MGT 248 Final

2a norms and 2b conformity

(a) Norms: Acceptable standards shared by a group's members · Each group has its own unique set of norms. Most organizations have common norms, which typically focus on: o Effort and performance § Probably most widespread norm § Can be extremely powerful in affecting an individual employee's performance o Dress codes (b) Conformity: Adjusting one's behavior to align with a group's norms · We all want to be accepted by groups to which we belong, which makes us susceptible to conformity pressures.

Three phases of leadership making which develops over time

(a) stranger phase (b) acquaintance phase (c) mature partnership phase

Human resource management process

- the first 3 activities in the HRM process represent employment planning; the addition of staff thoguh recruitment, the reduction in staff through downsizing and selection -the last steps in the HRM process are designed to identify performance goals, correct performance problems if necessary and help employees sustain a high level of performance over their entire work life -all of these activities, if properly executed will staff an organization with competent, hihg performing employees who are capable of sustaining their performance levels over the long run -HRM= right people, right place, right time -the entire process is influenced by the external environment -the external environment affects all management practices, but their effect is felt most in managing the organizations human resources - the first 3 activities in the HRM process address employment planning; adding staff through recruitment, reducing staff through downsizing and the selection process -once you select competent people, you need to help them adapt to the organization and ensure that their job skills and knowledge are kept current which is accomplished by the next 2 activities in the HRM process; orientation and training -the last steps in the HRM process identify performance goals, correct performance problems if necessary and helo employees sustain a high level of performance over compensation and benefits

5 team processes related to team effectiveness

1. Common Plan and Purpose: An effective team has a common plan and purpose. This common purpose provides direction, momentum, and commitment for team members. Members of successful teams put a lot of time and effort into discussing, shaping, and agreeing on a purpose that belongs to them both individually and as a team. 2. Specific Goals: Such goals facilitate clear communication and help teams maintain their focus on getting results. 3. Team Efficacy: emerges when teams believe in themselves and believe they can succeed. Effective teams have confidence in themselves and in their members. 4. Managed Conflict: Conflict on a team isn't necessarily bad and can actually improve team effectiveness. But it has to be the right kind of conflict. Relationship conflicts—those based on interpersonal incompatibilities, tension, and autonomy toward others—are almost always dysfunctional. However, task conflicts—those based on disagreements about task content—can be beneficial because they may stimulate discussion, promote critical assessment of problems and options, and can lead to better team decisions. 5. Minimal Social Loafing: Successful teams make members individually and jointly accountable for the team's purpose, goals, and approach.

Process-Based Theories of Motivation

1. Equity Theory 2. Expectancy Theory 3. Goal Setting Theory

Contingency Theories of Leadership

1. Fiedler's contingency theory 2. Situational leadership 3. Path-goal theory of leadership

3 other contingencies besides feedback influence the goal-performance relationship

1. First, goal-setting theory assumes that an individual is committed to the goal. Commitment is most likely when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned. 2. Next, self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. So, in difficult situations, we find that people with low self-efficacy are likely to reduce their effort or give up altogether, whereas those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master the challenge. In addition, individuals with high self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, whereas those with low self-efficacy are likely to reduce their effort when given negative feedback. 3. Finally, the value of goal-setting theory depends on the national culture. It's well adapted to North American countries because its main ideas align reasonably well with those cultures. It assumes that subordinates will be reasonably independent (not a high score on power distance), that people will seek challenging goals (low in uncertainty avoidance), and that performance is considered important by both managers and subordinates (high in assertiveness). Don't expect goal setting to lead to higher employee performance in countries where the cultural characteristics aren't like this.

4 most common types of work teams

1. Problem Solving Teams: teams from the same department or functional area involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific problems. Members share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved. However, these teams are rarely given the authority to implement any of their suggested actions. 2. Self-Managed Work Teams: formal group of employees who operate without a manager and are responsible for a complete work process or segment. A self-managed team is responsible for getting the work done and for managing themselves and usually includes planning and scheduling of work, assigning tasks to members, collective control over the pace of work, making operating decisions, and taking action on problems 3. Cross Functional Teams: work teams made up of individuals from various departments and that cross traditional departmental lines. Many organizations use cross-functional teams 4. Virtual Teams: a team that uses technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. In a virtual team, members collaborate online with tools such as wide-area networks, videoconferencing, fax, e-mail, or websites where the team can hold online conferences.28 Virtual teams can do all the things that other teams can—share information, make decisions, and complete tasks; however, they lack the normal give-and-take of face-to-face discussions. That's why virtual teams tend to be more task-oriented, especially if the team members have never personally met.

