned with making effective decisions with maximum development of followers. Follower development is worth the cost. Value. Value is placed on follower development, and no value is placed on time. Orientation. The model has a long-term horizon, as development takes time.

The Time-Driven Model

Focus. The model is concerned with making effective decisions with minimum cost. Time is costly, as it takes longer for groups to make decisions than the leader alone. Value. Value is placed on time, and no value is placed on follower development. Orientation. The model has a short-term horizon.

Listening

Paying attention. When people interrupt, stop what you are doing and give them your complete attention. Avoiding distractions. Keep your eye on the speaker. If you are in a noisy or distracting place, suggest moving to a quiet spot. Staying tuned in. Do not let your mind wander to personal topics. Do not think about what you are going to say in reply; just listen. Not assuming and interrupting. Do not assume you know what the speaker is going to say, or listen to the beginning and jump to conclusions. Listen to the entire message without interrupting the speaker. Watching nonverbal cues. People sometimes say one thing and mean something else. So watch as you listen to be sure that the speaker's eyes, body, and face are sending the same message as the verbal message. Asking questions. When you feel there is something missing, contradictory, or you just do not understand, ask direct questions to get the person to explain the idea more fully. Taking notes. Part of listening is writing important things down so you can remember them later, and document them when necessary. Conveying meaning. The way to let the speaker know you are listening is to use verbal cues, such as, "you feel...," "uh huh," and "I understand." You should also use nonverbal communication to indicate you are interested and listening.

Increasing Legitimate Power

To have legitimate power, you need management experience, which could also be a part of your job. Exercise your authority regularly. Follow the guidelines for using rational persuasion, especially if your authority is questioned. Back up your authority with rewards and punishment.

five normative leadership styles

1. Decide The leader makes the decision alone and announces it, or sells it, to the followers. 2. Consult Individually The leader tells followers individually about the problem, gets information and suggestions, and then makes the decision. 3. Consult Group The leader holds a group meeting and tells followers the problem, gets information and suggestions, and then makes the decision. 4. Facilitate The leader holds a group meeting and acts as a facilitator to define the problem and the limits within which a decision must be made. The leader seeks participation and concurrence on the decision without pushing his or her ideas. 5. Delegate The leader lets the group diagnose the problem and make the decision within stated limits. The role of the leader is to answer questions and provide encouragement and resources.

sources of power

1. Position Power Position power is derived from top management, and it is delegated down the chain of command. 2. Personal Power Personal power is derived from the followers based on the leader's behavior. Charismatic leaders have personal power.

Differences Between the Negotiating and Collaborating Styles

A common difference between negotiating and collaborating is the solution. With negotiation, the two people may trade off winning and losing. With collaboration, the two people work together to develop one method that allows them both to win.

Differences Between the Avoiding and Accommodating Styles

A common difference between the avoiding and accommodating style is based on behavior. With the avoiding style, you don't have to do anything you really did not want to do; with the accommodating style, you do.

Legitimate Use of Rational Persuasion

As a manager meeting objectives through your employees, or in dealing with higher-level managers and people over whom you have no authority, it is often helpful to use the rational persuasion influencing tactic. Rational persuasion includes logical arguments with factual evidence to persuade others to implement your recommended action.

Checking Understanding

Checking understanding is the process of giving feedback. After you have listened to the message, check your understanding of the message by: Paraphrasing. Begin speaking by giving feedback, using paraphrasing to repeat the message to the sender. When you can paraphrase the message correctly, you convey that you have listened and understood the other person. Watching nonverbal cues. As you speak, watch the other person's nonverbal cues. If the person does not seem to understand what you are talking about, clarify the message before finishing the conversation.

Appropriate Use of Coercive Power

Coercive power is appropriate to use in maintaining discipline and enforcing rules. Coercion may work when employees are not willing to do as requested. Employees tend to resent managers' use of coercive power.

