MGMT Final Exam

Which of the following is not one of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs? Physiological Existence Social Safety Self-Actualization Esteem

Existence

Both task-oriented behaviors and people-oriented behaviors seem to be related to important outcomes. Task-oriented behaviors seem to lead to greater employee satisfaction while people-oriented behaviors are more strongly related to leader effectiveness. True False

False

The Big Five Personality Traits include all the following except Neuroticism Openness Locus of Control Agreeableness Conscientiousness Extraversion

Locus of Control

According to Michael Beer's formula for leading change, ( D x M x P ) > C The variable M stands for ________________. Note: The formula is also often expressed as ( D x M x P ) > ( Rc + Cc ) Method Means Model Management

Model

Job performance is often viewed as a function of three factors expressed in an equation of the form, Performance = (Factor A) x (Factor B) x (Factor C). Which of the following is not one of the three factors that lead to performance? Environment Ability Motivation Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness

The degree to which a person is organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable refer to which of the Big Five Personality Traits? Conscientiousness Agreeableness Extraversion Openness Neuroticism

Conscientiousness

According to John P. Kotter in "What Leaders Really Do," management involves all the following except Setting direction. Controlling activities and solving problems. Organizing and staffing. Planning and budgeting.

Setting direction.

Before change can take place, key organization members who are to adopt new attitudes and behavior must be dissatisfied with the status quo. True False

True

Being mentored by a knowledgeable and powerful mentor has been shown to be important for career advancement. However, when companies do not have a formal mentoring program in which people are assigned to a specific mentor, people are more likely to develop a mentoring relationship with someone who is similar to them in demographic traits. This can limit opportunities for employees who do not reflect the predominent demographic traits of the majority of the company's leaders. This is an example of stereotyping. similarity-attraction phenomenon. faultlines. ethnocentrism.

similarity-attraction phenomenon.

The integrative approach to negotiations is the traditional "fixed-pie" approach, where an increase on one side results in a decrease on the other side. True False

False

________ refers to the degree of camaraderie within the group and is often associated with increased levels of productivity and rewarding experience for the group's members. Cohesion Punctuated equilibrium Collective efficacy Norming

Cohesion

The power that comes from knowledge and skill. Legitimate Power Coercive Power Referent Power Expert Power

Expert Power

360-Degree Feedback is best used for Developmental purposes. Determining promotion readiness within an organization. 360-Degree feedback should not be used in the workplace since some individuals might not provide objective feedback. Compensation and reward decisions.

Developmental purposes.

Which theory of motivation proposes that individuals are motivated by a sense of fairness based on social comparisons where the individual compares their inputs and outcomes with the inputs and outcomes of others? Clayton Alderfer's ERG Theory Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory J. Stacy Adams' Equity Theory Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

J. Stacy Adams' Equity Theory

A group can be defined as A cohesive coalition of people working together to achieve mutual goals. A small number of people with complimentary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they are mutually accountable. A group of players forming one side in a competitive game or sport. A collection of individuals who interact with each other such that one person's interactions have an impact on the others.

A collection of individuals who interact with each other such that one person's interactions have an impact on the others.

The following refers to which element of organizational culture: "The visible manifestations of culture are the physical and social environment of the organization - both tangible and intangible. These observable characteristics include physical space, the technological output of the group, artistic productions, the way people dress, the hours and patterns of work schedules, the fringe benefits, the end-of-quarter beer busts, or the overt behavior of its members." Artifacts Values Socialization Assumptions

Artifacts

The following refers to which element of organizational culture? "Culture is comprised of processes, or ways of working together, and of shared criteria for making decision-making, which at one point in the organization's history were explicitly debated, but which have been employed so successfully so often, that they are taken for granted and have come to be adopted without debate." Artifacts Values Socialization Assumptions

Assumptions

The following refers to which element of organizational culture? "They have become so taken for granted that one finds little variation within a cultural unit. In fact, they are so strongly held within a group that members will find behavior based on any other premise as inconceivable, non-debatable, and non-confrontable. They form the foundation of an organization's culture." Values Socialization Assumptions Artifacts

Assumptions

Which of the conflict handling styles may be habitual to individuals with a high need for affiliation personality trait? Accommodation Avoidance Collaboration Competition Compromise

