Missed UWORLD
NH3 is a neutral molecule, which has no charge in its stable configuration
(Think about formal charge) which is zero vs OH-
How is myglobin restocked with oxygen post excercise?
- Creatine phosphate - Glycogen stores - Oxygen is required to resynthesize ATP
Enzymes in Beta Oxidation
-Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase -FADH is used INSTEAD of NADPH
What are alpha-Keto acids?
1. *PYRUVATE* 2. *OXALOACETATE* 3. *ALPHA KETOGLUTERATE* Vs Acetoacetate is a beta-keto acid
How are long chain FA transported into the mitochondria?
1. Fatty acyl Co-A synthetase enzyme activates fatty acids (Adds a Acyl-CoA group) in cytosol allowing it to be brought into the mitochondria 2. Cytosolic acyl-CoA is then transported into the matrix by the carnitine shuttle. Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPTI, also called carnitine acyltransferase I or CATI) transports acyl-CoA across the outer mitochondrial membrane and exchanges coenzyme A with a carnitine. This is the rate limiting step
What are the basic blotting steps
1. Gel Electrophoresis (Agarose for NA and Polyacrylamide for Proteins) 2. Transfer to a membrane 3. Addition of Probe 4. Visualize
What muscles are multinucleated? Which muscles have Gap Junctions?
1. Skeletal and Cardiac 2. Cardiac and Smooth
1 AA is about how many Daltons
110 Da 1 Da = 1g/mol
Cholesterol Structure
4 fused rings; Hydrophilic hydroxyl group; Hydrophobic body
Trick for finding pH -log(1.8x 10^-5)=
5-(log1.8)= 4.74
Which is more electrophilic acid halides or amides?
Acid halides have an electron withdrawing halogen atom that greatly increases electrophilicity
What does adding PBr3 (Br2) due to a double bond
Acyl bromide tautomerization
In the kidney's nephrons, circulating blood enters the glomerulus through the afferent arteriole and exits through the efferent arteriole.
Afferent--> Into Glomerulus Blood flow here affects GFR
If the anomeric carbon is on carbon 1 what is the molecule called?
Aldose
Alpha helicies structure
Alpha helices are protein secondary structure elements that have 3.6 residues per turn. To maintain a hydrophobic face of an amphipathic alpha helix, hydrophobic residues must be spaced 3 or 4 residues apart.
How does IR spectroscopy work?
Analysis of the absorption of IR radiation by different bonds IR radiation interacts with the different types of bonds within the molecule, causing differential stretching vibrations and rotations of the bonds. Functional groups absorb different amounts of IR light (ie, have different absorption intensities at different frequencies). Ie in COOH 3300-2400 = Broad OH stretch 1710 = Strong C=O stretch
Desmosomes
Anchoring junctions (Cytoskeletones) prevents cells subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart
Maximum velocity in a projectile?
At its maximum height,h, the projectile's v equals zero and it begins to fall back down. Therefore the equation is h=v^2/2g
Basophils vs Eosinophils
Basophils release chemical mediators such as histamine that enhance an immune response Eosinophils- Defend against parasitic infections and modulate immune responses during allergic reactions
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
Beads = Hydrophilic; More attraction stay in the column for longer
top-down processing
Beliefs, ideas, and expectations guide perception Can involve context and motivation; See food in images when you are hungry
Steps in Beta-Oxidation
Breaks down acyl-CoA into acetyl-CoA and an acyl-CoA chain shortened by two carbons (In final round called acetoacetyl-CoA) 1. Oxidation (using FAD via acyl-CoA dehydrogenase) 2. Hydration (via enoyl-CoA hydratase) 3. Oxidation (using NAD+ via Beta-hydroxyacyl-Coa dehydrogenase) 4. Cleavage (via acetyl-CoA acyltransferase)
Control variables vs Confounding variables
CONTROLS: Show that ONLY changes in the independent variable led to changes in the dependent variable
My heart is pounding and the wolf makes me scared
Cannon-Bard theory, physiological arousal and emotion are independent processes that occur simultaneously (ie, the experience of emotion is not tied to sensory information from the body).
