Midterm

Putnam's "Bowling Alone"

Robert Putnam, in his book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000), argues that we no longer practice the type of "civic engagement" that builds democratic community and keeps anomie at bay

Anomie

"Normlessness"; term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change (also suggested by Durkheim)

Definition and types of groups

- A collection of two or more people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other - Primary groups: groups composed of the people who are most important to our sense of self; members' relationships are typically characterized by face-to-face interaction, high levels of cooperation, and intense feelings of belonging - Secondary groups: groups that are larger and less intimate than primary groups; members' relationships are usually organized around a specific goal and are often temporary

Dramaturgy

- An approach pioneered by Erving Goffman (a symbolic interactionist who saw micro-level, face- to-face interaction as the building block of society) in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance (looking at setting, delivery vs. intention, etc., and how they are managed in order to deliver a certain presentation of oneself)

Types of questions in interview research

- Closed-ended questions - Open-ended questions - Researchers must be careful to avoid biased, leading, overly complex, and double-barreled questions - In some studies, researchers will solicit the entire life history of a respondent, a chronological account of the story of their life from childhood to the present or of some portion of it.

Conflict theory's approach to deviance

- Conflict theorists, who study inequalities of wealth and power, note that inequalities are present in our definitions of deviance as well. In other words, conflict theorists believe that rules are applied unequally and that punishments for rule violators are unequally distributed: Those at the top are subject to different rules and sanctions than those nearer the bottom, and the behaviors of less powerful groups and individuals are more likely to be criminalized than the behaviors of the powerful. - Both formal social control and informal social control can be exercised unequally in a hierarchical society, and this is what conflict theory is concerned with when it comes to the topic of deviance.

Role strain and role conflict

- Conflict: experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations - Strain: experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role

Cultural diffusion, cultural leveling, cultural imperialism

- Cultural diffusion: the dissemination of material and nonmaterial culture (tools and technology, beliefs and behavior) from one group to another - Cultural leveling: the process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar - Cultural imperialism: the imposition of one culture's beliefs and practices on another culture through media and consumer products rather than by military force

Purposes of punishment

- Deterrence: an approach to punishment that relies on the threat of harsh penalties to discourage people from committing crimes - Retribution: an approach to punishment that emphasizes retaliation or revenge for the crime as the appropriate goal - Incapacitation: an approach to punishment that seeks to protect society from criminals by imprisoning or executing them - Rehabilitation: an approach to punishment that attempts to reform criminals as part of their penalty

Merton's strain theory

- Developed by Robert Merton - Social inequality puts strain on one's ability to achieve socially accepted goals through socially accepted means - Conformity: means✅, goals✅ - Innovators: means❌, goals✅ (might seek financial success via unconventional means (such as drug dealing or embezzlement)) - Ritualists: means✅, goals❌ (go through the conventional motions while abandoning all hope of success) - Retreatists: means❌, goals❌ ((like dropouts or hermits) renounce the culture's goals and means entirely and live outside conventional norms altogether) - Rebels: means❌, goals❌ (reject the cultural definitions of success and the normative means of achieving it and advocate radical alternatives to the existing social order.)

Latent and manifest functions

- Developed by structural functionalist Robert Merton (1910-2003) - Manifest functions are the obvious, intended functions of a social structure, while latent functions are the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions. - For example, the manifest functions of education are to prepare future members of society by teaching them how to read and write and by instructing them on society's system of norms, values, and laws. However, education has a latent function as well, which is to keep kids busy and out of trouble eight hours a day, five days a week, for twelve years (or longer).

Functionalism's approach to deviance

- First, deviance can help a society clarify its moral boundaries. We are reminded about our shared notions of what is right when we have to address wrongdoings of various sorts. Take the case of Cecil the lion, a well-known and well-loved black-maned lion who was killed in Zimbabwe by an American trophy hunter in 2015. Cecil was then skinned and his head was removed. In his defense, Palmer claimed that everything about the trip was legal. But many felt that the killing of such a rare and magnificent lion was immoral, even if it was legal. - Another function of deviance is to promote social cohesion (one of functionalism's valued ideals); people can be brought together as a community in the face of crime or other violations. For example, when photos of a grinning Palmer astride his "kill" surfaced in the news, the outrage was swift and global in its reach. The story became a viral sensation, uniting people in a worldwide outcry against big-game hunting in general and Palmer in particular. - Finally, in addition to clarifying social boundaries and nurturing social cohesion, deviance can also serve to promote social change. "Deviant heroes" refer to individuals who violate norms—and risk the repercussions for doing so—out of an intention to create positive social change. Take, for instance, Colin Kaepernick, the former professional quarterback who sparked controversy in 2016 for kneeling during the national anthem before National Football League games in protest of racial injustice and police brutality.

