MOCA: Art
The Japanese term Haniwa literally means "circle of clay". Explain the significance of Haniwa to the study Japanese culture.
Haniwa have their origin in the practical needs to strengthen grave mounds against erosion and washouts. In its simplest form, Haniwa resembles a cylinder perhaps to the height of a picket fence around the mound. More often, Haniwa are objects of perhaps 24 to 26 inches in height such as armored warriors, coy ladies, human figures singing in chorus, animals, houses and birds tightly packed in a circle around the burial mound. Figurine Haniwa were produced from tubes, ribbons, or slabs of clay in a manner that tends to emphasize the clay itself. Incidentally, this is in contrast to tomb figurines which demonstrates a greater emphasis on the style of the individual artist but is nonetheless a means of distinguishing between the two. Primarily due to the extraordinary variance in the subject matter, Haniwa art tells us much about early life in Japan and, due to their simplified, geometric styling, are considered by contemporary artists to be among the more interesting examples of ancient sculpture from a stylistic perspective.
Discuss the works of 19th century American painter Winslow Homer.
Homer was employed by Harper's Weekly during the Civil War where he made hastened sketches of life behind the front. After the war he continued to work for Harpers where he made some of what are considered to be the best illustrations ever published as wood engravings in the United States. His 1874 drawing, "Waiting for a Bite", rendered asa wood engraving, depicts several young men fishing on a pond. It, along with the oil on canvas, "Snap the Whip", are characteristic of his work from the period. Sometime later he turned his attention toward life at sea. His 1885 "The Fog Warning" aptly conveys the concern on the part of a fisherman of an impending storm on the horizon. His later years were spent near Portland, Maine, where he painted large scenes and seascapes such as the 1902 oil on canvas, "Early Morning after a Storm at Sea". Homer was not unfamiliar with Impressionism and its popularity during this time but perhaps with the exception of a similar study in lighting, he preferred instead to concentrate on the local colors of component objects within his scenes.
Michelangelo's renown reached legendary status well before his death in 1564. He was in strong demand throughout his career and his style epitomized what many consider the Romantic artist ideal. Explain his style and provide a brief biography of his life.
It is believed that despite the popularity and fame afforded Michelangelo throughout most of his life, he was often tormented by a sense of failure that kept his spirit in piety. He began his career at the early age of 13 when apprenticed as a painter under Ghirlandaio in Florence although within a year he was under the study of antique classicism with the rest of the Medici circle. The Republican government of Florence commissioned him, in 1501, to sculpt the now famous statue of David. In 1505, Pope Julius II asked Michelangelo to Rome to work on his Mausoleum. Of the original 40 large figure original planned, few were completed. It was a commission that would consume much of his life. In 1508, he began work on the Sistine chapel ceiling. He returned to the tomb commission in 1513 but the new Pope after Julius's death soon asked him to work on the facade of S. Lorenzo of Florence. By 1534 he was back in Rome and quickly undertook "The Last Judgement" for the altar wall of the Sistine chapel under commission of Pope Paul III. In 1546, at the age of 71, he was appointed architect of St. Peters. His last years were spent writing poetry and drawing.
Provide a brief chronology of Christian catacomb paintings from the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
It isn't known with certainty exactly when the first catacomb paintings were made, but it is generally agreed that one of the earliest tomb paintings is that of the Ampliatus crypt in the Domitilla catacomb on the Via Ardeatina inlay. The style of this work is distinctly latter Pomepeian which dates it to the middle of the 2nd century. The Urania cubicle paintings in the Praetextatus catacomb in Rome show various New Testament scenes and have been dated to the late 2nd century. Paintings illustrating characteristic New Testament scenes such as the breaking of bread, the fish symbol, and the Holy Eucharist can be seen in the Lucina and Callixtus catacombs in Rome. The Arenarium Madonna and child is a famous painting that can be seen in the Cappella Greca of the Priscilla catacomb in Rome. It's notable for being the earliest known rendition of the virgin mother.
Describe the contribution to Persian art and architecture that occurred during the 3rd to 7th century Sasanian dynasty.
It's was the house of the Sasanian's that successfully wrested independence and control of Mesopotamia from Roman dominance in the early 3rd century. The Sasanian ruler at the time; Shapur I, had remarkable political and artistic ambitions. One of his first acts was to commemorate his victory over Roman opposition in a large rock relief sculpture at Naksh-i-Rustam near Persepolis. It exhibits a well-balanced blend of Roman and Near Eastern elements. A similar blended style is apparent in Shapur's Palace at Ctesiphon near Babylon. Metalwork and textiles became legendary during the latter centuries of Sasanian rule. Bronzes and ornate woven silks were exported in vast quantities throughout Christian civilization. The ornate colors and patterns of these silks would later heavily influence art throughout the region during the Middle Ages. The centuries-long popularity of the silks ensured their survival as an art form when Sasanian rule finally yielded to that of the Islamic Arabs in the mid-seventeenth century.