Leadership Styles

Directive supportive Participative Achievement oriented

Group Support for Objectives

Do followers have high (H) or low (L) support for the team or organizational goals to be attained in solving the problem? Higher levels of participation are acceptable with high levels of support

FEEDBACK

Feedback is the process of verifying messages and determining if objectives are being met. Questioning, paraphrasing, and allowing comments and suggestions are all forms of feedback that check understanding

Importance of Commitment

How important is follower commitment to implement the decision? If acceptance of the decision is critical to effective implementation, importance is high (H). If commitment is not important, it's low (L). When making highly important commitment decisions that followers may not like and may not implement, followers generally need to be involved in making the decision.

Decision Significance

How important is the decision to the success of the project or organization? Is the decision of high (H) importance or low (L) importance to the success? When making highly important decisions, leaders need to be involved.

Group Expertise

How much knowledge and expertise do the individual followers have with this specific decision? Is expertise high (H) or low (L)? The more expertise the followers have, the greater the individual or group participation can be.

Leader Expertise

How much knowledge and expertise does the leader have with this specific decision? Is expertise high (H) or low (L)? The more expertise the leader has, the less need there is for follower participation

Likelihood of Commitment

If the leader were to make the decision alone, is the certainty that the followers would be committed to the decision high (H) or low (L)? When making decisions that followers will like and want to implement, there is less need to involve them in the decision.

Team Competence

Is the ability of the individuals to work together as a team to solve the problem high (H) or low (L)? With high team competence, more participation can be used

Situation Favorableness three variables, in order of importance

Leader-member relations Task structure Position power

Appropriate Use of Information Power

Leaders use information power when making rational persuasion and often with inspirational appeals. b. Increasing Information Power (Slide 5-21) To increase your information power, follow these guidelines: 1. Have information flow through you. 2. Know what is going on in the organization. 3. Develop a network of information sources, and gather information from them.

Motivating

Motivation is increased by (1) clarifying the follower's path to the rewards that are available, or (2) increasing the rewards that the follower values and desires.

Appropriate Use of Expert Power

New managers frequently depend on employees who have expertise in how the organization runs and know how to get things done politically. Expert power is essential to employees who are working with people from other departments and organizations. b. Increasing Expert Power To increase your expert power, follow these guidelines: 1. To become an expert, take all the training and educational programs your organization provides. 2. Attend meetings of your trade or professional associations, and read their publications (magazines and journals) to keep up with current trends in your field. Write articles to be published. Become an officer in the organization. 3. Keep up with the latest technology. Volunteer to be the first to learn something new. 4. Project a positive self-concept, and let people know about your expertise by developing a reputation for having expertise.

Most difficult style to implement

Of the five styles, the most difficult to implement successfully, due to the complexity and level of skill needed, is the collaborative style.

Analyzing

PAGE 190: Analyzing Analyzing is the process of thinking about, decoding, and evaluating the message. As the speaker sends the message, you should analyze by: Thinking. Listen actively by organizing, summarizing, reviewing, interpreting, and critiquing often. Waiting to evaluate until after listening. When people try to listen and evaluate what is said at the same time, they tend to miss part or all of the message. You should just listen to the entire message, then come to your conclusions.

The steps in the oral message-sending process are

Step 1. Develop rapport. It is usually appropriate to begin communications with small talk correlated to the message. It helps prepare the person to receive the message. Step 2. State your communication objective. It is helpful for the receiver to know the desired end result of the communication before covering all the details. Step 3. Transmit your message. Tell the people what you want them to do, give instructions. Step 4. Check the receiver's understanding. When communicating, ask direct questions and/or use paraphrasing. Step 5. Get a commitment and follow up. When giving instructions, it is important to get a commitment to the action. Make sure that followers can do the task and have it done by the deadline.