Folkway, more, taboo

- Folkways are the ordinary conventions of everyday life about what is acceptable or proper and are not always strictly enforced. Folkways are the customary ways that people do things, and they ensure smooth and orderly social interactions. Examples are standards of dress and rules of etiquette - Mores are norms that carry a greater moral significance and are more closely related to the core values of a cultural group. Such mores as the prohibition of theft, rape, and murder are also formalized so that there is not only public condemnation for such acts but also strict laws against them. - Taboos, actually a type of mores, are the most powerful of all norms. We sometimes use the word in a casual way to indicate, say, a forbidden subject. But as a sociological term it holds even greater meaning. The very thought of committing a taboo act, such as cannibalism or incest, evokes strong feelings of disgust or horror.

Conflict theory

- Founded by C. Wright Mills (1916- 1962) - Karl Marx's work inspired conflict theory, so the terms "conflict theory" and "Marxism" are sometimes used interchangeably - It's a macro-level approach to understanding social life that dates to mid-nineteenth-century Europe. Conflict theory posits that social inequality is the basic characteristic of society.

Structural functionalism

- Founded by Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) - A paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures

Mechanical and organic solidarity

- Suggested by founder of structural functionalism Émile Durkheim - People in a simple agricultural society were bound together by mechanical solidarity—that is, on the basis of shared traditions, beliefs, and experiences. - In industrial societies, where factory work was becoming increasingly specialized, organic solidarity prevailed: people's bonds were based on the tasks they performed, interdependence, and individual rights.

Applications of symbolic interactionism

- Founded by George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) - Society is produced and reproduced through our interactions with each other by means of language and our interpretations of that language. Symbolic interactionism sees face-to-face interaction as the building block of everything else in society, because it is through interaction that we create a meaningful social reality. - We act toward things on the basis of their meanings (a tree can provide a shady place to rest, or it can be an obstacle to building a road or home; each of these meanings suggests a different set of actions) - Meanings are not inherent; rather, they are negotiated through interaction with others (whether the tree is an obstacle or an oasis is not an intrinsic quality of the tree itself but rather something that people must figure out among themselves. The same tree can mean one thing to one person and something else to another) - Meanings can change or be modified through interaction (the contractor who sees the tree as an obstacle might be persuaded to spare it by the neighbor who appreciates its shade. Now the tree means the same thing to both of them: It is something to protect and build around rather than to condemn and bulldoze)

Malcolm Gladwell's Outliers: Rice Paddies and Math Tests

- Gladwell moves from his brief discussion of rice paddies to a discussion of the Chinese numbers system. It is highly regular, following simple rules without exceptions. As a result, Chinese children can learn to count to 40 two years earlier than American children on average. - Rice farming is difficult, requires a great deal of dedication and problem-solving, and effort is directly linked to reward. In order to be a rice farmer, you have to care deeply about your work. - Researchers have found that one of the most reliable predictors of whether or not a student will be good at math is not their IQ or the quality of their schooling. It is their willingness to complete tasks carefully. In a country shaped by wet rice farming like China, where "doggedness is not the exception but a cultural trait," perhaps it is not surprising that students tend to be better at math.