Ø 5 Core Job Dimensions

1. Skill variety. The degree to which the job requires a variety of activities so the worker can use a number of different skills and talents 2. Task identity. The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work 3. Task significance. The degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people 4. Autonomy. The degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out 5. Feedback. The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual's obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance

9 Team Member Roles

1. creator-innovator: initiates creative ideas 2. explorer-promoter: champions ideas after they have been initiated 3. assessor-developer: offers insigntful analysis of options 4. thruster-organizer: provides structure 5. concluder-producer: provides direction and follow through 6. controller-inspector: examines details and enforces rules 7. upholder-maintainer: fights external battles 8. reporter-advisor: encourages the search for more info 9. linker: coordinates and integrates · Team diversity is another factor that can influence team effectiveness. Although many of us hold the optimistic view that diversity is desirable, research seems to show the opposite

4 early theories of motivation

1. maslow's hierarchy of needs 2. mcgregor's theory X and theory y 3. herzberg 2-factor theory 4. mcclellands 3-needs theory

5 major concepts of group behavior

1. roles 2a. norms 2b. conformity 3. status systems 4. groups size 5. group cohesivenss

3. status systems

A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group and an important factor in understanding behavior · Human groupings have always had status hierarchies. · A disparity between what individuals perceive their status to be and what others perceive it to be is a significant motivator with behavioral consequences. · Anything can have status value if others in the group admire it. · Group members have no problem placing people into status categories, and they usually agree about who's high, low, and in the middle. · It's important for people to believe there's congruency (equity between perceived ranking of an individual and the status symbols he or she has) in an organization's status system to prevent disruptions to general "this is what I expect."

1. Roles

Behavior patterns expected of someone who occupies a given position in a social unit · We adjust our roles to the group we belong to at the time. · Employees attempt to determine what behaviors are expected of them by: reading their job descriptions, getting suggestions from their bosses, and watching what their coworkers do Role conflict happens when an employee has conflicting role expectations.

Diversity, Sensitivity and Humor in the Workplace

Benign Violation Theory: something is funny when the situation is a violation, the situation is benign, and both perceptions occur simultaneously -leader humor: expands the bound of appropriate behaviors by creating new norms that tolerate behaviors typically viewed as deviant, deemphasizes hierarchical differences between the leader and followers -strictly benign: no humor, negative affect improbable -benign violation: humor, negative affect possable -malignant violation: no humor, negative affect probable

5 stages of group development

Forming, storming, norming , performing and adjourning

4. group size

Group size affects a group's behavior, but the effect depends on what criteria you're using · Small groups are better at completing tasks faster, figuring out what to do and getting the job done · Large groups are better at problem solving, finding facts and gaining diverse input o Drawbacks of large groups: § Individual productivity of each group member declines as the group expands, which is known as social loafing—reducing effort because dispersion of responsibility encourages individuals to slack off. § When a group's results can't be attributed to any single person, individuals may be tempted to become "free riders" and coast on the group's efforts because they think their contributions can't be measured. § Teams face coordination, communication, and interpersonal costs § Teams may become overconfident § Teams also tend to experience social loafing, which refers to the Ringlemann effect: tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group context the tendency for individual members of a group to become increasingly less productive as the size of their group increases

Legal environment of HRM

HRM practices are governed by laws, which vary from country to country. states and local regulations further influence specific practices within countries. consequently, its impossible to provide you with all the information you need about the relevant regulatory environment -equal pay act, civil rights act, age discrimination in employment act, vocational rehabilitation act, americans with disabilities act, worker adjustment and retraining notification acts, family and medical leave act, health insurance portability and accountability act, lilly ledbetter fair pay act, patient procection and affordable care act, occupatoinal safety and health act(OSHA), privacy act, consolidation omnibus reconciliation act (COBRA)

Motivation to lead (MTL)

Individual differences that affect one's decision to assume a leadership position and the level of effort in leading and persisting as a leader

Social-Normative MLT

Individuals who score high on social-normative MTL are motivated by the sense of social duty and obligation. § E.g., "I was taught to believe in the value of leading others"

Affective/Identity MTL

People who score high on this dimension like or prefer to lead and see themselves as leaders

Equity Theory

Proposes that employees compare what they receive from a job (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs), and then compare this input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratios of others theory that an employee compares hos or her jobs input to outcome ratio with that of relevant others and them corrects any inequity

