Midterm
Name the two forms of glaciers that dominated the landscape of North America at the end of the Ice Age (Pleistocene).
Alpine glaciers: begin high up in the mountains in bowl-shaped hollows called cirques. As the glacier grows, the ice slowly flows out of the cirque and into a valley. Continental glaciers: Continental glaciers are continuous masses of ice that are much larger than alpine glaciers.
How would you define a buried archaeological site?
An archaeological site with dirt on-top of it.
Three forms of site preservation, name and define each.
Anaerobic (no bacteria because no oxygen) Extremely dry, bacteria cannot survive without moisture Freezing
What are artifacts, features, and Eco-facts?
Artifacts: Ancient PORTABLE objects made by humans from the past, which allows us to "think from things" Ex: ancient jewelry, spears, fake arms and legs Features: objects made by humans, not portable Ex: sacred site foundations on the Island of Oahu, Earth ovens, fire hearths etc Eco-facts: Usually a plant and animal remains left behind at an archeological site (archaeological garbage) Ex: Horse jaw, seed remains from flotation, human poo
The 3.5 million-year-old footprints at Laetoli are an example of a site forming processes. What process was involved in preserving these ancient footprints?
Ash fall from a volcano, dated with argon argon method
You have been asked to conduct an archaeological investigation of an important archaeological site; where would you start and how would you proceed with the investigation?
Background research, Surface survey, map and establish site boundaries, test ground, excavation and data recovery, collecting packaging and transport of samples and analysis, curation and archiving, report writing.
The Terra Cotta Army of Emperor Qin of China is an example of the largest block excavation in the world. Be prepared to justify this excavation method in such a complex archaeological site. Why was mercury used at the site?
Block excavation: The excavation of an area of a site without leaving intervening walls or pillars, which exposes contiguous areas of floors better than the balk method. Justifying block excavation: It was the larger site Why mercury was used: mimic water
What was Charles Lindberg's contribution to archaeology and why is remote sensing so important for archaeological investigation?
Charles is important because he was the first to find sites by areal photography. He also took pictures and found the Pueblo Bonito ruin in Chaco Canyon. Remote sensing: the use of some form of electromagnetic energy to detect and measure characteristics of an archaeological target.
Be prepared to explain the four theories of megafaunal extinction at the end of the Ice Age.
Climate change: most considered the cause of late Pleistocene (ice age) extensions particularly the removal of glaciers. Overkill: Humans, the Big Game Hunters, entered a new environment they kill off all the megafauna grazers which set up a chin reaction that resulted in the demise of megafauna Carrefour's at the end of the Pleistocene. Hyper disease theory: Humans brought disease that killed off lots of animals. Extraterrestrial impact: comet hits earth.
In a historic site where radiocarbon 14 dating is not possible, what methods can be used to date the site?
Could count rings on a tree Thermoluminescence Optical stimulated luminescence-measures the amount of light emitted from energy stored in certain rock types and derived soils to obtain an absolute date for a specific event that occurred in the past
Four fields of anthropology? How does archeology fit into the anthropological agenda?
Cultural Anthropology: describe and analyze the culture of modern human groups. Linguistic Anthropology: evaluate language: how sounds are made, how sounds create languages, the relationship between language and thought, how linguistic systems change through time, the basic structure of language, and the role of language in the development of culture. Archaeology: study human culture as well, but their technology and field methods differ from informants, archaeologists acquire their data through the recovery of material remains-stone tools, broken bones and so on, often by meticulous excavation. Biological Anthropology: Biological (or physical) anthropologists study humans as biological organisms. Some work with human fossils to reconstruct the biological evolution of humans. Other study modern human biological (genetic) variability or work in forensic anthropology, others study non-human primates. How does archeology fit into the anthropological agenda: They analyze cultural materials found in the ground to produce insights as to how people lived and behaved.
Define culture, why is it important to archaeologists?
Culture: An integrated system of beliefs, traditions, and customs that govern or influence a person's behavior. Culture is learned, shared by members of a group, and based on the ability to think in terms of symbols. Why it's important to archaeologists: Its what they study/they want to find out how people lived long ago, and that is basically trying to find out more about their culture.