Claude Monet was the unequivocal master and promoter of French Impressionistic style. Provide a brief overview of the life and work of this popular artist.
Monet spent much of his youth along the shores of Normandy immersed in the sea environment and its weather. He sold his first work, a series of caricatures, at the age of 15. During this time he also completed a number of sketches of sailing ships. Monet's friendship with Eugene Boudin introduced him to the practice of open air painting which would be an enduring attribute of his work for the following 60 years. Several significant paintings were completed prior to the development of his signature brushstroke beginning in the 1870s. These include the colorful, well-lighted "Woman in the Garden" and "The Beach at St. Andresse". Monet worked with Renoir in the late 1860's at a resort and Bougival where he produced the last of his pre-impressionistic paintings. His Impressionism, for which he is most well known, began in earnest with "Poppies" and "Sunrise" during the early 1870s while living on the Seine near Paris. He began to paint non-traditional Impressionist subjects during the late 1870s with works such as "Arrival of the Normandy Train". In the 1890s he produced a number of paintings and series. "Stacks of Wheat" is a notable example from this period.
Describe the style and form of 3rd and 4th century Christian mosaic art.
Mosaic was a highly popular Christian art form during this period. Like their Roman predecessors in prior centuries, much of the work seems to have been inspired by Greek Hellenism. It was almost always associated with architecture and often displayed on or near arches, cupolas, and in various places within basilicas, baptistries, and mausoleums. Many excavated examples are heavily encrusted with jewels and vibrant in color. Notable exceptions to this trend include mosaics of Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter and St. Peter Receiving the Law, both of which are much more similar to the earlier frescoes discovered in Roman catacombs. Mosaics found in funeral monuments such as the Mausoleum of Centcelles from the early 4th century also seem aligned with this trend. Later works from the 5th century often depict scenes from the New Testament and many show the influence of Oriental or classical Roman art.
Provide a chronology of the discovery of African art.
Most knowledge of the history of African art has come from archaeological expeditions. Ironically, African rock paintings and engravings were discovered earlier than those in Europe. The first report of animal paintings occurred in Mozambique in 1721. South African Bushman paintings were first noted in 1752. It was not until 1878, however, that the first primitive European paintings were discovered on the roof of a cave in Altamira. A group of French army officers traveling in Oran in 1847 made the first reports of animal engravings. Reported depictions included elephants, antelopes, lions, ostriches, bovid, gazelles, and humans armed with bows and arrows. Heinrich Barth found animal engravings in Fezzan during an 1850 excursion across the Sahara and since that time, many more discoveries have been made in the region. By the early 1970s, over 30,000 of varying age were known. Most of these have been discovered in Tassili.
Explain what is meant by "Psychedelic Art".
"Psychedelic Art" refers to the decorative and abstract art allegedly inspired by the colors and shapes experienced by persons under the influence of hallucinatory drugs such as LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin. It became a 'formal' style in the United States in 1966. Psychedelic design is characterize by hard-edged areas of flat color in swirls and swelling curves that resemble art nouveau in appearance. Patterns resemble iridescent oil films on water. Other characteristics include melanges of rectangular and pointed shapes as well as, sometimes, splotches resembling fireworks. Color is often soft and high in key. Mauves and pale greens are frequently seen and are sometimes intense and brilliant in appearance. A special calligraphy of swelling, curvilinear style evolved from art nouveau in another characteristic. The form has failed to gain widespread acceptance by critics and was mostly popular as an accompaniment to certain types of rock music.
Provide an overview of the mosaic tradition of Imperial Rome.
A notable early example of Roman mosaic work can be seen in the minute tesserae copy of the 4th century BC Greek painting of Alexander from the house of Faun at Pompeii. Following the 1st century Pompeian era, carpet patterns exhibiting from geometric designs, some incorporating figures, became quite common. The fashion of 4th century AD wall and ceiling work ultimately inspired early Christian and Byzantine art. The mid 4th century vault decoration from the ambulatory of the church of Santa Constanza in Rome is a famous example of this. Mosaics were a prolific art form throughout much of the empire in the later centuries and examples continue to be discovered such as the autumn 2001 Lopen find in the United Kingdom. Indeed, mosaics are considered by many to be the most spectacular and prolific of all Roman remains in Britain.
Many cave paintings in Africa depict people. Provide an overview of the different groups that appear to be represented and where paintings have been discovered that depict them.