5. group cohesiveness

The degree to which members are attracted to one another and share the group's goals · Groups that experience a lot of internal disagreement and lack of cooperation are less effective than are groups in which individuals generally agree, cooperate, and like each other. · The more that members are attracted to one another and the more that a group's goals align with each individual's goals, the greater the group's cohesiveness. · Highly cohesive groups are more effective than are those with less cohesiveness. · Cohesion can be thought of as a kind of social glue · Characteristics of a cohesive group: o Collective identity o Moral bond o Shared sense of purpose o Shared communication o Enhanced trust o Group Cohesiveness and Productivity

Performing Stage

The group structure is in place and accepted by group members. Their energies have moved from getting to know and understand each other to working on the group's task. This is the last stage of development for permanent work groups. However, for temporary groups—project teams, task forces, or similar groups that have a limited task to do -o , members become the most productive, getting work done, and paying greater attention to how they are doing it o Stage Characteristics: § Energies and attention directed from getting to know each other to accomplishing the task § The group is mature, more competent, autonomous, and insightful o Role of the Leader? § Move into delegating role

Non-calculative MTL

These individuals are not focused on the costs of leading. Usually leadership involves some responsibilities or costs; therefore, people with less calculative MTL (high non-calculative) do not wish to avoid leadership positions or roles due to concerns with cost or loss. § E.g., "I am only interested in leading a group if there are clear advantages for me" E.g., "I would agree to lead others even if there are no special rewards or benefits with that role"

the least-preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire (fiedler)

This questionnaire contained 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives—for example, pleasant-unpleasant, cold-warm, boring-interesting, or friendly-unfriendly. Respondents were asked to think of all the coworkers they had ever had and to describe that one person they least enjoyed working with by rating him or her on a scale of 1 to 8 for each of the sets of adjectives (the 8 always described the positive adjective out of the pair and the 1 always described the negative adjective out of the pair).

Evolution of Leadership Theory

Trait Theory, Skills Theory, Situational Leadership Theory, Contingency Theory

Openbook management

a motivational approach in which an organizations financial statements are shared with all employees -The goal of open-book management is to get employees to think like an owner by seeing the impact their decisions have on financial results. Because many employees don't have the knowledge or background to understand the financials, they have to be taught how to read and understand the organization's financial statements. Once employees have this knowledge, however, managers need to regularly share the numbers with them. By sharing this information, employees begin to see the link between their efforts, level of performance, and operational results

Charismatic leader

an enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways.

Work teams

are groups whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills

Pay for performance programs

are variable compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure.69 Piece-rate pay plans, wage incentive plans, profit-sharing, and lump-sum bonuses are examples. What differentiates these forms of pay from more traditional compensation plans is that instead of paying a person for time on the job, pay is adjusted to reflect some performance measure. These performance measures might include such things as individual productivity, team or work group productivity, departmental productivity, or the overall organization's profit performance

Human Resource Management (HRM)

concerned with getting, training, motivating and keeping competent employees; processes that involve having the right number of the right people in the right place at the right time - success for most organizations depend on finding the employees with the skills to successfully perform the task required to attain the companys strategic goals. staffing and HRM decisions and actions are critical to ensuring that the organization hires and keeps the right people -the quality of an organization is to large degree, determined by the quality of the people it employs. staffing and HRM decisions and actions are critical to ensuring that the organization hires and keeps the right people -process have several interrelated elements: --determining the needs of the organization --search and selection of people --assimilation and maintenance of people KSAs --evaluation and compensation

Employee Recognition Programs

consist of personal attention and expressions of interest, approval, and appreciation for a job well done. They can take numerous forms

Team Effectiveness Model

context, composition, work design, process · One thing we need to clarify first before looking at the model is what we mean by team effectiveness. Typically, it includes: o Objective measures of a team's productivity o Managers' or team leaders' ratings of the team's performance Aggregate measures of member satisfaction

Job Characteristics Model

framework for analyzing and designing jobs that identifies 5 primary core job dimensions, their interrelationships and their impact on outcomes

Task Group

groups composed of individuals brought together to complete a specific job task; their existence is often temporary because when the task is completed the group disbands

Command Groups

groups that are determined by the organizational chart and composed of individuals who report directly to a given manager

Self Managed Teams

groups that are essentially independent and that in addition to their own take on traditional managerial responsibilities such as hiring, planning and scheduling and evaluating performance