The Negotiation Process

Step 1. Research the other party(ies). Know the key power players. Try to find out what the other parties want, and what they will and will not be willing to give up, before you negotiate. Find out their personality traits and negotiation style by networking with people who have negotiated with the other party before. The more you know about the other party, the better your chances of getting an agreement. Step 2. Set objectives. Set a lower limit, a target objective, and an ongoing objective. Remember that the other party is probably also setting three objectives. The key to successful negotiations is for all parties to get between their minimum and target objective. This creates a win-win situation. Step 3. Try to develop options and trade-offs. In purchasing something as well as in looking for a job, if you have multiple sellers and job offers, you are in a stronger power position to get your target price. It is common practice to quote other offers and to ask if the other party can beat them. If you have to give up something, or cannot get exactly what you want, be prepared to ask for something else in return. Step 4. Anticipate questions and objections, and prepare answers. You need to be prepared to answer the unasked question, "What's in it for me?" Don't focus on what you want, but on how your deal will benefit the other party. Talk in you and we not I terms, unless you are telling others what you will do for them.

Substitutes and Neutralizers

Substitutes for leadership make a leadership style unnecessary or redundant. Neutralizers reduce or limit the effectiveness of a leader's behavior. 1. Characteristics of followers. Ability, knowledge, experience, training. Need for independence. Professional orientation. Indifference toward organizational rewards. 2. Characteristics of the task. Clarity and routine. Invariant methodology. Provision of own feedback concerning accomplishment. Intrinsic satisfaction. 3. Characteristics of the organization. Formalization. Inflexibility. Highly specified and active advisory and staff functions. Closely knit, cohesive work groups. Organizational rewards not within the leader's control. Spatial distance between leader and followers.

least preferred coworker Scales

The LPC essentially answers the question, "Are you more task-oriented or relationship-oriented?" The two leadership styles are (1) task and (2) relationship

Accommodating Conflict Style

The accommodating conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict by passively giving in to the other party. When you use the accommodating style, you are being unassertive but cooperative. You attempt to satisfy the other party, neglecting your own needs by letting others get their own way. A win-lose situation is created, as you try to please everyone. The accommodating style is appropriate when: (1) the person enjoys being a follower; (2) maintaining the relationship outweighs all other considerations; (3) the changes agreed to are not important to the accommodator, but are to the other party; or (4) the time to resolve the conflict is limited

Avoiding Conflict Style

The avoiding conflict style user attempts to passively ignore the conflict rather than resolve it. When you avoid a conflict, you are being unassertive and uncooperative. A lose-lose situation is created because the conflict is not resolved. The avoiding style is appropriate to use when: (1) the conflict is trivial; (2) your stake in the issue is not high; (3) confrontation will damage an important relationship; (4) you don't have time to resolve the conflict; or (5) emotions are high.

Collaborating Conflict Style

The collaborating conflict style user assertively attempts to jointly resolve the conflict with the best solution agreeable to all parties. It is also called the problem-solving style. When you use the collaborating approach, you are being assertive and cooperative. This is the only style that creates a true win-win situation. The collaborating style is appropriate when: (1) you are dealing with an important issue that requires an optimal solution, and compromise would result in suboptimizing; (2) people are willing to place the group goal before self-interest, and members will truly collaborate; (3) maintaining relationships is important; (4) time is available; and (5) it is a peer conflict.

Career Networking

The first step in the networking process is to perform a self-assessment to determine accomplishments and to set goals. Second, create a one-minute self-sell that quickly summarizes history and career plans and asks a question. Third, develop a written network list. Fourth, conduct networking interviews to meet your goals. Finally, maintain your network for meeting future goals.

Selecting the Time-Driven or Development-Driven Model for the Situation

The first step is actually to select one of the two models, based on whether the situation is driven by the importance of time or development of followers. The characteristics of the decision are focus, value, and orientation.

Forcing Conflict Style

The forcing conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict by using aggressive behavior to get his or her own way. When you use the forcing style, you are uncooperative and aggressive, doing whatever it takes to satisfy your own needs—at the expense of others, if necessary. A win-lose situation is created. The forcing style is appropriate to use when: (1) unpopular action must be taken on important issues; (2) commitment by others to proposed action is not crucial to its implementation—in other words, people will not resist doing what you want them to do; (3) maintaining relationships is not critical; or (4) the conflict resolution is urgent.