Avoidance

BATNA stands for Better Arrangements To Negate Antagonists Best Agreements To Nullify Accommodations Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement Beat All The Negotiating Adversaries

Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement

Cultures are generally maintained through all of the following except Coercion Reward Systems Organizational Socialization Role of Leaders Attraction-Selection-Attrition

Coercion

The power or ability to take something away or punish someone for noncompliance. Referent Power Expert Power Coercive Power Legitimate Power

Coercive Power

This conflict handling style is high on both assertiveness and cooperation. It is the strategy to use for achieving the best outcome from conflict, with the objective to find a win-win solution. Collaboration Competition Avoidance Accommodation Compromise

Collaboration

Reinforcement Theory describes four interventions to modify employee behavior. Two of these are methods of increasing the frequency of desired behaviors, while the remaining two are methods of reducing the frequency of undesired behaviors. Which of the following is not one of these four intervention methods? Punishment Distributive Justice Extinction Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

Distributive Justice

All of the following are benefits of diversity in the workplace except A diverse workforce may better understand the needs of particular groups of customers. Diverse teams tend to make higher quality decisions. Diverse teams have quicker and more efficient decision making. Diverse companies tend to have higher performance. For example, racially diverse companies pursuing a growth strategy were shown to have higher performance.

Diverse teams have quicker and more efficient decision making.

According to Daniel Goleman in "What Makes a Leader," what distinguishes great leaders from merely good leaders is Intelligence (general mental ability), also known as IQ. Technical skills. Personality traits, especially extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence.

The first step in John P. Kotter's process for Leading Change is to __________. Form a powerful guiding coalition Establish a sense of urgency Communicate the vision Plan for and create short-term wins

Establish a sense of urgency

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership deals with the benefits and consequences of Charismatic leadership. In-groups and out-groups and their relationships with their manager. Management by exception. Servant leadership.

In-groups and out-groups and their relationships with their manager.

The earliest studies of motivation involved an examination of individual needs. Researchers believed that employees make the effort to try hard and demonstrate goal-driven behavior in order to satisfy needs. Which of the following is not a needs-based theory of motivation. Expectancy Theory Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ERG Theory

Expectancy Theory

Which theory of motivation proposes that motivation is determined by whether an individual believes that high levels of effort will lead to performance, that performance is related to rewards, and that the rewards will be desirable? Expectancy Theory ERG Theory Two-Factor Theory Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory

According to Daniel Goleman in "What Makes a Leader," all of the following are components of Emotional Intelligence except Social skill. Extraversion. Motivation. Self-awareness. Self-regulation. Empathy.

Extraversion.

According to "Six Habits of Merely Effective Negotiators," by James K. Sebenius, experienced and successful negotiators should approach negotiations as a process to reconcile underlying positions. True False

False

According to Patrick M. Lencioni in "The Trouble with Teamwork," a leadership team is a group of executives who work independently with few expectations for collaboration, where members know exactly what they can, and more importantly, cannot expect of one another, and where can focus on how to accomplish goals with clarity. True False

False

The following refer to which element of organizational culture? "There definitely is an Exxon way. This is John D. Rockefeller's company, this is Standard Oil of New Jersey, this is the one that is most closely shaped by Rockefeller's traditions. Their values are very clear. They are deeply embedded. They have roots in 100 year of corporate history." Artifacts Industry demands Assumptions Founder's values

Founder's values

While Goal Setting Theory is one of the most influential, practical and important theories of motivation, it also has some potentially negative implications. All the following are potential negative outcomes from goal setting except Goals lead to a decrease in morale and motivation since there is a chance that the goal will not be met. Goals focused employee attention on activities that are measured, and this may lead to sacrificing other elements of performance that are more difficult to measure. Goals may lead to unethical behaviors. Setting goals for specific outcomes may hamper employe performance if employees are lacking skills and abilities needed to reach the goals. Goal setting may prevent employees from adapting and changing their behaviors in response to unforeseen threats.

Goals lead to a decrease in morale and motivation since there is a chance that the goal will not be met.

