Midterm 2

Osteomalacia

Characterized by softening of bones (due to mineral deficiency)

Which GAGs might you find in the extracellular matrix?

Chondroitin sulfate and HCl

What type of strength do tendons and ligaments posses?

High tensile strength, flexibility but not elastic (does not permit stretching)

Describe the female pelvis:

Lighter, shorter, wider, angle greater than 90

Where is the origin of muscle?

Located on the immovable bone

Where is the insertion of muscle?

Located on the moveable bone distal to origin

How might you distinguish the thoracic column from the rest of the vertebrae?

Long, project, spinous process

What membrane surrounds muscle fiber?

Sarcolemma

Where are Ca ions contained in muscle fiber structure?

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

Which glial cells nourish neurons and regulate the environment?

Satelite cells

Which glial cells form the myelin sheath in PNS?

Schwann cells

What is the name of the Insulin-Growth Factor derived from the liver?

Somatomedins

Osteopenia

Characterized by low bone density

Describe: Kyphosis

"Humpback"

Describe: Lordosis

"Lumpback"

Describe: Scoliosis

"Swayback"

How many bones make up the thoracic column?

12

How many bones make up the appendicular skeleton?

126 bones

How many bones make up the lumbar column?

5

How many bones make up the cervical column?

7: atlas (c1), axis (c2)

How many bones make up the axial skeleton?

80 bones

How many foramina are there in the body?

85

What might happen to the physical growth process of the body if there is a deficiency in T3/T4?

A deficiency in these hormones may contribute to growth defects such as dwarfism and cretinism

What type of medium is required for bone resorption?

Acidic medium

What side of the clavicle is the conoid process?

Acromial (lateral) end

Which myofilament makes up the I-band?

Actin (thin)

When do bones grow in width during development?

Adulthood. Bone next to medullary cavity is dissolved by osteoclasts (endosteum), while new bone is made by osteoblasts (periosteum) resulting in net increase in diameter

What are sinuses?

Air-filled spaces in the skull lined by mucuous membranes that serve as resonance of sound

What type of medium is required for bone formation?

Alkaline medium

Name the sutures of the skull:

Anterior to posterio: coronal, sagittal, squamous, lambdoid

What type of cartilage covers the ends of long bones?

Articular cartilage covers the epiphysis of long bones

Which glial cell anchors cells to form blood-brain barrier?

Astrocytes (a=anchoring)

Which bone in the cervical vertebrae allows 'yes'?

Atlas (C1)

Which bone in the cervical column allows 'no'?

Axis (C2)

What type of fracture is a compression fracture?

Bone impacted or collapses (fracture)

What type of fracture is a communited fracture?

Bone shattered into pieces (fracture)

What does the haversian canal contain?

Blood vessels, nerves, and lymph

What happens to bone if there is insufficient collagen?

Bone becomes brittle

What happens to bone if there is insufficient minerals?

Bones become soft and pliable

What percentage of body weight do bones contribute to?

Bones contribute to 18% of bodyweight

Name the (14) facial bones:

Brain box bones: nasal (2), maxilla (2), lacrimal (2), nasal conchae (2), palatine (2), zygomatic (2), mandible, vomer

How do afferent (sensory) neurons communicate?

By carrying impulses towards the CNS

How do efferent (motor) neurons communicate?

By conducting impulses away from the CNS

Osteoporosis

Characterized by porous bone; weak and brittle

What type of minerals are stored in bones?

Ca (Calcium) and P (Phosphorus)

Which hormone controls the process of bone deposition?

Calcitonin (Thyroid) lowers blood Ca levels by promoting absorption of Ca in bones (blasts)

Where does the radius articulate with the humerus?

Capitulum (pronation/supination)

Which enzyme catalyzes the forward and backwards reaction of carbonic (HCO3) acid?

Carbonic anhydrase

Describe appositional growth of cartilage:

Cartilage growth that occurs when chondroblasts located deep to the perichondrium secrete new matrix on the superficial face of cartilage face from (growth from outside --> in)

Describe interstitial growth of cartilage:

Cartilage growth that occurs when chondroblasts within cartilage divide and secrete new matrix (growth from within)

Osteogenesis Imperfecta

Characterized by brittle bones caused by collagen deformation

Which bones make up the pectoral girdle?