Contingency Theory Variables

The leader factor is based on personality traits, behavior, and experience. The followers factor is based on capability and motivation. The situational factor is based on task, structure, and environment

Participative leadership

The leader includes employee input into decision making. Participative leadership is appropriate when followers want to be involved, have internal locus of control, and follower ability is high; when the environmental task is complex, authority is either strong or weak, and job satisfaction from coworkers is either high or low.

Supportive Leadership

The leader provides high consideration Supportive leadership is appropriate when the followers do not want autocratic leadership, have internal locus of control, and follower ability is high. Supportive leadership is also appropriate when the environmental tasks are simple, formal authority is weak, and the work group does not provide job satisfaction.

Directive leadership

The leader provides high structure Directive leadership is appropriate when the followers want authority leadership, have external locus of control, and the follower ability is low. Directive leadership is also appropriate when the environmental task is complex or ambiguous, formal authority is strong, and the work group provides job satisfaction.

Achievement oriented

The leader sets difficult but achievable goals, expects followers to perform at their highest level, and rewards them for doing so. Achievement-oriented leadership is appropriate when followers are open to autocratic leadership, have external locus of control, and follower ability is high; when the environmental task is simple, authority is strong, and job satisfaction from coworkers is either high or low.

Negotiating Conflict Style

The negotiating conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict through assertive, give-and-take concessions. This is also called the compromising style. When you use the compromising approach, you are moderate in assertiveness and cooperation. An "I win some, you win some" situation is created through compromise. The negotiating style is appropriate when: (1) the issues are complex and critical, and there is no simple and clear solution; (2) parties have about equal power and are interested in different solutions; (3) a solution will be only temporary; or (4) time is short.

The Psychological Contract

The psychological contract is the unwritten implicit expectations of each party in a relationship. Conflict Arises by Breaking the Psychological Contract The psychological contract is broken for two primary reasons: (1) We fail to make explicit our own expectations and fail to inquire the expectations of the other parties. (2) We further assume that the other party(ies) has the same expectations that we hold.

State the leadership continuum model major styles and variables

The two major continuum leadership model styles are boss-centered and subordinate-centered. The variables include (1) the boss, (2) the subordinates, and (3) the situation (time)

Coalitions

Using coalitions as an influencing tactic is political behavior. Reciprocity and networking are used to achieve ongoing objectives, whereas coalitions are developed for achieving a specific objective. A political tactic when developing coalitions is to use co-optation. Co-optation is the process of getting a person whose support you need to join your coalition rather than compete.

dysfunctional conflict

When conflict prevents the achievement of organizational objectives, it is negative

Appropriate Use of Reward Power

When employees do a good job, they should be rewarded. When dealing with higher-level managers and people over whom you have no authority, you can use the exchange influencing tactic by offering some type of reward for helping you meet your objective.

Initiating Conflict Resolution

When initiating a conflict resolution using the collaborative style, use the following model: The initiating conflict resolution model steps are (1) plan a BCF statement that maintains ownership of the problem; (2) present your BCF statement and agree on the conflict; (3) ask for, and/or give, alternative conflict resolutions; (4) make an agreement for change.

Functional conflict

exists when disagreement and opposition supports the achievement of organizational objectives

conflict

exists whenever people are in disagreement and opposition.

performance formula

explains performance as a function of ability, motivation, and resources. When the employee's ability is the reason for keeping performance from being optimal, the corrective coaching action is training (JIT). When motivation is lacking, motivational techniques such as giving praise might help. When resources are the problem, you need to get the resources.

normative leadership model

has a time-driven and development-driven decision tree that enables the user to select one of five leadership styles (decide, consult individually, consult group, facilitate, and delegate) appropriate for the situation (seven questions/variables) to maximize decisions. It is called a normative model because it provides a sequential set of questions that are rules (norms) to follow to determine the best leadership style for the given situation.

Substitutes for leadership

include characteristics of the subordinate, task, and organization that replace the need for a leader or neutralize the leader's behavior.

message-receiving process

includes listening, analyzing, and checking understanding.