Cross Functional Teams

groups that bring together the knowledge and skills of individuals from various departments or work areas

8 traits associated with leadership

i. Drive. Leaders exhibit a high effort level. They have a relatively high desire for achievement, they are ambitious, they have a lot of energy, they are tirelessly persistent in their activities, and they show initiative. ii. Desire to lead. Leaders have a strong desire to influence and lead others. They demonstrate the willingness to take responsibility. iii. Honesty and integrity. Leaders build trusting relationships with followers by being truthful, or nondeceitful, and by showing high consistency between word and deed. iv. Self-confidence. Followers look to leaders who don't self-doubt. Leaders, therefore, need to show self-confidence in order to convince followers of the rightness of their goals and decisions. v. Intelligence. Leaders need to be intelligent enough to gather, synthesize, and interpret large amounts of information, and they need to be able to create visions, solve problems, and make correct decisions. vi. Job-relevant knowledge. Effective leaders have a high degree of knowledge about the company, industry, and technical matters. In-depth knowledge allows leaders to make well-informed decisions and to understand the implications of those decisions. vii. Extraversion. Leaders are energetic, lively people. They are sociable, assertive, and rarely silent or withdrawn. viii. Proneness to guilt. Guilt proneness is positively related to leadership effectiveness because it produces a strong sense of responsibility for others.

credibility

in terms of his or her honesty, competence, and ability to inspire

Work groups

interact primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each member do his or her job more efficiently and effectively. There's no need or opportunity for work groups to engage in collective work that requires joint effort

Empowerment

involves increasing the decision-making discretion of workers

trust

is defined as the belief in the integrity, character, and ability of a leader

Distributive Justice

is the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals

Procedural Justice

is the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

Transactional leaders

leaders who lead primarily by using social exchanges · Transactional leaders guide or motivate followers to work toward established goals by exchanging rewards for their productivity

Leader-Participation Model

leadership contingency theory that's based on a sequential set of rules for determining how much participation a leader uses in decision making according to different types of situations · Contingency variables in the revised leader-participation model 1. Importance of the decision 2. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision 3. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision 4. How well structured the problem is 5. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment 6. Whether followers "buy into" the organization's goals 7. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution alternatives 8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision 9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement 10. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together are justified 11. Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision 12. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills

predictions from path-goal theory are

o Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out. The followers aren't sure what to do, so the leader needs to give them some direction. o Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when subordinates are performing structured tasks. In this situation, the leader only needs to support followers, not tell them what to do. o Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among subordinates with high perceived ability or with considerable experience. These followers are quite capable so they don't need a leader to tell them what to do. o The clearer and more bureaucratic the formal authority relationships, the more leaders should exhibit supportive behavior and deemphasize directive behavior. The organizational situation has provided the structure as far as what is expected of followers, so the leader's role is simply to support. o Directive leadership will lead to higher employee satisfaction when there is substantive conflict within a work group. In this situation, the followers need a leader who will take charge. o Subordinates with an internal locus of control will be more satisfied with a participative style. Because these followers believe that they control what happens to them, they prefer to participate in decisions. Subordinates with an external locus of control will be more satisfied with a directive style. These followers believe that what happens to them is a result of the external environment so they would prefer a leader who tells them what to do. o Achievement-oriented leadership will increase subordinates' expectancies that effort will lead to high performance when tasks are ambiguously structured. By setting challenging goals, followers know what the expectations are

Early researchers found two general types of linkages (or relationships) - those based on

o Expanded/negotiated role responsibilities (extra-roles) = in-group § Relationships marked by mutual trust, respect, liking, and reciprocal influence § Receive more information, influence, confidence, and concern than out-group members o Formal employment contract (defined-roles) = out-group Relationships marked by formal communication based on job descriptions

The SLT says

o If followers are at R1 (unable and unwilling to do a task), the leader needs to use the telling style and give clear and specific directions. o If followers are at R2 (unable and willing), the leader needs to use the selling style and display high task orientation to compensate for the followers' lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get followers to "buy into" the leader's desires. o If followers are at R3 (able and unwilling), the leader needs to use the participating style to gain their support. o If followers are at R4 (both able and willing), the leader doesn't need to do much and should use the delegating style.