A substantial number of paintings date back to the sixth through first millennium BC which is relatively ancient by world standards. Most figures appear to be from indigenous groups such as Bushmen who are typically represented with short statures carrying bows and arrows. They're often painted with yellow, red, or brown. This type usually appears around the Southeastern portion of the continents. Hottentots frequently appear very much like Bushmen except in scenes which depict the two. In such representations, Hottentots are taller. Bantu are usually painted in black and depicted with ornaments on their legs and arms. Many depictions show them carrying spears and shields. More recent paintings depicting Europeans are easily recognizable as such due to their clothing, guns, and horses. It has been speculated that certain paintings depict Sumerians or Egyptians although nothing has been determined conclusively. It should be noted, however, that no Mediterranean or Far Eastern artifacts have been found to corroborate this.
Discuss the use of jade in Chinese art.
Although deposits of jadeite and nephrite are found throughout the world, no other culture is known to have worked jade for artistic purposes in such a consistent and unbroken tradition as the Chinese. Nephrite recovered from the Ho-t'ien (Khotan) and Yarkland (now Sinkiang) supplied had artisans with raw material for almost three millennia. Imported jadeite or jade stone began entering China during the 18th century from Myanmar through Yunnan province. The earliest jade objects recovered from China are tools and disks with central circular orifices but over the first 1000 years of carving the general artistic styles of the Shang and Chou dynasties effected an increased sophistication in style and subject matter. With the advent of trade to the west during the last half of the previous millennium, Chinese jade work became world renowned for its quality and artistic merit.
Describe the innovation of oil painting and the flemish painter responsible for its early development.
Although oil and pigments are known to have been mixed for painting many years prior to the 15th century, it wasn't until 1420 that Flemish painter Jan Van Eyck developed a method which eventually evolved into their Renaissance-era use. That year he became disillusioned with the fact that his egg tempera paintings were cracking as they dried in the sun. By mixing a variety of Bruges White Varnish Turpentine with linseed oil he successfully developed a varnish for his tempera. He initially mixed the varnish with egg yolk but later added raw pigments directly to the varnish. The mixture was found to dry successfully in the shade without cracking and, to his delight, he was also able to apply colors in transparent layers and correct shading without altering original brightness.
Georgia O'Keeffe is considered one of the foremost American painters of the 20th century. Provide a brief description of her life and notable work.
American painter Georgia O'Keeffe studied at a number of art schools prior to her discovery by photographer Alfred Stieglitz who eventually became her husband. inspired, Perhaps by precisionist such as Charles Sheeler and Charles Demuth, initially her style was mostly imitative and less original although by the early 1920s that changed. Common subjects in her repertoire included enlarged views of skulls and other animal bones, shells, rocks, and other landforms including mountains. O'Keefe imparted her own style of rhythmic outlines and delicate color washes that inspired no shortage of interpretations. These ranged from symbolic to erotic and psychological. "Cow's Skull", "Black Iris" and "Red, White, and Blue" are considered among the most representative paintings and Body in her style. She completed most of her work in the 1920s through 1940s although she continued to paint well into her 80s.
Explain the advent of Archaic Greek style and describe its key elements.
Archaic style emerged during the 7th century BC as a wider ranging enhancement of the previous Oriental influenced Geometric period. For the next 300 years, the style infused every aspect of Greek art with a renewed freshness and freedom of expression. In painting, figures were frequently silhouetted in black over red clay. Black areas would often be embellished in either purple or white to draw attention to certain details. The details themselves would be etched with a needle or similar pointed implement to emphasize delicacy. Painting was often on a circular surface with the design of elements incorporated accordingly. Also, during this time is a new style of sculpting the human form. Marked by an almost awkward rigidity, surviving examples show free-standing, life-sized figures rendered entirely free of the stone from which they were carved. Toward the end of the period, rendering of figures had become more stylistic. Beards and hair of male figures were sculpted with the appearance of textured, beaded embroidery while female figures exhibited conservative clothing that better hid the hint of rounded shapes beneath.
Provide a brief overview of the Baroque tradition and its style.
Baroque is a style that dominated European art and architecture throughout the 17th century. It combined elements of realism, illusionism, and ornate forms in style sufficiently diverse that it is best understood within the context of the era's cultural and intellectual tendencies. The principal aim of the style was to evoke emotional states by an appeal to the senses. Caravaggio is usually considered the first Baroque artist although Gianlorenzo Bernini is considered the artist responsible for producing the style in its most pure form. He fused architecture and sculpture to produce a sense of immediacy in light and space. Italian High Baroque often was in the form of fresco- illusionary ceiling decorations in particular which were designed with the intent of complimenting nearby caved cornices and elaborate moldings. Later Baroque painters included Peter Paul Rubens and his myriad works based on Christian themes. Other such as Rembrandt, Jan Vermeer, and Franz Hals produced work based on contemporary subjects such as peasants and burghers in their domestic surroundings.