Circular Dischroism
Circular Dichroism, an absorption spectroscopy, uses circularly polarized light to investigate structural aspects of optically active chiral media. It is mostly used to study biological molecules, their structure, and interactions with metals and other molecules.
Convex Mirrors (Diverging) are the same
Concave Lens Convex mirrors always form virtual images behind the mirror
Concave mirrors (Converging) are the same as
Convex Lens When object distance is greater than focal length -->real image in front of mirror
Left shifted x intercept on Lineweaver Burk Plot means
Decreased Km because the x-intercept is equal to -1/km
Conformational Isomers vs Diastereomers
Diastereomers differ at least one or more stereocenters. The specific rotation, therefore, differ in magnitude and may differ in direction Conformational Isomers- forms of the same compound, they will have the same specific rotation (degree to which chiral molecule rotates plane-polarized light)
Beta Minus emission
During beta minus emission an electron is released and a neutron is turned into a proton. Therefore the resultant has a atomic number (z) increase by 1
For Partial Pressure at Equilibrium (Equilibrium constant Kp)
Each product or reactant must be raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient to account for all molecules involved in the reaction. Partial Pressure can be substituted the exact same way as molar concentration when finding Kc
Electron donating groups vs electron withdrawing groups
Electron Donating: -OH -NR2 -Amide -Alkoxide -Ester Electron Withdrawing -Amine (protonated) -COOH
The interior of a protein is unlikely to contain many ionic interactions because the residues in the inside of a protein are predominantly hydrophobic.
Even if its Heme!
Does the nucleophile matter for SN1?
First-order (SN1) substitution reactions are zero order with respect to the nucleophile, and the identity of the nucleophile will not affect the rate of SN1 product formation (Does not matter how bulky the base is)
G12C
Glycine (achiral so no D/L ) is changed for Cysteine (L because of chiral but R instead of S)
Vasoconstriction reduces the volume or space inside affected blood vessels. When blood vessel volume is lowered, blood flow is also reduced
However, INCREASED resistance-->higher blood pressure
Quaternary Structure is
Interactions between multiple POLYPeptides; Therefore they are only present in multimeric proteins
Anomeric carbon
Is ALWAYS the carbon that has two bonds to oxygen
Ligand exchange is not a redox reaction
It occurs vis a coordinate bond change but the oxidation numbers are unchanged
i am afraid because my heart is racing. which theory of emotion is this
James-Lange
If the anomeric carbon is on carbon 2 what is the molecule called?
Ketose
Neutrophils
Kill and phagocytize bacterial cells
Ksp vs Kp
Ksp is the solubility product constant or the only reason you use (2x)^2 is to see and account for the number of moles
What is lens strength? How can we calculate this value?
Lens strength equals the inverse of the focal length of the lens. Given in units of dipometers
Liquid-Liquid extraction (organic solvent and aq solution)
Liquid-liquid extraction can be used to separate molecules based on differences in solubility between solutions. Basic functional groups (eg, amines) can be extracted into an acidic aqueous solution through reversible conversion to their ionic, hydrophilic form.
B1-4 implies what
Listing the configuration of the anomeric carbon involved in the bond, its number, and the number of the carbon in the other monosaccharide Where the anomeric carbon is, how its bonded and what its bonded too
Significance of Malonyl-CoA
Malonyl-CoA not only serves as a substrate for fatty acid synthase but also serves as an allosteric regulator of fatty acid oxidation by inhibiting carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPTI)
What are epimers?
Molecules that contain multiple chiral carbons and are identical apart from their configuration at a single chiral carbon
N-H on an IR Spectrum is between
N-H stretches have a characteristic absorption between 3600 - 3200 cm−1.
Beta Minus Decay with Ions
NOTE that the electron emitted does not come from one of the orbitals. Instead, it is produced when a neutron in the nucleus is transformed into one proton and one electron. The newly formed electron is ejected with high energy, and the newly formed proton remains in the nucleus.
Do arteries always carry blood with high oxygen content?
No, the pulmonary arteries and veins are the exceptions to this rule.