Importance and Implication of Informal Groups

o Importance of Informal groups: § Employees at Google are encouraged to find micro-communities by joining interest groups with fellow Googlers v Gleeglers v Snowglers v Greyglers o Implications § Collaboration § Build camaraderie § Enhance creativity and innovation

Researchers found that high-quality leader-member exchanges resulted in

o Less employee turnover o More positive performance evaluations o Higher frequency of promotions o Greater organizational commitment o More desirable work assignments o Better job attitudes o More attention and support from the leader o Greater participation Faster career progress

The final component in the SLT model is the four stages of follower readiness

o R1: People are both unable and unwilling to take responsibility for doing something. Followers aren't competent or confident. o R2: People are unable but willing to do the necessary job tasks. Followers are motivated but lack the appropriate skills. o R3: People are able but unwilling to do what the leader wants. Followers are competent, but don't want to do something. o R4: People are both able and willing to do what is asked of them.

Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory

says that leaders create in-groups and out-groups and those in the in-group will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction. · Key premise: Whereas prior theories emphasized characteristics of the leader (e.g., FCT) or follower (e.g., SLT), LMX focuses on the relationship · Key points o Employees characterized into in-groups and out-groups o Implications for the distribution of resources o Norm of reciprocity · LMX theory suggests that early on in the relationship between a leader and a given follower, a leader will implicitly categorize a follower as an "in" or as an "out." That relationship tends to remain fairly stable over time. Leaders also encourage LMX by rewarding those employees with whom they want a closer linkage and punishing those with whom they do not · Original view: Leader's treat follower's in a collective way. LMX view: A leader's work unit is viewed as a series of vertical dyads; leader forms unique relationship with each subordinate.

Informal Groups

social groups; naturally occur in the workplace and tend to form around friendships and common interests; are made up of two or more individuals who are associated with one another in ways not prescribed by the formal organization

Leader

someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority

Goal Setting Theory

specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals a) Working toward a goal is a major source of job motivation. Studies on goal setting have demonstrated that specific and challenging goals are superior motivating forces.20 Such goals produce a higher output than does the generalized goal of "do your best." The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus. For instance, when a sales rep commits to making eight sales calls daily, this intention gives him a specific goal to try to attain. b) Will employees try harder if they have the opportunity to participate in the setting of goals? Not always. In some cases, participatively set goals elicit superior performance; in other cases, individuals performed best when their manager assigned goals. However, participation is probably preferable to assigning goals when employees might resist accepting difficult challenges.21 c) We know that people will do better if they get feedback on how well they're progressing toward their goals because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what they've done and what they want to do. But all feedback isn't equally effective. Self-generated feedback—where an employee monitors his or her own progress—has been shown to be a more powerful motivator than feedback coming from someone else

Visionary Leadership

the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves on the present situation · This vision, if properly selected and implemented, is so energizing that it "in effect jump-starts the future by calling forth the skills, talents, and resources to make it happen.

Adjourning stage

the group prepares to disband. Attention is focused on wrapping up activities instead of task performance. Group members react in different ways. Some are upbeat, thrilled about the group's accomplishments. Others may be sad over the loss of camaraderie and friendships

Early leadership theories focused on

the person (leader trait theories) and behaviors- how the leader interacted with his or her group members (behavioral theories)

Traits theory of leadership

the search for traits or characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders o If this concept was valid, all leaders would have to possess those unique and consistent characteristics, making it easy to find leaders in organizations. o But that's not going to happen: Despite the best efforts of researchers, they have yet to find a set of traits that would always differentiate a leader (the person) from a nonleader. Attempts to identify traits consistently associated with leadership (the process, not the person) have been more successful Ø Limitations · Traits alone were not sufficient for identifying effective leaders o Ignored the interactions of leaders and their group members as well as situational factors. · Possessing the appropriate traits only made it more likely that an individual would be an effective leader. Leadership research from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s turned to finding preferred behavioral styles that leaders demonstrated

Job Design

the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs

Behavioral theories of leadership

theories that isolate behaviors that differentiate effective leaders from ineffective leaders o UNIVERSITY OF IOWA § Behavioral Dimension § Democratic style: involving subordinates, delegating authority, and encouraging participation § Autocratic style: dictating work methods, centralizing decision making, and limiting participation § Laissez-faire style: giving group freedom to make decisions and complete work § Conclusion § Democratic style of leadership was most effective, although later studies showed mixed results. o OHIO STATE § Behavioral Dimension § Consideration: being considerate of followers' ideas and feelings § Initiating structure: structuring work and work relationships to meet job goals § Conclusion § High-high leader (high in consideration and high in initiating structure) achieved high subordinate performance and satisfaction, but not in all situations. UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN o Behavioral Dimension § Employee oriented: emphasized interpersonal relationships and taking care of employees' needs § Production oriented: emphasized technical or task aspects of job § Conclusion § Employee-oriented leaders were associated with high group productivity and higher job satisfaction. o MANAGERIAL GRID § Behavioral Dimension § Concern for people: measured leader's concern for subordinates on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) § Concern for production: measured leader's concern for getting job done on a scale 1 to 9 (low to high) § Conclusion Leaders performed best with a 9,9 style (high concern for production and high concern for people