The most effective timeframe to provide feedback is Immediately following high or low performance Quarterly Annually Every six months

Immediately following high or low performance

Bruce Tuckman introduced a five-stage map of group evolution. Which of the following is not one of the five stages? Storming Norming Informing Performing

Informing

Personality encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns a person has. Understanding someone's personality interesting, but not very helpful. Is very important. Since personality is very strongly correlated to employee behavior, if a manager understands an employee's personality, they will know how the employee will act in a variety of situations. Is helpful. It gives a manager clues about how that person is likely to act and feel in a variety of situations. Is not very important. Since personality changes often depending on the situation, trying to predict behavior based on personality traits is not very effective.

Is helpful. It gives a manager clues about how that person is likely to act and feel in a variety of situations.

The degree to which a person is curious, original, intellectual, creative and open to new ideas refers to which of the Big Five Personality Traits? Neuroticism Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness

Openness

According to John P. Kotter in "What Leaders Really Do," leadership involves all the following except Motivating and inspiring. Organizing and staffing. Aligning people. Setting direction.

Organizing and staffing.

According to Michael Beer's formula for leading change, ( D x M x P ) > C The variable P stands for ________________. Note: The formula is also often expressed as ( D x M x P ) > ( Rc + Cc ) Process Pivot Proof Passion

Process

Values Have little impact in the workplace. Whether or not a company possesses values that people care about has little impact on hiring and retention. Reflect what is most important to individuals, are established throughout one's life as a results of accumulating life experiences and are relatively stable. Are a function of the person and the situation interacting with each other. A person's values often change depending on the context of the situation. Are not correlated with job satisfaction. It is not necessary to understand the value orientations of employees to be an effective manager or leader.

Reflect what is most important to individuals, are established throughout one's life as a results of accumulating life experiences and are relatively stable.

Stereotypes are generalizations based on group characteristics. All of the following statements regarding stereotypes are true, except Stereotypes presist because of selective perception, where we pay attention to parts of the environment while ignoring other parts. Stereotypes can be discriminatory when there is a tendency to generalize from a group to a particular individual. Stereotypes can create a self-fulfilling prophecy when people automatically behave as if an established stereotype is accurate, which leads to reactive behavior from the other party that confirms the stereotype. Stereotypes are not common today, but only exist with individuals who have deeply held prejudices.

Stereotypes are not common today, but only exist with individuals who have deeply held prejudices.

According to Katzenbach and Smith in "The Discipline of Teams," most teams can be classified in one of three ways. Which is not one of these three classifications? Teams that make or do things Teams that recommend things Teams that create things Teams that run things

Teams that create things

According to Patrick M. Lencioni in "The Trouble with Teamwork," Teamwork is a strategic choice Teamwork is required in high performing organizations Teamwork is always desirable Teamwork is a virtue in itself

Teamwork is a strategic choice

Leadership may be defined as: The act of using force to influence people to a work towards a common goal. The relationship between managers and workers a hierarchical organization. Exerting power over others. The act of influencing others to work towards a goal.

The act of influencing others to work towards a goal.

According to Patrick M. Lencioni in "The Trouble with Teamwork," the first and most important step in building a cohesive and functional team is Unwavering commitment Unapologetic accountability Healthy conflict The establishment of trust

The establishment of trust

According to "Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail" by John P. Kotter, the change process in organizations goes through a series of phases that, in total, usually require a considerable length of time. Skipping steps creates only the illusion of speed and never produces a satisfying result. True False

True

House's Path-Goal Theory of Leadership is based on the expectancy theory of motivation, where employees are motivated when they believe - or expect - all the following, except they are not the Least Preferred Coworker their high performance will be rewarded the rewards they will receive are valuable to them their efforts will lead to high performance

they are not the Least Preferred Coworker

The Transformational Leadership Theory distinguishes between transformational leadership styles and transactional leadership styles. Which is not an element of transformational leadership? Individual consideration. Intellectual stimulation. Contingent rewards. Inspirational motivation.

Contingent rewards.