Provide and overview of the Bauhaus Art School program's contribution to visual literacy in the 20th century.
Bauhaus was founded by architect Walter Gropius at Weimer, Germany in 1919. As its founding, the school was interested in studying how modern materials and science could be directed toward improved aesthetics and functionality. Gropius successfully solicited the contribution of a formidable group of painters and architects including Marcel Breuer, Paul Klee, and Gerhard Marcks. The basic course at the school consisted of training through art that a) involved all the senses, b) combined thinking and feeling, and c) included problem solving through direct experience. Many artists originally associated with Bauhaus migrated to the United States and continued their studies here. Ultimately, the theories and curriculum developed at the school proved influential to the industrial design of many products including automobiles, tools, household appliances, and furniture. Other industries which have shown signs of Bauhaus's methodological influence include city planning, graphic design, textiles, and ceramics.
Describe the Greek temples Paestum and Olympia and discuss their significance.
Begun shortly after 480 BC, the Paestum or "Temple of Poseidon" is considered the best preserved of all Greek temples. At six columns wide and four columns long, it measures approximately 25x 60 meters. A double row of two-storied columns divides the cella into a main and two narrower aisles. The outside columns are particularly notable for their exceptional sturdiness. Olympia or "The Temple of Zeus" situated on the Greek mainland dates from about 470 to 450 BC and was designed by a local architect named Libon of Elis. The temple is constructed of stucco limestone and consists of six columns for its width by thirteen columns for its length. It measures ten meters in height and is approximately 28 meters in width by 64 meters. The Olympia is considered the academic pinnacle of the Doric order.
Sandro Botticelli was on elf the most popular and distinctive Renaissance painters of the late 15th century. Describe his work and style.
Botticelli infused his work with a distinctive gracefulness and personality. His 1478 work, "Primavera", is a celebration of Spring depicting mythological figures such as the wind-god Zephyr in pursuit of the nymph Chloris who is transformed by his touch into a Christianized Venus, the Goddess of Love. The work has a festive, dreamlike quality and is decidedly romantic in its overall nature. Botticelli's fascination, or rather, the fascination by his patronage of the Goddess Venus extends to his later work such as "Mars and Venus", "The Birth of Venus", and "Abundance". In the case of the latter two works, Venus is depicted as a fair-haired, tall beauty in an enchanted, dreamlike gaze toward the foreground. He was also known for his exquisite portrait work and pen drawings, such as those executed for Dante's "Divine Comedy" which reflect masterful delicacy. Botticelli's style had largely fallen out favor toward the end of his career and his work did not achieve any level of popularity again until the 19th century.
Describe the artwork of Cimabue.
Cimabue is considered the last great Italian artist of Byzantine style and the first painter of "modern times". His surviving works include the frescoes of New Testament scenes in the upper church of Saint Francis of Assisi, the 1290 work, Sta. Trinita Madonna, and the "Madonna enthroned with St. Francis" in the lower Church of St. Francis. Cimabue is known to have adhered closely to the formal style of the Byzantine tradition. This is particularly evident in his work on crucifixes and large altarpieces although he did embellish his paintings with a stylized, abstract uniqueness. The fresco cycle at Assisi is characteristic of this. His stylistic methods were not strictly limited to renditions of the human form, however, as he is considered to be among the first artists to return to a close observation of nature. "The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Angels and Prophets" from the church of Santa Trinita in Florence retains byzantine-style while encompassing a different method of shaded multi-colorings and thin pliant draperies. Cimabue's less formal works are marked by a close adherence to tradition although he does bring a heightened sense of drama to them. His style greatly influenced the work of others including Giotto and Duccio in the 14th century.
Discuss the common characteristics and materials of early civilizations.
Civilizations such as Egypt, the Middle and Near East and Crete shared a commonality in their complexes of temples, tombs, and palaces. Most of these structures appeared solid from the exterior although inside they sometimes contained vast open spaces of varying size. The development of architecture was frequently dependent upon religious beliefs or practices such as those associated with "The Cult of the Dead" which heavily influenced designs in Egypt. As might be expected, with few exceptions such as that of the Egyptians, architecture of earlier civilizations was rather simplistic by comparison to what would later be accomplished in Greece and Rome. Still, early people left a remarkable if sporadic legacy of construction. The Assyrian "Palace of Sargon II" at Khorsabad and the monumental "Palace of Persepolis" in Persia bear convincing testament of their prowess.
Describe some notable examples of Leonardo da Vinci's non-oil work.