Group

two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve specific goals

job enrichment

vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluation responsibilities

Leadership

what leaders do; that is, it's a process of leading a group and influencing that group to achieve its goals. · Most studies have focused on leader emergence and leader effectiveness But research has also sought to understand the impact leaders have on follower attitudes and behaviors

Formal Groups

work groups that are defined by the organizations structure and have designated work assignments and specific tasks directed at accomplishing organizational goals -examples of formal work groups include: command groups, task groups, cross functional teams and self managed teams

Fundamental group cohesion

§ Similarity: The more similar group members are in terms of age, sex, education, skills, attitudes, values, and beliefs, the more likely the group will bond § Stability: The longer a group stays together, the more cohesive it will become § Size: Smaller groups tend to have higher levels of cohesion § Support: When group members receive coaching and are encouraged to support their fellow team members, group identity strengthens § Satisfaction: Cohesion is correlated with how pleased group members are with one another's performance

Contrasting views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

§ When hygiene factors are adequate, people wont be dissatisfied but they wont be motivated either To motivate people use motivators

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

· Abraham Maslow—a psychologist—proposed that within every person is a hierarchy of five needs: · Each level must be substantially satisfied before the next need becomes dominant; an individual moves up the hierarchy from one level to the next. · Lower-order needs are satisfied predominantly externally, and higher-order needs are satisfied internally. · Managers will do things to satisfy employees' needs. · Remember: Once a need is substantially satisfied, it no longer motivates. · Widely popular among practicing managers probably because it's easy to understand and intuitive. HOWEVER... · No empirical support provided for theory; other studies could not validate it.

Situational leadership implications and limitations

· Acknowledges that leaders can compensate for followers lack of ability and motivation · Acknowledges that the leader can adapt to the situation, rather than the situation needing to adapt to the leader · Results have been somewhat mixed Important to accurately assess employee readiness

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

· Based on two assumptions about human nature.10 o Theory X: a negative view of people that assumes workers have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled to work effectively. o Theory Y: a positive view that assumes employees enjoy work, seek out and accept responsibility, and exercise self-direction. · To maximize employee motivation, use Theory Y practices—allow employees to participate in decisions, create responsible and challenging jobs, and encourage good group relations. · No evidence to confirm either set of assumptions or that being a Theory Y manager is the only way to motivate employees.

McClelland's Three-Needs Theory

· David McClelland and his associates proposed the three-needs theory, which says three acquired (not innate) needs are major motives in work, including:12 1) need for achievement (nAch), which is the drive to succeed and excel in relation to a set of standards 2) need for power (nPow), which is the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise need for affiliation (nAff), which is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

Global Teams

· Drawbacks o Disliking team members o Mistrusting team members o Stereotyping o Communication problems o Stress and tension · Benefits o Greater diversity of ideas o Limited groupthink o Increased attention on understanding others' ideas, perspectives, etc.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

· Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory (also called motivation-hygiene theory)—intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. o Popular theory from the 1960s to the early 1980s. o Criticized for being too simplistic. o Influenced today's approach to job design.

Expectancy Equation

· Implications for Managers: o Expectancy § Train/hire quality employees § Reduce office politics § Set expectations (e.g., justify with evidence such as past employee performance) o Instrumentality § Tie pay to performance (e.g., appropriate reward systems) § Measure and explain desired job performance adequately o Valence § Identify what employees value § Individualize rewards? 1. Expectancy or effort-performance linkage is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance. 2. Instrumentality or performance-reward linkage is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level is instrumental in attaining the desired outcome. 3. Valence or attractiveness of reward is the importance that the individual places on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job. Valence considers both the goals and needs of the individual.

punctuated equilibrium model

· In reality, group evolution tends to be cyclical. · For instance, a group may be operating at the performing stage for several months until a disruption happens (e.g., new CEO), they then may go back to the storming stage