According to Michael Beer's formula for leading change, ( D x M x P ) > C The variable C stands for ________________. Note: The formula is also often expressed as ( D x M x P ) > ( Rc + Cc ) Community Cost of Change Collaboration Culture

Cost of Change

Group cohesion is influenced by all the following factors except Similarity Stability Support Size Strength

Strength

In arbitration, an outside third party attempts to assist the parties in reaching an agreement. The arbitrator can facilitate, suggest, and recommend solutions while working with both parties. Instead of representing a specific party, the arbitrator's role is to help the parties share feelings, air and verify facts, exchange perceptions, and work towards agreements. An arbitrator does not resolve the charge or impose a decision on the parties. True False

False

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is perhaps the most well-known and most often used personality assessments, with an estimated 2.5 million people taking the assessment every year and more than 80 of the Fortune 100 companies using it in some form. One of the reasons that it is so widely used is that research has shown the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to be very useful in employee selection (hiring) as it helps to predict employee effectiveness in the workplace. True False

False

A significant difference between Fiedler's Contingency Theory and House's Path-Goal Theory is that Fiedler's Contingency Theory focuses on the characteristics of employees while House's Path-Goal Theory focuses on characteristics of the environment. Fiedler's Contingency Theory focuses on leadership traits while House's Path-Goal Theory focuses on behaviors. Fiedler's Contingency Theory was proven to be accurate while House's Path-Goal Theory was proven to be inaccurate. Fiedler's Contingency Theory assumes that a leader's style is fixed and only the environment can change, while House's Path-Goal Theory assumes a leader can vary their style depending on the situation.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory assumes that a leader's style is fixed and only the environment can change, while House's Path-Goal Theory assumes a leader can vary their style depending on the situation.

Kenneth Blanchard and Paul Hersey's Situational Leadership Theory (SLT), a contingency approach to leadership, suggests that employees with a high level of competence and a high level of commitment need a directing leadership style. a delegating leadership style will be effective with all levels of employees. a leader's style is similar to a personality trait and is not likely to change. the appropriate leadership style depends on the competence and commitment (employee readiness) of an individual.

the appropriate leadership style depends on the competence and commitment (employee readiness) of an individual.

According to the interactionist perspective of behavior, behavior is Is the most important factor in employee effectiveness and personality assessments should be used during employee selection (hiring) to determine the employees with the desired behaviors. Does not change. For example, individuals with extraverted personalities (high levels of extraversion) will be the most effective leaders regardless of the situation. Fixed and individuals will always act in accordance with their personality traits. A function of the person and the situation interacting with each other.

A function of the person and the situation interacting with each other.

According to Katzenbach and Smith in "The Discipline of Teams," all the following are elements of the definition of teams except A small group of people who hold themselves mutually accountable A small group of people who are committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals, and approach A small group of people whose performance is a function of what its members do as individuals A small group of people with complementary skills

A small group of people whose performance is a function of what its members do as individuals

All of the following are true concerning organizational culture, except A strong culture will lead to increased performance. Culture can have a strong influence on employee behavior. Culture may lead to performance difficulties and the company may suffer as a result of its culture. Culture may be related to increased performance.

A strong culture will lead to increased performance.

All of the following are social team roles except Calibrator Communicator Cooperator Coordinator

Coordinator

All of the following are common responses to influence, except Compliance Commitment Dependency Resistance

Dependency

According to Michael Beer's formula for leading change, ( D x M x P ) > C The variable D stands for ________________. Note: The formula is also often expressed as ( D x M x P ) > ( Rc + Cc ) Dissatisfaction Develop Direction Diligence

Dissatisfaction

According to Geert Hofstede's Culture Framework, the following description would refer to which cultural dimension? A culture that has stronger bonds to their groups and group membership forms a person's self identity, where family bonds are more influential in people's daily lives, and where sharper distinctions are drawn between the groups they below to and those not considered to be in their in-group. High Masculinity (High Competitiveness) Low Power Distance High Collectivism/Low Individualism High Uncertainty Avoidance

High Collectivism/Low Individualism

According to Geert Hofstede's Culture Framework, the following description would refer to which cultural dimension? A culture where unequal distribution of power is seen as more acceptable, where people higher up in the organizational hierarchy are viewed as more powerful and deserving of a higher level of respect, and where employees are less likely to question the power and authority of their manager but are expected to conform. High Masculinity (High Competitiveness) High Uncertainty Avoidance High Power Distance High Individualism (Low Collectivism)