Da Vinci was a prolific drawer. He completed a pen and ink of the Arno valley near Florence titled, "Landscape", in 1473. The work, "Sexual Intercourse", from 1492 illustrates his diverse curiosity that reached far beyond traditional artistic themes. "Flying Machine" arose from Leonardo's curiosity of birds in flight and his anticipation of the helicopter. The black chalk work, "The Virgin and Child with St. Anne", is a cartoon study in pyramidal composition. "The Virgin and Child with a cat" is a freeform sketch study of the pyramidal form that predated the St. Anne drawing by almost 15 years. "The Battle of Anghiari" brilliantly depicts soldiers on horseback in a beautifully meshed, complex design full of movement. Although it is believed that Da Vinci worked in sculpture to a limited degree, no work by him has ever been authenticated. He also produced a number of architectural elevations and plans.
It has been said that no paintings have lasted in better physical condition than those the early Flemish school. Discuss why and explain the limitations inherent with their techniques.
Despite the innovation attributed to the Van Eyck brothers , it is thought that the development of oil painting occurred somewhat slowly by a series of degrees. Initially, oil was used as a final glaze of paintings executed in tempera until it finally supplanted tempera as the primary means for performing work. Thus, rather than being entirely suspended within the oil glaze, the pigment of earlier works mostly rested under its considerable protection. Flemish methods were particularly well-suited to portraits and interior subjects performed on a small scale although paintings on a larger scale required substantially different treatment. This is largely due to the need to render varieties of texture, to model in light and shade and to convey space and distance. The need to exploit the transparent and opaque qualities of oil paint and the techniques of successive glazing necessitated more sophisticated methods they were beyond the capabilities of early Flemish technique.
Discuss the style, inspiration, and empathic ideal of Roman portraiture.
Detailed realism is, perhaps, the most striking aspect of late Roman portraiture. This appears to have been a direst inspiration both of Hellenistic work as well as the desire of those whose visage was being carved to appear in sculpture as favorably as possible. As a consequence, accuracy was likely of secondary importance. A notable example of the style of the period is the famous 14 AD stature of Emperor Augustus from the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta. The trend continued into the first and second centuries with portraitures of Vespasian, Trajan, and Antinous as well as bearded vestiges of Hadrian. Later work exhibited an expressionistic stye that altered facial expression and features to emphasize the experience and character of the subject. This can be seen in 3rd century sculptures of Decius and Diocletian. Ultimately, style progressed to a more symbolic rendering of the subject matter, such as with the approximately 313 AD rendering of Constantine.
Donatello was one of the greatest Italian artists of the 15th century who worked primarily in sculpture. His mastery of the craft earned him a legendary reputation at a very early age. Provide and overview of his style and work.
Donatello began work under the direction of Lorenzo Ghiberti in the early 15th century. By 1407 he was an independent sculpture and within a year he received his first commission. For the next 28 years he produced a series of works for the cathedral and the niches of Orsanmichele. His style rapidly progresses in expression and emotion during this period. The articulation an structure of his figures became more convincing and complex. Donatello consistently infused much of his sculpture with a style derived from classical and gothic references but seldom worked exclusively in either style. The drapery of the 1423 life-sized "Jeremiah" is a unique example of this. His 1456 Mary Magdalene, convincingly rendered in rags, and nude statue of David believed to have been carved a few years later for the Medici are stylistically unique for the conveyance of raw expressiveness in the former and overt sexuality in the latter. The Venetian soldier on horseback, "Gattamelata", was a statue of Erasmo da Narni produced in the style of Roman antiquity between 1443 and 1448. Donatello also developed a technique of rendering fine detail in marble known as stiacciato. The earliest example of this is the relief "St. George and the Dragon" beneath the 1417 St. George statue at Orsanmichele.
Since the time of Rome, Greek architecture has been divided into three distant orders. Explain what is meant by the term "architectural order" and define each of the three.
Due to the uniqueness and brilliance of Greek architecture, no other architectural system bears any significant resemblance to it. The architectural community has agreed that the term "order" be applied exclusively to the Greek system. This is primarily due to the methodical and specific system of design that can be characterized by three distinct categories exterior parts for each. These are: Doric- Established in the late 7th century BS, marked by three main divisions which include the stepped platform, the columns and the entablature, defined as all the elements that rest on the columns; the Artemis at Corfu is considered textbook Doric style. Ionic- Like the Doric in its division, the Ionic order differs from it mainly in the style of the entablature and column design; whereas the frieze of a Doric structure typically contains a Triglyph and Metope, and Ionic frieze does not, capitals of ionic columns tend to be much more ornate with a curved clout and tapered shaft. Corinthian- Exhibits the most ornate and largest capital of the three orders, marked by the shape of an inverted bell covered in the shoots and leaves of an acanthus plant; began replacing Ionic with the 334 BC Monument of Lysicrates in Athens.