Why do archaeologists dig square holes?
Dig neat, organized square holes in order to be organized to help them keep records of whatever they find.
Faunalturbation is an example of what type of natural site forming process? What about cryoturbation, argilliturbation, and floralturbation?
Faunalturbation, cryoturbation, argilliturbation, and floralturbation are examples of Natural processes or N-Transforms Faunalturbation: a nautral formation process in which animals, from large game to earthworms, affect the distribution jof material within an archaeological site. Cryoturbation: a natural formation process in which freeze/thaw activity in a soil selectivity pushes larger artifacts to the surface of a cite Argiliturbation: a natural formation process in which wet/dry cycles in clay-rich soils push artifacts upward as the sediment swells and then moves them down as cracks form during dry cycles. Floralturbation:caused by plants
Provide some arguments of early of early American archaeologists for and against the premise that ancient mound building cultures were Native American
For mound builders being Native American: Jefferson said that Native Americans were technologically capable of building such mounds. They also didn't find any European artifacts in the mounds disproving this theory. Therefore, the Native Americans built them (Thomas Jefferson made the theory). Against mound builders being Native American: Mound builders were a superior race wiped out by native Americans. They (the mound builders) could have been white Saxons, Vikings or Europeans.
GPS (global positioning satellite):
Handheld devices that use triangulation from radio waves received from satellites to determine your current position in terms of either the UTM grid or latitude and longitude. PROVIDES EXACT LOCATION OF SITE
The Hunley (a civil war submarine) and the Mary Rose (the flag ship of King Henry VIII) are examples of extraordinary preservation. Be prepared to discuss the nature of each.
Hunley, submarine, attacked ship but didn't make it back, protected by anaerobic environment: https://www.history.com/news/the-hunleys-daring-submarine-mission-150-years-ago Mary Rose, flag ship turned to fast and sank, parts protected by mud/anaerobic preservation: https://www.history.com/news/henry-viiis-restored-flagship-opens-to-public
Explain the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning and how it relates to the scientific method.
Inductive reasoning: working from specific observations to more general hypotheses. Used to generate a hypothesis. Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from theory to predict specific observational or experimental results. Basically it is the hypothesis. Expressed as "if...then...because" statements. How it relates to scientific method: one reasons based off of theory the other off of actual observations.
Define Landscape archaeology. Provide information on Chaco Canyon and Pueblo Bonito.
Landscape Archaeology: The study of ancient human modification of the environment Chaco canyon: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/08/chaco-canyon-national-park-new-mexico-drilling Pueblo Bonito: https://www.thoughtco.com/pueblo-bonito-chaco-canyon-great-house-172140
Theory is an explanation of observed, empirical phenomena which seeks to explain the relationships between variables. Be prepared to distinguish between low-level, middle-level and high-level theory.
Low level: The observations and interpretations that emerge from hands-on archaeological field and lab work. Example: "artifact 20.2/4683 is made of obsidian, 21.5 mm long, and weighs 2.1 grams." Middle level: hypothesis that links archaeological observations with the human behavior or natural processes that produced them. Allows archaeologists to make "if...then" statements. Links some specific set of archaeological data with the human behavior or natural processes that produced them. High level: Theory that seeks to answer large "why" questions. Archaeolgists ultimate objective. Try to answer questions like "why did humans become cultural animals" and "why did hunter-gathers in California not take up agriculture?"
What is a "midden" and why would it be of importance to archaeologists?
Midden: Refuse deposit resulting from human activities, generally consisting of sediment; food remains such as charred seeds, animal bone, and shell; and discarded artifacts. Gives archaeolgists and idea as to how ancient humans dealt with such materials.
What is an archaeological site?
More than ten artifacts, a location of human activity over fifty years' old
Natural and arbitrary levels (strata-stratigraphy):
Natural level: a vertical subdivision of an excavation square that is based on natural breaks in the sediments (in terms of color, grain size, texture, harness, or other characteristics.) Arbitrary level: the basic vertical subdivision of an excavation square; used only when easily recognizable "natural" strata are lacking or when natural strata are more than 10 centimeters thick. Strata: more or less homogeneous or gradational material, visually separable from other levels by a discrete change in the character of the material-texture, compactness, color, rock, organic content-and/or by a sharp break in the nature of deposition Stratigraphy: a sequential layering of earth materials each stacked in a chronological order. "Sifting the evidence" (water screening): read on page 79, look at picture.