Clavicle and scapula

What type of bone forms in the primary ossification center?

Compact bone (diaphysis), medullary cavity (inside)

In which type of bone will you find a Haversian canal?

Compact bone (only)

What percentage of bone composition is compact bone?

Compact bone contributes to 80% of bone composition

From the anterior side, what type of curvature is primary?

Concave

What structure contains the osteocyte?

Concentric rings of Lamella embedded in bone matrix

What cartilage connects the false ribs to the sternum?

Connect to the sternum via shared cartilage

What cartilage connects the true ribs to the sternum?

Connected to the sternum via individual coastal cartilage

Define: ability to contract by shortening in length

Contractility

From the anterior side, what type of curvature is secondary?

Convex

What is another term for compact bone?

Cortical or ivory bone

What type of fracture is a greenstick fracture?

Crack in bone, especially children (fracture)

What are the depressions on the cranial floor called?

Cranial fossa

What are canaliculi?

Cytoplasmic connections between osteocytes

How is direct muscle attached?

Epimysium of muscle is fused to periosteum of bone

Where on the sphenoid bone is the pituitary gland housed?

Depression in the sphenoid known as the sella turica

What side of the spine are the spinous processes located?

Dorsal (back side)

How many NMJs does a muscle fiber have?

Each muscle fiber only had one motor unit.

Define: ability of muscle to recoil back to original length

Elasticity

What type of bone formation forms most of the bones of the body?

Endochondrial ossification (8 wks.)

Which glial cells lines ventricles?

Ependymall cells

What is the role of estrogen in bone development?

Estrogen prevents/inhibits PTH stimulated osteoclasts which function in bone resorption

Define: ability to generate action potential

Excitability

Define: ability of muscles to extend by increasing in length

Extensibility

What process does myoglobin facilitate?

Facilitates oxygen uptake in the muscle

Why do females grow taller than males at an earlier age?

Females tend to grow taller than males at an earlier age due to the presence of estrogen

Which bone in the lower leg is not weight-bearing?

Fibula

Which foramen connects the brain to the spinal cord?

Foramen magnum

Where is a Pott's fracture located?

Fracture in the ankle (distal fibula)

Where is a Colle's fracture located?

Fracture in the wrist (distal radius)

What disorder can develop as a result of an overproduction of GH?

Gigantism (children) and acromegaly (adults)

Which hormones of the pituitary gland are responsible for bone elongation?

Growth Hormone (GH); Secreted into liver to produce growth factors that are absorbed in the blood stream

What type of acid desolves bone?

HCl (produced by osteoclasts cells)

What bone fits into the glenoid cavity?

Head of humerus (rotation of arm)

What occurs during endochondrial ossification?

Hyaline cartilage is broken down and replaced by bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts

Which type of cartilage is the most abundant in the body?

Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of collagen in the human body

Which bone mineral is responsible for the hardness of bone?

Hydroxyapatite (secreted by osteoblasts)

In which band are the Z-disc?

I-band (Actin)

How are motor neurons arranged in large muscles?

In large muscles that do not require a fine degree of control, motor neurons are highly branched to innervate many muscle fibers

Where are Ca ions stored in smooth muscle?

In small pits on the surface of smooth muscle called caveolae

Where do chloride (Cl-) ions go?

Into the cell

What type of bone development forms the bones of the skull?

Intramembranous ossification (6 wks.)

How is the hyoid bone suspended?

It is suspended below the mandible by ligaments and tendons and serves as the attachment site for muscles of the tongue and throat

Cd Poisoning

Itai Itai (ouch ouch) disease

What is the space between lamellae called?

Lacuna

How might you distinguish the lumbar column from the rest of the vertebrae?

Large, prominent articular facets

What organelle is enclosed in the sarcolemma of muscle tissue?

Mitchondria, oxidize glucose or other metabolic fuels, to generate ATP needed for muscle contraction

What type of bone disorder may arise as a result of menopause?