Explain how Greek art became influential in Rome.
During Roman conquest of the third and second centuries BC, vast quantities of Greek art in every form were brought to Rome and heralded triumphantly in Military processions. Later, The booty would be permanently displayed in palaces and other important places. Following their conquests, generals would often commission commemorative works in either paint or sculpture for historical purposes. By the second century BC, Greek artists enjoyed patronage from wealthy Romans which actually exceeded that of their own aristocracy. Many homes were decorated in Greek style with paintings, mosaic-paved floors, and reproductions of Greek sculptures. Romans would often collaborate with Greek artists in architecture where the design of a building might be principally Roman while the decoration would be predominantly Greek. Ultimately, all of these various Greek influences from the early Roman Empire served to permanently influence Roman artists for centuries to come.
Describe the post-Cubist life and work of Pablo Picasso.
During World War 1 following the peak of Cubist experimentation between 1910 and 1920, Picasso joined a group of eclectic artists in the traveling production of Parade, a work about a circus sideshow. During the 1920's, Picasso became immersed in New Mediterraneanism and collaborated with the Ballet Russes to produce designs for Manuel de Falla's Three-Cornered Hat (1919); Igo Stravinsky's Pulcinella (1920); De Falla's Cuadro Flamenco (1921); and Satie's ballet Mercure (1924). By 1928 he started working iron and sheet metal into sculpture. Later, he moved to a country home where he had additional studio space and began working on plaster heads. During the 1940's Picasso worked in ceramics. By the early 1950's, he became interested in political ideology and painted two panels titled "War" and "Peace" which were sued to adorn the Temple of Peace in Vallauris.
Describe the advent of official Roman art and explain the transition from its classical origin to the imperial form it took by the 2nd century AD.
During the late 1st Century BC reign of Emperor Augustus, Nobles and Wealthy patrons began to demand sculpture and painting to commemorate individuals or public events. This demand gave rise to art which was purely Roman in inspiration. Nevertheless, much of it still bore the traditional influence of Greek style in the classical ideal. Arts that has survived from the reign of Hadrian during the early to mid 2nd Century typifies the pinnacle of classical influence within the empire. Indeed, It was during this stage that copies and adaptations of Greek Art became so widely prolific. Shortly thereafter heavy classical influence fell out of favor and a new category, Imperial art as it has come to be known, arose and quickly developed into three distinctly identifiable categories: relief sculpture adorning Roman architecture, painting, and portrait sculpture.
Faience, blown glass and jewels have been referred to as "minor arts" although each has a long history beginning in ancient Egypt. Discuss.
Faience is a technique first perfected in ancient Egypt. It involves the firing and glazing of terra-cotta to produce a permanent material that has a luxurious quality about it. Most faience is blue or green in color which incidentally corresponds to the most precious gemstones know at the time- lapis lazuli and malachite. A number of small works were created in the material. These include beads, jewelry, collarettes, bowls, funerary statuettes, tiles, and small figurines. It is not known with certainty where glass blowing first originated although archaeological evidence indicates that the Egyptians of the Middle and New Kingdoms were adept glass blowers. Egyptian goldsmiths were highly regarded because they were able to provide temples with golden statues of Gods and could manufacture royal jewelry. The Twelfth Dynasty is regarded as the period where Egyptian craftsman in jewelry reached its height in terms of scale, luxury, and elaboration.
The "High Renaissance" of the early 16th century is considered the greatest period of artistic achievement in Italy. Explain why and who was most responsible for cultivating this reputation.
From an artistic perspective, many historians have decided the Christian age into two distinctive eras- pre-Renaissance and post- Renaissance. The brief period between the late 15th and early 16th centuries is seen as the pivotal point in-between where achievement in the visual arts reached a climax of sophistication, refinement, and quality. A renewal of the classic tradition was a consequence of greater ambitions being trumpeted by the Pope and the church at the time. Consequently, although Venice persisted as an artistic center, Rome had become the new seat of activity for many schooled in the Florentine tradition including the three most well-known artists of the day- Michelangelo, Buonarroti, Leonardo De Vinci, and Raffaello Sanzio Classic style was taken to new heights by these three through the revival of existing antique models as well as the discovery of new ones. "The Laocoon", "The Torso Belvedere", and "The Apollo Belvedere" and the paintings and stucco work of Nero's Golden House were discovered during this time. The merging of innovation with mastery of craft ensured and enduring reputation not only for the greats of the period, but for their predecessors as well.
Explain the origin of Expressionist style and its characteristic attributes.