Ct in PCR
Number of cycles required for the signal to exceed background levels
Hydrogen bonding
Occurs between two very strong DIPOLES involving H atoms bonded to N, O, F atoms
Molecular geometry for 6 electron domains and no nonbonding electron pairs (TOTAL OF 6)
Octahedral
Normal Phase TLC
Polar Stationary Phase Non-Polar Mobile Phase Therefore, Non-Polar Solutes move faster
Cooperativity on graphs
Positive cooperativity (Sigmoidal curve as ligand conc increases) and y axis can be anything indicative of ligand binding Non-Cooperative binding = Hyperbolic Curve
How to tell if a sugar is reducing or nonreducing
Reducing sugars contain free anomeric carbons that provide reducing power when they are oxidized. In linear form the anomeric carbon is an aldehyde or a ketone, and in cyclic form reducing sugars have hemiacetal or hemiketal configurations. Nonreducing sugars contain acetal or ketal structures in their cyclic forms.
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) is an enzyme of fatty acid synthesis
Regulates fatty acid oxidation through its product malonyl-CoA Dephosphorylated ACC stimulates synthesis and inhibits oxidation whereas phosphorylated ACC inhibits synthesis and promotes oxidation.
SN2 reactions are promoted by polar aprotic solvents, which facilitate formation of the transition state without diminishing the strength of the nucleophile. Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) is a polar aprotic solvent.
SN1 reactions = polar protic solvents (Increase strength of nucleophiile)
My pounding heart means I'm afraid because i interpret the situation as dangerous
Schacter-Singer
Reversible reactions have what type of delta G?
Small delta G near zero -- Reaction easily flows in both directions Irreversible reactions have large negative delta G --> Reaction flows in only one direction
Molecular geometry for 5 electron domains with one nonbonding electron pairs (TOTAL OF 6)
Square pyramidal
Regioselectivity vs Stereoselectivity
Stereoselectivity- Results in preferential formation of a stereoisomer (Cis or Trans Outcome) Regioselectivity- Preferential reaction at one location within a molecule
TRUE OR FALSE:SDS uniformly coats proteins of any pI with negative charges and may be used in a western blot regardless of the pI of the protein of interest.
TRUE ; SDS coats negative charge and also denatured proteins
dipole-induced dipole forces
Temporary dipoles created when non-polar BONDS interacts with polar BONDS temporarily shifts the electrostatic charge to attract the polar molecule, then returns when removed
What is bigger terpene or isoprene?
Terpene= Multiple Isoprene Units Isoprene is C5H8
Acid Base Extraction
The acidic or basic molecule can enter the aqueous layer when extracted with a base or acid, respectively.
Stereospecific reactions in the Krebs Cycle
The conversion of citrate into isocitrate by aconitase and the transformation of fumarate into malate by fumarase are stereospecific reactions.
which event most immediately precedes this power stroke motion?
The dissociation of Pi initiates the power stroke, which is the actual pivot of the actin-bound myosin head that drags the actin filament toward the center of the sarcomere. This directly results in shortening of the sarcomere. The release of ADP from the myosin head occurs at the end of the power stroke.
How to calculate yield
The factor by which experimental yield increases (or decreases) when conditions change can be calculated by dividing the yield of the second condition by the yield of the original.
Ionic Character
The greater the electronegativity difference between two bonded atoms, the greater the percentage of ___ in the bond
absolute threshold
The intensity value of the stimulus individuals can detect 50% of the time To determine the absolute threshold, researchers must vary the intensity of the stimulus and then measure how often the stimulus is detected.
What 4 things can u analyze from H-NMR
The number of chemical environments The chemical shift= (δ) the ratio of resonance energy frequency (Hz) to the spectrometer frequency (MHz), in units of parts per million (ppm); affected by many factors, including the degree of carbon substitution and proximity to electronegative atoms The ratio of signal intensities (integration)= Number of protons in the molecule in a particular environments The spin-spin splitting of signals (multiplicity)
Transamination
The process by which an amino group from one amino acid is transferred to a carbon compound to form a new amino acid.
What is a resolving agent?
