MGMT443 Exam 2

Milgram's experiment

-Did a pressure to conform experiment -ask questions, get the answer wrong, be shocked. -The experiment showed that 65% of individuals would continue shocking as long as they were told.

The Intelligence of the Crowds(Surowiecky)

-Independence -Diversity of opinion -Decentralization -Aggregation

action-research; relate this practice to the development of a learning organization

-It leads to diagnosis and new actions -helps develop an organization which can learn and change more effectively.

Thinking globally before acting locally:Understand Weisbord's logic behind the analysis of the entire system before you begin to act on its parts.

-Learning about the "whole elephant" together before acting on a part. -For people to develop trust & understanding they must all talk about the same world. -Enhances shared understanding, a greater commitment to act & increases the range of potential actions

Against refreezing

-only useful under stable conditions -In todays business world change is inevitable -need to adapt and evolve -refreezing prevents continuous learnings

Force-field analysis

-organizes data pertaining to organizational change -forces for change -forces resisting change.

Take Responsibility for Action:Recall how responsibilities are assigned in a Future Search process and the roles that are involved in the final process of this change management collective dynamic.

-participants to make their own choices. -structured tasks, clear goals, and adequate time frames. Ex: responsibility chart, who's responsible for what task, consult, approve, and inform -choosing how to participate and making their own choices. -clear goals and adequate timelines, organizations can organize responsibilities.

Independence(Intelligence of crowds)

-people's opinions are not determined by those around them, -Each person must form his or her opinion independently (Without this the "crowd" could influence each other)

Single-loop learning

-seek little feedback - don't want to confront their fundamental ideas and actions *changed our action or behavior to fix or avoid a mistake or certain mistakes*

(Lewin) focus on the forces that resist change

-will help to encourage and give reason for the organization to try to change

Why each is necessary for a crowd to be intelligent?

-Collective knowledge -"Wisdom of the crowds"

Tamara Play: Understand the way in which "Tamara" play is a metaphor for decentralization of knowledge in organizations.

- people are required to go to each room of a house to view portion of the play. -impossible to see the whole thing -you talk with people to try and put it all together by working together and involving everyone.

Which ones does future search meet, which ones does it not?

-*Get whole system in room* cause it focuses on diversity and a chance for each person to be heard like *diversity of opinion* -*Take responsibility for action* cause participants make their own choices which relates to *Independence* cause they aren't following a crowd

3-by-3 rule(Getting whole system in room, Weisbord)

-3 levels of hierarchy to correspond w/ along w/ 3 departments -Large companies; get any 3 functions in the room from any 3 levels you can get.

Francis Galton's experiment: be ready to discuss Galton's experiment in the livestock fair, its characteristics, results, and the conclusions that were derived from these results.

-Believed the average person was uninformed and unfit to make decisions. -800 people guessed the weight of the ox for the experiment. -Avg estimation was correct.

Moving(change)

-Changes that benefit the organization. -People need time to understand the changes and feel connected to the company -Important to remember to communicate, dispel rumors, empower action, and involve people in the change. (Action research, iterative process of exploration and action.)

Solomon Asch's experiment

-Line length experiment. -asked to judge what lines match each other in length. -The experiment showed when the confederate gave the wrong answer, 37% of individuals would go along with it. -Normative-just wanting to fit in -Informational- the group makes you question yourself.

Aggregation(Intelligence of crowds)

-No mechanism that permits aggregating individual knowledge -A mechanism exists to turn private judgements into a collective decision. (Without aggregation there is no way to find out what the crowd thinks as a whole and it is absolutely essential for the success of decentralization)

Do Wesibord's principals meet all of Surowiecki's conditions?

-No, wesiboards principals are mainly focused around collaboration and coming together as a team, -Surowiecki's are about being completely independent in your decisions to then get an accurate collective decision.

Force-field analysis(Qualitative)

-Organizes data pertaining to a particular organizational -2 categories: forces for change and forces for maintaining the status quo or resisting change

Be ready to explain Argyris' recommendations to reason productively in the workplace.

-People have to be taught how to learn to identify their defensive reasoning -HR should not be based on "soft" reasoning, but analytical and data-driven -Top management must be aware on how they react defensively

Decentralization(Intelligence of crowds)

-People must use their own specialized knowledge (knowledge must be decentralized).

Argyris' "Teaching smart people how to learn": Missconceptions

-That you need motivation to get people to learn. -when people have the right attitudes and commitment, learning automatically follows.

Be ready to discuss the implications of this experiment for the quality of collectively-made decisions.

-Thought that most people were not very intelligent, and in groups even less so. -He was wrong. -Groups of people had to predict the weight of a cow and the average guess was about one pound off.

Content analysis(Qualitative)

-Used especially for interview data -attempts to summarize comments into meaningful categories -can reduce hundreds of interview comments into a few themes that summarizes issues or attitudes of a group

Do Surowiecki's conditions meet our own class experiment?