Neanderthals appear to be our nearest cousins, what characteristics of Neanderthals best exemplifies this connection?
Neanderthals used tools like us, had barrings, took care of sick, amputated limbs to save lives, we didn't approach hunting like they did/they brawled with large animals. http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis
Science is the search for answers through a process that is:
Objective: coming to things without an opinion, Systematic: can replicate data by following procedures carefully Logical link ideas together, Predictive Self-critical: can be re-tested Public
what is a Potlach? Was it redisributive or prestige?
Potlatch is an important social event practiced by the Northwest Coastal Indians in the past and to a certain extent today. One explanation for practicing this event is that it has an adaptive strategy (redistribution):those without goods will get them, keep group alive. and the other is that it is ideational (prestige): I have all these wonderful things I can just give you. Look at how cool I am. Could there be an archaeological signature that might hint at which strategy is operative: could be both.
Explain the concept of relative chronology and how that differs from absolute chronology. Is the most precise method of absolute dating dendrochronology? And how does dendrochronology work?
Relative chronology: Dates expressed relative to one anouther (for instance, earlier, later, more recent) instead of absolute terms/ is placing events in the order they happened relative to one another. You don't have to know necessarily specific dates, but you should be able to use associations to figure out how to place eras and events in relative chronological order. Absolute chronology: a date expressed in specific units of scientific measurement, such as days, years, centuries, or millennia; absolute determinations, attempting to pinpoint a discrete, known interval in time/ based on absolute age, usually measured in years by radiometric dating, rather than on superposition and/or fossil content as in relative chronology. Dendrochronology: the science or technique of dating events, environmental change, and archaeological artifacts by using the characteristic patterns of annual growth rings in timber and tree trunks.
The process of field excavation, from establishing a grid system to conducting a broad perspective block excavation
Research and background, Surface survey, Mapping and establishing site boundaries, Testing and ground truthing, Excavation and data recovery, Collecting, packaging and transport of samples and artifacts, Laboratory inventory, cataloging and analysis, Curation and archiving, Report writing
What is a site datum and how is it used?
Site datum: The site datum is the master control point on an archaeological site into which all measurements are eventually tied. With the availability of GPS units, the datum location can be recorded with great accuracy. How used: Excavations within the site have their own datum which are tied to the site datum. In the pictured unit excavation the chaining pin in the lower right is the unit datum. All measurements for the unit are referenced from this point. (click hyperlink for image) http://mvac.uwlax.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Wk-198-Datum-W.jpg
What are the 6 steps in unravelling the scientific method
Step 1: Ask a question, Step 2: Do background research, Step 3: Construct a hypothesis, Step 4: Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment Step 5: Analyze the data and draw a conclusion 6: Share your results
What are the 6 steps in unravelling the scientific method?
Step 1: Ask a question, Step 2: Do background research, Step 3: Construct a hypothesis, Step 4: Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment Step 5: Analyze the data and draw a conclusion 6: Share your results
Explain the concept of radioisotope half-life, specifically for carbon-14, a dating method most often used by archaeologists. Caclulate the second, third and fourth half-life dates of Carbon-14 where the first half-life is 5730 years (no calculator necessary)
The amount of carbon is reduced by half every 5730 years Second: 11460 Third: 17190 Fourth: 22920
Cahokia:
The mound builders https://www.ancient.eu/cahokia/
Thermoluminescence dating, a form of measuring trapped charges, is primarily used to date what type of non-organic artifact? And how does the method work?
Thermoluminescence: a trapped charge dating technique used on ceramics and burned stone artifacts-anything mineral that has been heated to more than 500 degrees Celsius. Used to date pottery
I have requested that a total station be set up at the site that I am investigating in order to precisely record the provenience/origin of an artifact or feature. What is a total station?
Total station: is a tool that is used to measure the distance between two points; it is accurate to millimeters.