Labeling theory

- Howard Becker's idea that deviance is a consequence of external judgments, or labels, that modify the individual's self-concept and change the way others respond to the labeled person - Labels will vary depending on the culture, time period, and situation

Marx

- Industrial society would inevitably lead to class struggle between those who owned the means of production and the proletariat (proletariat vs. bourgeoisie). Workers were unable to directly benefit from the fruits of their own labor (which Marx labeled as alienation). - Conflict theory

Material and symbolic culture

- Material culture: the objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings, and artwork; any physical object to which we give social meaning - Nonmaterial culture (?): the ideas associated with a cultural group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication)

Mead's developmental stages

- Mead = George Herbert Mead (founder of symbolic interactionism) - First is the preparatory stage. Children under the age of three lack a completely developed sense of self, so they have difficulty distinguishing themselves from others. Such children begin the development process by simply imitating or mimicking others around them (making faces, playing patty-cake) without fully understanding the meaning of their behavior. - After age three, children enter the play stage of development when they start to pretend or play at being "mommy," "firefighter," "princess," or "doctor." This is referred to as taking the role of the particular or significant other. As children learn the behavior associated with being a mother or doctor, they internalize the expectations of those particular others and begin to gain new perspectives in addition to their own. Such play also serves the purpose of anticipatory socialization for the real-life roles a child might play in the future. - In the final or game stage of development, children begin to take part in organized games. Each child must follow the rules of the game, which means that they must simultaneously take into account the roles of all the other players. Mead called this overview the perspective of the generalized other. Thus, children begin to understand the set of standards common to a social group—their playmates—and to see themselves from others' viewpoints.

Formal and informal norms

- Norms are the rules and guidelines regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable - Some norms are formal, which means they are officially codified and explicitly stated. These include laws such as those making it illegal to speed in a school zone or drink before you turn twenty-one. - Other norms are informal, meaning that they are implicit and unspoken. Informal norms are so much a part of our assumptions about life that they are embedded in our consciousness; they cover almost every aspect of our social lives, from what we say and do to even how we think and feel. Often, it is only when norms are violated (as when someone cuts in line) that we recognize they exist.

Types of authority, power, and leadership style

- Power: the ability to control the actions of others - Coercive power: power that is backed by the threat of force - Influential power: power that is supported by persuasion - Traditional authority, based in custom, birthright, or divine right, is usually associated with monarchies and dynasties. Their personal qualities don't really matter, and they can't be replaced by legal proceedings. - Legal-rational authority, on the other hand, is based in laws and rules, not in the lineage of any individual leader. Modern presidencies and parliaments are built on this kind of authority. - The third type, charismatic authority, is based in the remarkable personal qualities of the leader. Neither rules nor traditions are necessary for the establishment of a charismatic leader—indeed, the leader can be a revolutionary, breaking rules and defying traditions. - Instrumental leadership styles are task or goal oriented. An instrumental leader is less concerned with people's feelings than with getting the job done. - Expressive leadership styles are concerned with maintaining harmony within the group. An expressive leader conveys interest in group members' emotions as well as their achievements.

Hawthorne effect

- Social scientists must be concerned with reactivity, the ways that people and events respond to being studied. - One classic example of reactivity comes from studies done at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric in Chicago. Conditions were improved for employees, which resulted in higher efficiency. When conditions were reverted, higher efficiency was observed once again. The Hawthorne effect describes situations where a study's results can be explained by the effect of being studied

ABC News Primetime: Basic Instincts: The Milgram Experiment Revisited

- The Milgram experiment was marketed as a "learning and memory" experiment. The participants were emotionally manipulated into shocking another participant who remained faceless behind a wall. The study truly sought to observe the obedience of the student doing the shocking. - ABC recreated the experiment in a modern setting - ABC reduced the voltage in their experiment, had the American Psychological Association approve the procedure, gave participants much more information regarding the experiment initially, and screened participants with clinical psychologists. - The main research question the experiment's conductors sought to answer was will people abandon their moral compass when confronted with orders to do so from authoritative figures? Milgram asked, "Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders?" - 2/3s of the men in ABC's experiment administered the highest voltage, while women were more likely to administer the shock (65% vs 73% respectively).

Symbolic interactionism's approach to deviance

- The definition of deviance is relative and depends on the culture, time period, and situation. - Plagiarism may be labeled as deviant in the United States but not in Russia or India.

Definition and characteristics of culture

- The entire way of life of a group of people (including both material and nonmaterial elements) that acts as a lens through which one views the world and that is passed from one generation to the next - Culture is learned. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. While all humans have basic biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally. - Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn't mean that culture is homogenous (the same). There are multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society. - Culture is based on symbols. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols. - Culture is integrated. All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few. - Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.