High Power Distance

While the application of Scientific Management resulted in increased efficiency and productivity, the repetitive nature of the work had negative effects on motivation since these jobs were often boring. In an attempt to overcome these negative effects, managers developed alternatives to Scientific Management. Which of the following was not one of these alternatives? Job Rotation Job Specialization Job Enrichment Job Enlargement

Job Specialization

According to David McClelland's Acquired-Needs Theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. Which of the following is not one of these needs? Need for Power Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation Need for Self-Actualization

Need for Self-Actualization

All of the following are key decisions in designing effective teams, except Task Size Composition Diversity

Task

All of the following are ways in which a manager can influence expectancy, except Make sure employees have the proper skills, ability and knowledge to perform their jobs. Provide employees choice over rewards. Provide encouragement to employees so that they believe that their efforts makes a difference. Ensure that the work environment is conducive to performance. For example, create an environment where effort, not political behaviors, predict performance.

Provide employees choice over rewards.

All of the following are recommendations for successfully managing diversity except Holding managers accountable for diversity Providing preferential treatment, like hiring a less-qualified minority candidate. Building a culture of respecting diversity Reviewing recruitment practices

Providing preferential treatment, like hiring a less-qualified minority candidate.

The power that stems from personal characteristics of the person, such as the degree to which we like, respect, and want to be like them. It is often called charisma. Legitimate Power Coercive Power Referent Power Expert Power

Referent Power

Which of the following statements is not true about self-efficacy? Self-efficacy is the degree to which a person has overall positive feelings about him or herself. Research on self-efficacy shows that the belief that we can do something is a good predictor of whether we can actually do it. Self-efficacy is a belief that one can perform a specific task successfully. Unlike other personality traits, self-efficacy is job specific. For example, you may have high self-efficacy in being successful academically, but low self-efficacy in relation to your ability to fix your car.

Self-efficacy is the degree to which a person has overall positive feelings about him or herself.

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership deals with the benefits and consequences of Servant leadership. Management by exception. In-groups and out-groups and their relationships with their manager. Charismatic leadership.

Servant leadership.

In this stage of Bruce Tuckman's model of group evolution, as members begin to feel sufficiently safe and included, they become more authentic and more argumentative. They begin to explore their power and influence and try to differentiate themselves from other group members instead of seeking common ground. Informing Norming Performing Storming

Storming

The following are barriers to effective teams, except Storming phase Challenges in knowing where to begin Dominating team members Poorly managed team conflict

Storming phase

After scholars became disillusioned with the trait-based approaches to leadership in the 1940s, they began to focus on behavioral approaches to leadership by trying to determine the behaviors of effective leaders. Through the work of researchers at Ohio State University and the University of Michigan, two broad categories of leadership behaviors. These two categories are: Extraverted behaviors and integrity behaviors. Leadership behaviors and management behaviors. Goal-oriented behaviors and laissez-faire decision-making behaviors. Task-oriented behaviors and people-oriented behaviors.

Task-oriented behaviors and people-oriented behaviors.

Which of the following is not a common potential cause of conflict? Task interdependence Organizational structure Team cohesion Limited resources

Team cohesion

Which of the following statements is not true about positive affective individuals? They experience positive moods more frequently. They focus on the "glass half full" and experience more anxiety and nervousness. When teams are dominated by positive affective people the teams experience lower levels of absenteeism. They tend to be happier at work and their happiness spreads to the rest of the work environment.

They focus on the "glass half full" and experience more anxiety and nervousness.

Which of the following statements is not true about people who are high social monitors? They are sensitive to the types of behaviors the social environment expects from them and have greater ability to modify they behavior accordingly. In general, research has shown they tend to be more successful in their careers, are rated as higher performers and often emerge as leaders. They can tend to experience higher levels of stress, probably caused by behaving in ways that conflict with their true feelings. They tend to act the way they feel, regardless of what the social environment expects of them.

They tend to act the way they feel, regardless of what the social environment expects of them.