Coercive Power

involves punishment and withholding of rewards to influence compliance. It is also called the pressure influencing tactic

Mentoring

is a form of coaching in which a more-experienced manager helps a less-experienced protégé

arbitrator

is a neutral third party who makes a binding decision to resolve a conflict. The arbitrator is like a judge, and his or her decision must be followed. However, the use of arbitration should be kept to a minimum because it is not a collaborative conflict style

Negotiating

is a process in which two or more parties are in conflict and attempt to come to an agreement Negotiation is often a zero-sum game in which one party's gain is the other party's loss. Negotiating is not about taking advantage of others, it's about building relationships and helping each other get what you want. Face-to-face negotiations are generally preferred because you can see the other person's nonverbal behavior and better understand objections.

Reward power

is based on the user's ability to influence others with something of value to them. A leader's power is strong or weak based on his or her ability to punish and reward followers. An important part of reward power is having control over resources, such as allocating expense and budget funds.

Information power

is based on the user's data desired by others. Information power involves access to vital information and control over its distribution to others.

Referent power

is based on the user's personal relationship with others. It is also called the personal appeals influencing tactic based on loyalty and friendship. Leaders can also use the inspirational appeals influencing tactic. The leader appeals to the follower's values, ideals, and aspirations, or increases self-confidence by displaying his or her feelings to appeal to the follower's emotions and enthusiasm.

Legitimate Power

is based on the user's position power, given by the organization. It is also called the legitimization influencing tactic. a. Appropriate Use of Legitimate Power When using legitimate power, it is also helpful to use the consultation influencing tactic. With consultation, you seek others' input about achieving an objective and are open to developing a plan together to achieve the objective.

Connection Power

is based on the user's relationship with influential people. With a coalition influencing tactic, leaders use influential people to help persuade others to meet their objective. Coalitions are also a political strategy.

Expert Power

is based on the user's skill and knowledge. Experts commonly use the rational persuasion influencing tactic because people believe they know what they are saying and that it is correct.

Power

is the leader's potential influence over followers. Because power is the potential to influence, you do not actually have to use power to influence others. Often it is the perception of power, rather than the actual use of power, which influences others.

Communication

is the process of conveying information and meaning. True communication takes place only when all parties understand the message (information) from the same perspective (meaning). Your ability to speak, read, and write will have a direct impact on your career success. There is a positive relationship between communication competency and leadership performance.

Networking

is the process of developing relationships for the purpose of socializing and politicking

Coaching

is the process of giving motivational feedback to maintain and improve performance The major difference between criticism and coaching feedback is that coaching feedback is based on a good, supportive relationship; it is specific and descriptive; and it is not judgmental criticism.

Paraphrasing

is the process of having the receiver restate the message in his or her own words.

contingency leadership model

is used to determine if a person's leadership style is task- or relationship- oriented, and if the situation (leader-member relationship, task structure, and position power) matches the leader's style to maximize performance.

leadership continuum model

is used to determine which one of seven styles to select based on the use of boss- centered versus subordinate-centered leadership, to meet the situation (boss, subordinates, situation/time) in order to maximize performance.

Attribution theory

is used to explain the process managers go through in determining the reasons for effective or ineffective performance and deciding what to do about it. Managers tend to attribute the cause of poor performance by certain employees to internal reasons (ability and/or motivation) within their control, and poor performance by other employees to external reasons (resources) beyond their control.

path-goal leadership model

is used to select the leadership style (directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented) appropriate to the situation (subordinate and environment) to maximize both performance and job satisfaction. Note that path-goal leadership theory is based on motivation theories of goal setting and expectancy theory. The leader is responsible for increasing followers' motivation to attain personal and organizational goals.

Reciprocity

reciprocity involves creating obligations and developing alliances, and using them to accomplish objectives. Notice that the exchange influencing tactic is used with reciprocity

Situation favorableness

refers to the degree to which a situation enables the leader to exert influence over the followers. The more control the leader has over the followers, the more favorable the situation for the leader.

Situational Factors

subordinate-authoritarianism, locus of control, ability Environment- task structure, formal authroity, work group

Leadership Theories

theories have practical value because they are used to better understand, predict, and control successful leadership.