-We met the *independence* cause we did it individually - *Diversity of opinion* was met because we all have our own unbiased thoughts -*Decentralization* was used because we used our own knowledge, not anyone else's -*Aggregation* was met, you took our private responses and turned into a collective decision

Diagnostic Relationship: Information shared with participants

-Who am I? -Why am I here and what am I doing? -What do I want from you and why? -How is confidentiality protected? -Who will access the data? -What's in it for employee? -Can I be trusted? -Follow up with feedback on the data analysis results

Refreezing

-anchor the changes into the culture - develop ways to sustain the change -provide support and training -celebrate success (creating stability in the new process to prevent regression use group norms, routines, policies, culture, practices etc)

Causes for defensive behaviors

-bureaucratic rationality and various stressors -individual antecedents include insecurity and anxiety, emotional exhaustion, work alienation, self-monitoring, and low self-efficacy.*

Difference Test(Quantitative)

-compare a sample group against some standard or norm -determine whether the group is above or below that standard

Double-loop learning

-confronts own assumptions -is open to others point of view -invites others to do so as well *also correct or change the underlying causes behind the problematic action, issue or mistake*

Getting the whole system in the room

-cross section of parties -more diversity, less hierarchy -chance for each person to be heard -whole system is people who have relation to focal issues, authority, resources, expertise -act together if they choose

Action-research

-data gathered after each action to measure and determine its effects the organizational results -leads to diagnosis and new actions.

Unfreezing

-determines what needs to change -ensure there is strong support from senior management -create the need for change -manage and understand doubts (creating psychological safety, disconfirming the validity of the status quo, inducing survival anxiety)

Mean and Standard deviation(Quantitative)

-each item or variable measured gives you the respondents average score - gives spread or variability of the responses

Frequency Distribution(Quantitative)

-graphical methods for displaying data -shows the number of times a particular response was given

Gatekeepers

-involved in the decision to build commitment -evaluate forces for and against change -affect the change of implementation and success

Scattergram(Quantitative)

-is a diagram that visually displays the relationship between two variables -positive, negative or shotgun

Diversity of opinion(Intelligence of crowds)

-must be diversity of information or perspective. -contributes with their personal bias based on their own experience (If the opinions are all the same, elimination of error is hard, if not impossible)

For refreezing

-necessary for creating confidence -new sense of stability -keep them from falling into transition trap

Defensive Behaviors

1. To remain in unilateral control 2. To maximize "winning" and minimize "losing" 3. To suppress negative feelings 4. To be as "rational" as possible

Principles of Future Search(Weisbord)

1. Whole system in the room 2. Think globally before acting locally 3. Focus on future and common ground 4. Take responsibility for action

Interviews: Advantages & Disadvantages-

Advantages- Adaptive-allows data collection on a range of possible subjects, source of "rich" data, empathic, and process of interviewing can build rapport. Disadvantages- Expense, bias in interviewer responses, coding and interpretation difficulties, and self-report bias.

Observations: Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages- Collects data on behavior rather than reports of behavior, real time, not retrospective, and adaptive. Disadvantages- Coding and interpretation difficulties, sampling inconsistencies, observer bias and questionable reliability, and expense.

Unobtrusive Measures: Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages- Nonreactive-no response bias, high face validity, and easily quantified. Disadvantages- Access and retrieval difficulties, validity concerns, coding and interpretation difficulties.

Questionnaires: Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages- Responses can be quantified and easily summarized, easy to use with large samples, relatively inexpensive, and can obtain large volume of data. Disadvantages- Nonempathy, predetermined questions/missing issues, overinterpretation of data, and responses bias.

Group Dynamics: Ronald Lippit's experiment

Authoritarian- leader dominates, directed, instructed, and criticized work Democratic- leader guided the process, but children set their own goals and make own decisions, criticized own work Laissez-faire- leader let the boys do what they wanted without guidance *Leadership style establishes social norms, social norms act as forces for or barriers to change*

Focus on the Future: Understand why Weisbord recommends that the conference should focus on the future. Relate to Ron Lippit's experiment with problem-solving teams.

Discover common ground (shared aspirations, values and direction) -freed from managing old conflicts or solve past problems. -Ron Lippit 1950s: group problem solving. -Anxiety levels. -"Images of potential" made changes more effective. *-Lippit's group problem solving focused on past problems which increased anxiety levels and was not energizing*

Recall whether Galton confirmed his hypothesis

He did not confirm it

Data Analysis Tools

Qualitative: Content analysis, Force-field analysis Quantitative: Mean and Standard deviation, Frequency Distribution, Scattergram, Difference Test

Kurt Lewin's 3-step Planned Approach to Change

Unfreezing Moving(change) Refeezing

Data Collection Methods

Unobtrusive measures Questionnaires Observations Interviews

team learning(Senge's fifth discipline)

aligning abilities of team members to achieve goals

personal mastery(Senge's fifth discipline)

continually clarifying our personal vision

shared vision(Senge's fifth discipline)

what you and the other members want to create or accomplish as a part of the organization

mental models(Senge's fifth discipline)

generalizations that shape how we view the world