Define typology and provide the three characteristics of a typology?
Typology defined: the systematic arrangement of material culture into types.Types of typology: Morphological types: illustrate and describe objects (when you don't know how they were used) so that other archaeologists can visualize the artifact without having to look at them first hand; descriptions categories are abstract, such as color, or size. Morphological types are purely descriptive. Temporal Types: associating a certain morphological type/physical characteristic with a certain time period. Also known as a time-marker or index fossil.Functional types: Categorizes how objects were used in the past.
Uniformitarianism and the law of superposition (define both) were developed as geological concepts and were readily taken up by archaeologists to explain concepts of stratigraphy (define). How do these concepts relate to archaeological stratigraphy? Uniformitarianism:
Uniformitarianism: the theory that changes in the earth's crust during geological history have resulted from the action of continuous and uniform processes. Law of superposition: a vertical set of strata is a chronological record of the geologic history of that strata. Youngest layers are on top and the oldest are on the bottom. Stratigraphy: branch of geology concerned with the order and relative position of strata and their relationship to the geological time scale. Strata: layer in a side view of layered dirt.
Familiarize yourself with the concept of uniformitarianism and how it applies to our understanding of site forming processes.
Uniformitarianism: the theory that changes in the earth's crust during geological history have resulted from the action of continuous and uniform processes. Uniformitarianism is defined in the authoritative Glossary of Geology as "the fundamental principle or doctrine that geologic processes and natural laws now operating to modify the Earth's crust have acted in the same regular manner and with essentially the same intensity throughout geologic time, and that past geologic events can be explained by phenomena and forces observable today; the classical concept that 'the present is the key to the past.
Chiefdom:
agriculture, chiefs redistributes goods, some non food producers, status depends on relationship to chief, kinship ranking often in clans, sedentary villages, medium to high population
State:
agriculture, industry, elites have control of economy, formation of a military and fiscal specialists, elites and commoners, permanent settlements and cities, high population density
Whats a hypothesis
basically and educated guess.
What is the difference between the paradigms called: culture history, post-processualism and processualism define the terms first
culture history: changes of tools and culture over time, we essentially want to recreate history. Post-processualism: A paraqdigm that fucuses on humanistic approaches and rejects scientific objectivity. It sees archaeology as inherently political and is more concerned with interpreting the past than with testing hypotheeses. It sees change as arising largely from interactions between individuals operating within a symbolic and/or competitve system. processualism: The paradigm that explains social, economic, and cultural change as primarily the result of adaptation to material conditions. External conditions (for example, the environment) are assumed to take causal priority over ideational factors in explaining change.
Arbitruary levels are used in archaeology when is it sued, and how deep is one level?
differences in strata aren't visual. One level is 10 cm
Tribe:
foraging, horticulture: the art or practice of garden cultivation and management, egalitarian, limited roles of authority, kinship based social organization, sedentary villages and camps, low to medium population
Band:
foraging, sharing and reciprocity, egalitarian (relating to or believing in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities), family unit based on kinship social organizations, temporary camps, low population
Basic concepts and limitations of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Basic concepts:
radar pulses directed into ground reflect back to the surface when they strike targets or interfaces within the ground *like change in the density of dirt, ground water, buried objects, voids, or an interface between soil and rock). As these pulses are reflected, their speed to the target and the nature of their return are measured. The signals reflection provides information about the depth and three dimensional shape of buried objects. Limitations: ground water is a problem because it changes the relative permeability of most sediments.
Antiquarian archaeology was best exemplified by. What is antiquarianism and how does antiquarian archaeology differ from a modern approach to archaeology?
the circus strongman Giovanni Belzoni, took notes before destroyed the site. Antiquarian archaeology: study ancient objects but rarely use them to re-assemble the past, differs from modern archaeology because modern archaeology tries to view these objects in their natural inviroment in order to understand the past.
Context:
the relationship of the object of concern with its surroundings.
Natural:
use lines of stratigraphy when they are available.
How does uniformitarianism apply to site formation?
wind blows dust off a mountain, covers the site with dirt. Storms may move artifacts around cite, animals disturb fossils, etc.