Menopausal osteoporosis due to a lack of estrogen naturally producing in the body

What occurs during intramembranous ossification?

Mesenchymal cells aggregate and turn into osteoblasts which secrete bone matrix and bone mineral that turns into bony material.

Which glial cell moves and engulfs microorganisms/dead cells?

Microglial cells

How does the muscle protein Titin assist in muscle recoil?

Molecular muscle protein which works as a spring responsible for passive elasticity

What type of cells do not divide after birth?

Muscle and nervous cells

How is indirect muscle attached?

Muscle inserts like rope attachment to bone or cartilage

How does the muscle protein Troponin allow muscle contraction?

Muscle protein that binds to actin, tropomyosin, and Ca

What does the protein Tropomyosin regulate?

Muscle protein that covers myosin binding sites on actin when the muscle is at rest

What link does the protein Dystrophin make in muscle fibers?

Muscle protein that links thin filaments to proteins of sarcolemma

What percentage of body weight do muscles contribute to?

Muscles contribute approximately 36-40% of bodyweight

What is the single-unit hemoglobin in muscle called?

Myoglobin, which facilitates oxygen reuptake in muscles

What are the motor proteins that generate force?

Myosin (muscles), Dynein, Kinesin

Which myofilament makes the M-line?

Myosin (thick)

Which myofilament makes up the H-zone?

Myosin (thick)

Which myofilament runs through the A-band

Myosin (thick)

What are the gaps between schwann cells called?

Nodes of Ranvier, which allow for nerve impulses to jump from one node to the next

Which glial cell forms myelin sheath in the CNS?

Oligodendrocytes

Where do the occipital condyles fit on the skull?

On the superior articular facets of the atlas (C1)

What occurs during bone deposition?

Osteoblasts form bone cells which develop bones

What type of genetic condition does one develop due to defective collagen?

Osteogenesis Imperfecta (pliable bones which develop in a deformed way)

What are the organic proteins deposited by osteoblasts?

Osteoids (osteocalcin)

Where do bicarbonate (HCO3) ions go?

Outside of the cell (byproduct of metabolism)

Which hormone controls the process of bone resorption?

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) increases Ca levels in the blood by removing it from bone (clasts)

What is another term for childbirth?

Parturition

What type of curvature develops primary in infants?

Primary curvature of thoracic and sacral vertebrae

Where is muscle glycogen stored?

Skeletal muscle

What type of curvature develops secondary in infants?

Secondary curvature of cervical and lumbar vertebrae when infants learn to stand upright and walk

Acronym for carpal bones:

She Looks Too Pretty, Try To Catch Her

What is the largest bone in the floor of the skull?

Sphenoid bone

What type of bone is formed in the secondary ossification center?

Spongy bone (epiphysis, epiphyseal line)

Which structure is the smallest bone in the body? Where is it found?

Stapes, bone of the middle ear ossicle

Name the (5) regions of the vertebral column:

Supeior to inferior: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccyx

Which nerve speeds up the HR?

Sympathetic nerve

Where is the wave of depolarization carried throughout a muscle fiber?

T-tubules which are the visible spaces between the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Describe the male pelvis:

Taller, longer, narrow, angle less than 90

What stimulates the release of Ca from the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

The AP spreads through the T-tubules, and stimulates release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Where is fibrocartilage found? What type of structures does it cover?

This dense type of cartilage is found in slightly moveable joints (amphiarthroses) such as those in the vertebra and pubic symphsis

Where do long bones grow longer during development?

The continued growth of bones in development occurs at the epiphyseal plates.

What is the structure of intervertebral disc?

The cushioned pads of the intervertebral column consist of two parts: (i) inner nucleosus (sac), (ii) outer annulus fibrosus (bone)

What function do fontanelles have during childbirth?

The fontanelle form spaces between bony plates and allow for the compression of the skull during childbirth

Describe the characteristics of cartilage

This dense connective tissue is composed of 80% water, it is avascular, compressible, and covered by perichondrium

Describe some of the characteristics of fibrocartilage

This dense type of cartilage has the ability to resist high pressures, it contains a lot of collagen, and less abundant in chondrocytes

Which bones make up the pelvis?