German critics were the first to use the term around 1910 in their description of certain French artist who made use of emphatic drawing and bold colors in a manner dissimilar to traditional Impressionism. The style which first appeared a few years earlier in both France and Germany through the work of such artists as Henri Matisse and Albert Marquet, is marked by the color, line, and shape elements of pictorial design that are manipulated according to the artist's emotion and work's intended impact on the viewer. It was this treatment or stylistic difference rather than a marked change in subject matter that most exemplified Expressionist style. A small community of Expressionist painters emerged to join Matisse and Marquet during this time. They were Roald Dufy, Othon Friesz, Andre Derain, and Maurice de Vlaminck.
Describe the Germanic artistic tradition of the 11th and 12th centuries and the use of stained glass that occurred during this time.
Germany enjoyed a large number of regional illumination schools during this period. Among the most active centers were Salzburg, Westphalia, and Saxony. The Abbot Berthold of Weingarten near Lake Constance was home to an unknown artist who produced a missal in decidedly expressive style that ultimately became an important German work. Toward the end of this period, Romanesque style was being abandoned in favor if a more naturalistic treatment of the space and volume characteristics of the human body. Not yet fully Gothic in its characteristics, work from this period has been labeled as Transitional by some historians. Stained glass work became popular during this time and appears to be stylistically similar to the painting of the period. The 1440 work in the abbey of Saint-Denis, the first Gothic building, is considered a milestone. Size and complexity of stained glass work increased rapidly shortly thereafter. The Choir of Canterbury Cathedral, rebuilt in 1774, demonstrates the violent movements and exaggerate poses of the Lambeth Bible and Winchester Psalter.
Describe the work of Italian Lorenzo Ghiberti.
Ghiberti was a diverse and prolific artist who lived in Florence between 1378 and 1455. Of all the forms and his repertoire, sculpture consumed a large portion of his life. A commission was announced in 1401 to decorate the two large doors of the baptistery in Florence. Works such as the bronze, "Sacrifice of Isaac" by Ghiberti and another by Filippo Brunelleschi were the result. Ghiberti won the commission in 1403 and for the next 21 years he and his workshop produced 28 bronze quatrefoils of the Life of Christ, Evangelists and Doctors of the church. A second-set known as the gates of paradise was commissioned in 1425. It's comprised of 10 large Square plaques of Old Testament scenes in pictorial relief making use of perspective in Renaissance motif. Aside from the major projects of the baptistery Ghiberti's workshop was a prolific designer of tombs, altars, and stained glass throughout his career. Ghiberti also executed several life-size Bronze Statues of John the Baptist, Matthew, and Steven. He produced an autobiographical commentary near the end of his life which is the first-of-its-kind known to have been completed by an artist.
Largely through his 1428 work, "The Holy Trinity with the Virginia and St. John," Masaccio is credited as the artist most responsible for establishing Renaissance painting and its popularly recognised form. Describe other influential work from the early Renaissance period.
Masaccio shared a commission with Masolino to create "The Tribute Money ". And this 1427 work believed to have been commissioned by the wealthy Brancacci family, a political dispute over property tax depicts Christ and the Apostles in a local setting mediating a discussion. Another work by Masacio, "The Explusion of Adam and Eve", depicts the emotionally distraught figures being expelled from the Garden of Eden. Uccello's monochrome fresco, "The Flood", effectively models lights and shade through wind-blown draperies. His later work, "The Battle of San Romano ", is rendered and highly distinctive, brilliantly colorful style rare for this period. Filippo Lippi's "The Feast of Herod" is notable for its extensive use of contemporary motifs such as the perspective tiled floor, a landscape seen through arches and festoons or vases above a wall. His "Annunciation" from 1440 is a masterful study in perspective and detail. Domenico Veneziano's "St. John the Baptist in the Desert" is a rare rendition of John the Baptist entirely in the nude with a stylized outcropping of rock formations in the near and far distance behind him.
Early Christian sculpture consisted primarily of marble sarcophagi. Describe and date some notable work from the period.
Most work discovered can be dated to the middle of the 3rd century or later. The Ram Sarcophagus now on display at the Lateran Museum in Rome is considered by many to be one of the earliest (if not the earliest) examples of Christian sculpture. It features a carved ram on either end flanking a group which surrounds a female figure who is praying. This work is particularly notable for the realistic evolution in style it represents. The figures exhibit realistic weighting and spacing with good proportion and balance which enhances the three-dimensional aspect so crucial to good sculpture. Other examples from this period demonstrate realistic rendering such as the sarcophagus discovered at La Gayolle, France. It exhibits the same parentage as the Ram and appears to ova been carved about 20 years later. Other styles discovered include striated S shapes and bust portraits of the deceased surrounded by shells or medallions, as well as scenes of prayer, people reading from scrolls and the like.
Discuss the style common to early Roman interior decorative painting and provide an overview of the artistic concerns with its rendering.