Research has identified five dimensions that make up the concept of trust

· Integrity: honesty and truthfulness · Competence: technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills · Consistency: reliability, predictability, and good judgment in handling situations · Loyalty: willingness to protect a person, physically and emotionally · Openness: willingness to share ideas and information freely Ø Building trust 1. Practice openness. Mistrust comes as much from what people don't know as from what they do know. Openness leads to confidence and trust. So keep people informed; make clear the criteria on how decisions are made; explain the rationale for your decisions; be candid about problems; and fully disclose relevant information. 2. Be fair. Before making decisions or taking actions, consider how others will perceive them in terms of objectivity and fairness. Give credit where credit is due; be objective and impartial in performance appraisals; and pay attention to equity perceptions in reward distributions. 3. Speak your feelings. Leaders who convey only hard facts come across as cold and distant. When you share your feelings, others will see you as real and human. They will know who you are and their respect for you will increase. 4. Tell the truth. If honesty is critical to credibility, you must be perceived as someone who tells the truth. Followers are more tolerant of being told something they "don't want to hear" than of finding out that their leader lied to them. 5. Be consistent. People want predictability. Mistrust comes from not knowing what to expect. Take the time to think about your values and beliefs. Then let them consistently guide your decisions. When you know your central purpose, your actions will follow accordingly, and you will project a consistency that earns trust. 6. Fulfill your promises. Trust requires that people believe that you're dependable. So you need to keep your word. Promises made must be promises kept. 7. Maintain confidences. You trust those whom you believe to be discreet and whom you can rely on. If people make themselves vulnerable by telling you something in confidence, they need to feel assured that you won't discuss it with others or betray that confidence. If people perceive you as someone who leaks personal confidences or someone who can't be depended on, you won't be perceived as trustworthy. 8. Demonstrate confidence. Develop the admiration and respect of others by demonstrating technical and professional ability. Pay particular attention to developing and displaying your communication, negotiating, and other interpersonal skills.

Fiedler's research uncovered three contingency dimensions that defined the key situational factors in leader effectiveness

· Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader; rated as either good or poor. · Task structure: the degree to which job assignments were formalized and structured; rated as either high or low. -Position power: the degree of influence a leader had over activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases; rated as either strong or weak

Justice and Equity Theory

· Originally, equity theory focused on distributive justice, which is the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals and which has a greater influence on employees' job satisfaction. · Recent research has focused on issues of procedural justice, which is the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards, and tends to affect an employee's organizational commitment, trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit. · Implications for managers: o Consider openly sharing information on how allocation decisions are made o Engage in similar practices to increase the perception of procedural justice Follow consistent and unbiased procedures

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

· Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard; is a contingency theory that focuses on followers' readiness; adjusting one's leadership style to fit the development level of ones followers o Key points: Uses Fiedler's two leadership dimensions (task vs. relationship) and looks at these in conjunction with follower readiness o What do we mean by readiness? § Focuses on followers... § ability (KSAs) to accomplish a specific task § willingness (e.g., confidence, enthusiasm & commitment) to accomplish a specific task Readiness:as defined by Hersey and Blanchard, refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task

increasing expectancy through self efficacy

· Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their own abilities. · In one study, a researcher was trying to test the degree to which self-efficacy could mitigate a biological process like seasickness. o In the study, the researcher gave members of the navy a number of tests. o One group of sailors were told that they were less prone to seasickness based on the test results. o Another group was shown standard military training videos that showed sailors throwing up once the waters started to get rough. · After they all went out to sea for the first time, the group told they had higher sea-sickness self-efficacy was less likely to throw up.

Leader Behaviors

· Task-oriented leadership o Delegate work roles to employees o Set goals for team members o Structure teams to maximize performance · Relationship-oriented leadership o Building rapport with employees o Providing mediation to deal with conflicts o Having more casual interactions o Creating a non-competitive and transparent work environment

In-group/out-group status

· based on how well subordinate works with the leader and how well the leader works with the subordinate · How subordinates involve themselves in expanding their role responsibilities with the leader determines whether they become in-group or out-group participants · Becoming part of the in-group involves subordinate negotiations in performing activities beyond the formal job description · In-Group (high-quality LMX) o Greater attention o Increased resource access o More autonomy to do work · Out-Group (low-quality LMX) o Lesser likelihood of being exposed to benefits that go beyond the formal employment contact