There are three bones that composed the pelvis: ilium, ischium and pubis

What substance do chondroblast secrete?

These active collagen forming cells secrete extracellular matrix GAGs (glucoseaminoglycans)

What are Sharpey's fibers?

These are perforating fibers that secure periosteum to the underlying bone

Where might you find a diploe bone?

These are specialized bones of the skull that are composed of spongy bone between two layers of compact

Which type of bone cells are osteoprogenitor cells ?

These are stem cells that differentiate into specialized cells: mesenchymal or hemopoletic

What are glucoseaminoglycans (GAGs)

These are sugar-containing proteins (glucose-aminos)

What are neuroglial cells?

These are the more numerous supporting cells of the nervous system

What type of muscle fibers are Type IIa?

These are thick, Fast Glycolytic Fibers which are WHITE and do not contain myoglobin, meaning they can be used only for short term muscular activity.

What type of muscle fibers are Type IIa?

These are thick, Fast Oxidative Fibers which are PINK in color and contain moderate amount of myoglobin, meaning some O2 is necessary

What type of muscle fibers are Type I?

These are thin, slow-oxidative fibers which are RED and contain plenty of myoglobin, and are aerobic fibers, meaning oxygen is necessary for sustained muscular activity.

What do collagen fibers provide to bones?

These fibers provide the tensile strength/slight bending function of bone

What do mesenchymal cells give rise to?

These specialized cells deposit osteoblast which are bone-forming cells

What do hemopoletic cells give rise to?

These specialized cells deposit osteoclast which are bone-absorbing cells

What type of cartilage is the ear pinna, epiglottis, and larynx composed of?

These structures are composed of elastic cartilage

What the intercalated disc of cardiac muscle?

They function as desmosomes (mechanical strength) and gap junctions (electrical coupling)

What does the ethmoid bone provide neural connections for?

This bone provides specialized neural connections to allow olfactory signals to travel from the nose to the brain

What occurs at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ)?

This is the point at which an axon of a motor neuron connects with a single muscle fiber

Where is the secondary ossification center located in long bones?

This ossification center is located in the epiphysis and epiphyseal plate

Where is the primary ossification center located in long bones?

This ossification center is located in the shaft of long bones

What are spongy bones composed of?

This type of bone is composed of trabeculae a lightweight tissue which contains bone marrow

Which vertebral column articulates with the rib cage?

Thoracic column

Which gland plays a critical role in physical growth?

Thyroid gland, specifically the hormones T3/T4

Name the sinuses of the skull:

Top to bottom: frontal, ethmoid, sphenoidal, maxillary

What is spongy bone composed of?

Trabeculae (spaces filled with red bone marrow)

What type of canals run horizontally?

Transverse/Perforating or Volksmann's canal

Where does the ulna articulate with the humerus?

Trochlea (flexion/extension)

Which nerve slows down the HR?

Vagus nerve

Which side of the body does the intervertebral disc sit on the body?

Ventral side

Which vitamin is essential for intestinal absorption of Ca?

Vitamin D3 is required for the absorption of Ca in the intestine. A lack/insufficiency of D3 can result in bone deformation, i.e. rickets

What causes a herniated disc?

When cartilage endures too much pressure it may cause the vertebra disc to rupture when this occurs nerves become compressed and cause neuralgia

Which organs make up the CNS?

brain & spinal cord

Which organs make up the PNS?

cranial & spinal nerves

Organization of muscle tissue superficial to deep

epimysium -> perimysium -> fasicle -> endomysium -> muscle fiber

Characteristics of smooth muscle tissue:

involuntary, single-nuclei, short, nonstriated, random arrangement, prolonged contraction, nonfatigable

Characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue:

involuntary, single-nuclei, short, striated, linear arrangement, branched fibers, autorhythmic cells, non-fatigable

Structure of muscle fiber superficial to deep

muscle fiber -> myofibril -> myofilament: actin, myosin -> sarcomere

Describe some of the basic functions of bone?

support, protection, movement, mineral storage, hematopoiesis

Characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue:

voluntary, multi-nucleated, long, striated (sarcomeres), linear arrangement, unbranched