Defining sociology

- The term's Latin and Greek roots, socius and logos, suggests that sociology means the study of society - The systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions

Levels of conformity

- We follow prescriptions, doing the things we're supposed to do, as well as proscriptions, avoiding the things we're not supposed to do. - Compliance, the mildest kind of conformity, means going along with something because you expect to gain rewards or avoid punishments. When people comply, however, they don't actually change their own ideas or beliefs. Take, for example, someone who is court ordered to attend Alcoholics Anonymous meetings because of a drunk driving offense. - Identification, a somewhat stronger kind of conformity, is induced by a person's desire to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group. It's possible that the person required to attend AA might actually begin to identify with other members. A person who identifies with a group conforms to the members' wishes and follows their behavior. - Internalization, the strongest kind of conformity and most long-lasting, occurs when individuals adopt the beliefs of a leader or group as their own. When internalization occurs, there is no separation between beliefs and behavior; people believe in what they are doing and feel that it is morally right. Members of Alcoholics Anonymous practice the principles of the twelve-step program, making it an integral part of their identity and way of life.

Definition of deviance

A behavior, trait, belief, or other characteristic that violates a norm and causes a negative reaction

Sociological imagination

Described by C. Wright Mills (founder of conflict theory), a quality of mind that all great social analysts seem to possess: the interplay of the micro world of the self and individual psychology and the macro world of larger social forces

Differential association

Edwin Sutherland's hypothesis that we learn to be deviant through our associations with deviant peers

McDonaldization

Efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control

Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism

Ethnocentrism - the principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal or inferior Cultural relativism - the principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one's own culture

Overt vs. covert roles in ethnography

Most ethnographers (a qualitative method that allows for the study of a wide variety of people and places) are "overt" about their research roles; that is, they are open about their sociological intentions. Overt research is generally preferred, because it eliminates the potential ethical problems of deception. Sometimes, however, circumstances dictate that researchers take a "covert" role and observe members without letting them know that they are doing research.

Spurious correlation, intervening variable

One limitation of the scientific method is that it can't always distinguish between correlation and causation. The classic example is the correlation between ice cream sales and rates of violent crime. As ice cream sales increase, so do rates of violent crime like murder and rape. Does ice cream consumption cause people to act violently? Or do violent actions cause people to buy ice cream? Turns out, it's neither—this is what is known as a spurious correlation. Both ice cream sales and violent crime rates are influenced by a third variable: weather (the intervening variable here).

Granovetter's "The Strength of Weak Ties"

People tend to form homogeneous social networks—to have direct ties to those who are like themselves, whether through race, class background, national origin, or religion. An individual with high socioeconomic status, or SES, for example, usually has relatives and acquaintances with similarly high SES. Because those relatives and acquaintances belong to different social networks, all with high SES, the job seeker now has indirect connections with a vast array of high-SES contacts who can provide job leads. Granovetter's findings show the importance of weak ties for things like job hunting, because the types of weak ties we have (high SES or low SES) can determine the types of jobs we can get.

Efficiency of groups

Social loafing (the phenomenon in which each individual contributes a little less as more individuals are added to a task; a source of inefficiency when working in teams) and organization (as groups get bigger, they often must develop more structure, create a hierarchy, and decide on divisions of labor in order to mitigate loss of efficiency) inhibit the efficiency of groups, but this can be mitigated by social identity theory (according to this model, the most efficient teams are characterized by the greatest shared social identity among their members; such social identity increases motivation and places the needs of the group above purely personal concerns)

Socialization

Socialization is a twofold process. It includes the process by which a society, culture, or group teaches individuals to become functioning members, and the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values and norms of the group.

Macrosociology and microsociology

The micro perspective assumes that society's larger structures are shaped through individual interactions, while the macro perspective assumes that society's larger structures shape those individual interactions.

Looking-glass self

The notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals (we imagine how we look to others, we imagine other people's judgment of us, we experience some kind of feeling about ourselves based on our perception of other people's judgments)

Nature vs. nurture

The ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits

Scientific method

The standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical (concrete, scientific) knowledge, as well as building and testing a body of scientific theory that helps explain and predict different aspects of our world. 1. Identify a problem or ask a question 2. Conduct a literature review 3. Form a hypothesis; give operational definitions to variables 4. Choose a research design or method 5. Collect data 6. Analyze data 7. Disseminate findings