A group where members become conflict avoidant and focus more on trying to please each other may risk making flawed decisions, and even fall prey to groupthink. In such a case, the group may be suffering from Too much time in the storming phase Punctuated equilibrium Too little cohesion Too much cohesion

Too much cohesion

According to "Six Habits of Merely Effective Negotiators," by James K. Sebenius, partisan perceptions, where one portrays their own side as "more talented, honest and upright," is an extensively researched, unconscious mechanism that influences many negotiators. True False

True

According to "Six Habits of Merely Effective Negotiators," by James K. Sebenius, reaching an agreement requires understanding and addressing your counterpart's problem as a means of solving your own. True False

True

According to Daniel Goleman in "What Makes a Leader," we are each born with certain levels of emotional intelligence skills. But we can strengthen these skills through persistence, practice, and feedback from colleagues or coaches. True False

True

According to John P. Kotter in "What Leaders Really Do," management and leadership both involve deciding what needs to be done, creating networks of people to accomplish the agenda, and ensuring that the work actually gets done. True False

True

Management by Objective (MBO) can be described as "a process whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify its common goals, define each individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of its members." True False

True

Organizational Culture is a pattern of basic assumptions - invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration - that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to age taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. True False

True

Vroom and Yetton's Decision Model approach to leadership has leaders answer seven key questions, working their way though a decision tree based on their responses, to determine which of five different leadership styles would be appropriate in the specific situation. True False

True

While House's Path-Goal Theory of Leadership is highly complicated and has not been fully and adequately tested, it has receive partial and encouraging support from researchers. However, the theory's greatest contribution may be that it highlights the importance of a leader's ability to change leadership styles depending on the personal characteristics of subordinates and the characteristics of the environment. True False

True

Some of the earliest approaches to the study of leadership sought to identify a limited set of traits, or personal attributes, that distinguished leaders from nonleaders. One of the main learnings from these trait approaches to leadership was: All truly successful leaders are tall and individuals should include their height on their resumes when applying for a leadership position in an organization. Since extroverts are sociable, assertive ands energetic, key traits for successful leaders, all effective leaders are extraverts. While introverts also play important roles in organizations, they are not effective as leaders. While there are some some traits that have often been associated with leadership, not all traits are equally effective in all circumstances. Scholars now conclude that the traits that are important for leadership depends on the circumstances and conditions of the organizational situation. The trait approach to leadership demonstrated that all successful leaders possess the same traits. Therefore, it is easy to determine who will be a successful leader by identifying those individuals who possess these important leadership traits.

While there are some some traits that have often been associated with leadership, not all traits are equally effective in all circumstances. Scholars now conclude that the traits that are important for leadership depends on the circumstances and conditions of the organizational situation.

Power is the measure of the rate of doing work, the amount of energy transferred per unit time, and is measured in watts (seconds per joules). is the ability to influence the behaviors of others to get what you want. refers to the tendency people have to behave consistently with social norms. is the power the that a person or unit gains from ability to handle actual or potential problems facing organizations.

is the ability to influence the behaviors of others to get what you want.

After the disappointing results of the trait and behaviors approaches to leadership, scholars began to specifically incorporate the role of the environment into leadership theories. One of the first of these contingency approaches to leadership was Fiedler's Contingency Model (also called the LPC Theory of Leadership), developed by Fred Fiedler in the 1960s. One of the most important contributions from Fiedler's Contingency Model is that it recognized that leaders can change and adapt their leadership style since the LPC score is different than a personality trait and is very easy to change. it recognized that regardless of whether the situation is "favorable," "medium," or "unfavorable," a strong people-oriented leader will lead to more productive results. it explicitly recognized that leadership effectiveness depends on the circumstanes and that different people can be effective in different situations. it recognized that the employees that are the most difficult to work with (Least Preferred Coworker) are also disliked by their managers.

it explicitly recognized that leadership effectiveness depends on the circumstanes and that different people can be effective in different situations.

The researchers studying behavioral approaches to leadership hoped to identify behaviors that would universally predict leadership in all circumstances. However, similar to the trait-based approaches to leadership, the behavioral approaches fell out of favor because they were too expensive to implement. were not accepted by the leading business leaders of the time. neglected the environment in which the behaviors are demonstrated. neglected to take into account the physical height of the individual leaders.

neglected the environment in which the behaviors are demonstrated.