The separation of enantiomers, such as those in the racemic mixture, requires the addition of a resolving agent (a chiral molecule). When a resolving agent is added to a racemic mixture, it reacts with each enantiomer, forming a covalent bond or an ionic salt. Because the resolving agent is chiral, it incorporates a new chiral center into each enantiomer, creating a pair of diastereomers. When its removed it yields the original molecules as single enantiomers
Difference Threshold Or JND
The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called the difference threshold, or just noticeable difference.
Acid-base neutralization reactions can be used to increase the amount of an acidic (or basic) solute that will dissolve in a solvent by forming more soluble ionic salts.
The solubility of a compound being dissolved depends on its ability to form complementary intermolecular interactions with solvent molecules. The added charge increases the attraction to water and overcomes the repulsion from the hydrocarbon chain making it more soluble in an aqueous solution
How to determine R or S?
The stereocenter farthest from the anomeric carbon is used to classify the configuration of a sugar, and will be in the R configuration for a ᴅ-sugar and in the S configuration for an ʟ-sugar.
How are vectors subtracted?
The subtraction of the two vectors v→A-v→B can be performed by reversing the direction of v→B and then applying the tip-to-tail method: v→A+-v→B.
ln(Kd) is negative when Delta G is positive
Therefore, Kd has to be a decimal
Total Activity Fomula with units (u)
Total Protein (mg) x Specific Activity (u/mg) Specific activity = Protein Purity
Calculating Protein Yield
Total activity of purified protein/ Total activity of unpurified protein
Molecular geometry for 5 electron domains + 0 lone pairs in VESPER
Trigonal bi-pyramidal
In diffraction the spacing of the band pattern
depends on the slit width and wavelength of the light. θ decreases when λ decreases or when a increases.
Cell-Cell Junctions
desmosomes, tight junctions, gap junctions
The xxxx of cholesterol removes the hydrophilic hydroxyl group and replaces it with a hydrophobic acyl tail.
esterification (the hydroxyl group is replaced by a nonpolar acyl group attached to cholesterol through an ester bond.)
WHy does epinephrine stimulate glycolysis in skeletal muscle?
gluconeogenesis is stimulated by activation of Gsα-coupled GPCRs in the liver (in order for the liver to produce glucose for other tissues) Epinephrine activates the β-adrenergic receptor, a Gsα-coupled G protein-coupled receptor, on skeletal muscle cells. . Because muscle cells do not export glucose or express glucose-6-phosphatase, the buildup of the substrate G6P, therefore, leads to an increase in glycolysis through Le Châtelier's principle.
what do somatic neurons do?
innervate skeletal muscles during voluntary activities (BP and temp changes are regulated by the autonomic nervous system which includes the sympathetic or parasympathetic
Protein Pi Values are related to stability, solubility and side chain pKa values
lack of charge minimizes solubility and protein is less stable (more prone to aggregation) charge keeps solvation shell formation
alcohol's leaving group ability can be improved through the formation of a
mesylate (-SO3CH3) or a tosylate (-SO3C6H4CH3)
nearsightedness
myopia; a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina
Allosteric modulators influence enzyme function by binding reversibly to sites other than the active site via xxxx interactions.
noncovalent Phosphorylation is covalent because phosphate groups bind r
Dipole-dipole bond
opposite charges of two polar BONDS (not molecules) have an interaction
What are the two types of aromatic substituents
phenyl and benzyl (remember to always number according to most oxidized carbon
What is responsible for generating resting membrane potential?
selective membrane permeability - The membrane is more permeable to K+ than to Na+ (ie, selective permeability) due to the presence of a greater number of K+ leak channels Passive transport- Potassium Leak channels Active transport- Sodium Potassium Pump
The left hemisphere of the brain
specialized for language including (speech production-Brochas area) and (language comprehension- Wernickies area)
Electron Capture
the process in which an inner orbital electron is captured by the nucleus of the atom that contains the electron
Peptide Bond Hydrolysis
thermodynamically favorable but kinetically unfavorable
In a galvanic (Concentration cell) electrons flow from ANODE to CATHODE until concentrations of Ni2+(aq) are equal- at which point the reaction stops.
ue to the concentration difference, electrons will migrate from the half-cell with fewer cations to the half-cell with more cations until the concentrations equalize.