Forming stage

· has 2 phases; the first occurs as people join the group. In a formal group, people join because of some work assignment. Once they've joined, the second phase begins: defining the group's purpose, structure, and leadership. This phase involves a great deal of uncertainty as members "test the waters" to determine what types of behavior are acceptable. This stage is complete when members begin to think of themselves as part of a group. o The group comes together for the first time and begins to define the group's purpose, structure, and hierarchy o Stage Characteristics: § Feelings of formality, uncertainty, anxiety, and guardedness o Role of the Leader? § Directive leadership approach

Storming stage

· is appropriately named because of the intragroup conflict. There's conflict over who will control the group and what the group needs to be doing. When this stage is complete, a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership and agreement on the group's direction will be evident. o Group members start to feel safe and begin to explore their power and influence and attempt to differentiate themselves from other group members rather than seek common ground o Stage Characteristics: § Members become authentic and begin voicing their opinions, conflict and disagreements arise, coalitions form, state of chaos o Role of the Leader? § Maintain directive leadership approach

Norming stage

· is one in which close relationships develop and the group becomes cohesive. The group now demonstrates a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. This stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations (or norms) regarding member behavior. o In this stage, members establish ground rules (norms) and define their procedures and goals o Stage Characteristics: § Members become cohesive, friendships form, and develop a group identity o Role of the Leader? § Move into facilitating role

SLT uses the same two leadership dimensions that Fiedler identified

· task and relationship behaviors. However, Hersey and Blanchard go a step further by considering each as either high or low and then combining them into four specific leadership styles described as follows: o Telling (high task-low relationship): The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks. o Selling (high task-high relationship): The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior. o Participating (low task-high relationship): The leader and followers share in decision making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating. o Delegating (low task-low relationship): The leader provides little direction or support.

Conformity

Ø : Adjusting one's attitudes, beliefs, and behavior to align with group norms · Conformity can take several forms: o Compliance: public conformity while possibly keeping one's own beliefs § Motivated by the need for approval and the fear of being rejected. o Identification: conforming to someone who is liked and respected § Deeper type of conformism than compliance. o Internalization: accepting the belief or behavior both publicly and privately § Deepest influence on people and it will affect them for a long time. · Conformity can take several forms: o Asch experiments § Peer/group pressure o Milgram experiments § Authority/leader pressure o Stanford prison experiments § System/role pressure

Motivation

Ø : refers to the process by which a person's efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal. This definition has three key elements: energy, direction, and persistence. 1. Energy: element is a measure of intensity or drive. A motivated person puts forth effort and works hard. However, the quality of the effort must be considered as well as its intensity. 2. High levels of effort don't necessarily lead to favorable job performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Effort that's directed toward, and consistent with, organizational goals is the kind of effort we want from employees. 3. Finally, motivation includes a persistence dimension. We want employees to persist in putting forth effort to achieve those goals.

Path-Goal Theory

Ø leadership theory that says the leader's job is to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction of support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the organizations or groups goals · House identified four leadership behaviors: o Directive leader: Lets subordinates know what's expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks. o Supportive leader: Shows concern for the needs of followers and is friendly. o Participative leader: Consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decision. o Achievement-oriented leader: Sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level. · In contrast to Fiedler's view that a leader couldn't change his or her behavior, House assumed that leaders are flexible and can display any or all of these leadership styles depending on the situation. For instance, Bono, U2's leader, lead singer, and lyricist, uses the supportive and participative approaches of the path-goal theory. He includes band members in decision making, believing that their input is necessary to achieve excellence. And he supports them by expressing his appreciation for their talents in contributing to the band's success and for their role in helping achieve the band's goal of improving the world through its music and influence · path-goal theory proposes two situational or contingency variables that moderate the leadership behavior-outcome relationship: o those in the environment that are outside the control of the follower (factors including task structure, formal authority system, and the work group) and o those that are part of the personal characteristics of the follower (including locus of control, experience, and perceived ability).

Fiedler contingency model

Ø proposed that effective group performance depended on properly matching the leader's style and the amount of control and influence in the situation. The model was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective in different types of situations. The keys were: · define those leadership styles and the different types of situations, and then identify the appropriate combinations of style and situation 3 step process: 1. identify the leaders style 2. evaluate the situation 3. identify the appropriate combinations of style and situation

Expectancy Theory

Ø states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables or relationships Expectancy theory provides one of the most comprehensive explanations a to why and how employees are motivated

Transformational leaders

Ø stimulates and inspires (transforms) followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes By paying attention to the concerns and developmental needs of individual followers; changing followers' awareness of issues by helping those followers look at old problems in new ways; and being able to excite, arouse, and inspire followers to exert extra effort to achieve group goals