Multi-colored marble slabs were often arranged to imitate the appearance of the masonry common to Hellenistic Greek buildings. This early style formed the basis for most sophisticated work emphasizing various landscapes and architecture during the Pompeian of the second century AD. A rich assortment of motifs have been preserved including still-lifes, portraits, figures, landscapes with figures, panels, and friezes. Much of the landscape work appears to be from a relatively high, panoramic view point showing considerable depth as well as use of linear and aerial perspective. Other work appears to exhibit an impressionistic style with figures modeled in patches of shade, light and color, such as the first century AD rendering of the Trojan Horse of Troy found at Pompeii. Roman artists were clearly concerned with the problems of rendering space and perspective in an artistically satisfying way.
Discuss the Forum at Pompeii and its Basilica.
Noted for its strict adherence to space and mass, enough has been learned about the Forum to precisely reconstruct it. It considered of variety of structures mostly completed around the time of the Samnite ascendancy between the forth and second centuries BC. As a regular elongated rectangle, it is measured 38 x 142 meters and was built with surrounding colonnades. The Temple of Zeus was situated precisely on axis at the northern end. Other buildings were gradually grouped around the forum. Aside from The Temple of Zeus, the most significant building is the Basilica situated in the southwest corned of the forum. It was roofed around the first century BC creating a vast enclosed space. The court represented a systematize concentration of stoas which were deliberately place around the angora marketplace.
It is thought that no substantial artistic activity occurred in Minoan civilization for much of its early history and often what was created was destroyed through cataclysm. However, some relics from the brief period between 1600 and 1450 BC have survived. Describe these discoveries and what they tell us about Minoan artistic style.
One of the most natal finds is the statuette terracotta "Snake Goddess" from 1600 BC. "Snake culture" as it has come to be called is not believed to have been indigenous to the Minoan people due to a lack of snakes in the area. Likely imported, it's a solid indication that Minoan art was substantially influenced by outside cultures such as that of Mesopotamia during this time. The flat forms and solid color of paintings such as the mural fragment "Cat Stalking a Pheasant" seem to belie an Egyptian influence although stylistically this find is much more unique for its playful, lyrical presentation. Another notable find is the "Harvester Vase" from Hagia Triada which depicts an expressionistic scene of smiling workers engaged in the harvest of crops. The "Octopus Vase" from Palaikastro in Crete is an ornate and rather accurate rendition of swirling tentacles in the classic octopus form. Minoans also produced the Palace of Minos at Knossos. Its labyrinth like remains ultimately contributed to the Greek legend of the Minotaur.
Describe the use of pen and ink as an art form and give a brief, historical overview of their use.
Pen and ink is one of the least demanding art forms in terms of equipment requirements. Pen and ink artists simply need the addiction of virtually any kind of paper to produce their work. Historically, medieval monks employed pen and ink on prepared animal skins such as goat, sheep, calf, lamb, or kid using quills of goose feathers. Pen use continued during the Renaissance and along with mixed media such as white highlighting, crayon, and watercolors, it flourished as an art form. It gained even more widespread use during the Post-Renaissance era by such artists as Rubens and Van Dyck. Hogarth is considered an exemplary penman of the 18th century while the advent of magazines and the mass production of books in the 19th century provided an outlet for notables such as Charles Keene and George du Maurier. By the 20th century, pen and ink luminaries included Matisse, Pascin, and Picasso.
Discuss the life and work of American Jackson Pollock.
Pollock help his first one-man exhibition in New York in 1943. He, like other artists, was attempting to create a new style devoid of the Cubist and geometrical precedents that marked the work of many previous artists. Though his early years were fraught with poverty at various times, he was employed as an easel painter in 1935 which provided a needed income. He battled alcoholism and mental instability in the lat 1930's but managed to produce a number of works during this time. Jackson had a characteristic interest in boldly and freely projecting abstract imagery on a monumental scale. He was a very physical painter and his brushstrokes were other performed with his entire arm. He would sometimes drip liquid paint from a brush of can directly on the canvas or spatter it with a stick. some works show signs of sand or pebbles being spread across the surface. It's been commented that rather than being the result of random technique, Jackson achieved his style through a highly complex series of rhythmic gestures.
Provide a brief overview of pre-Columbian art.
Pre-columbian describes art produced by various civilizations that existed in the Americas prior to Spanish Conquest and colonization in the 16th century. Much existing art was destroyed during this time. What is known has come through archaeological discovery. The art primarily consists of masks, fabrics, vessels and similar artifacts that often depict animal and human forms. Snakes, condors, and jaguars were frequent subjects and surviving renditions indicate that the artisans had a superior understanding of these creatures. Mochica and Chimu ware are characterized by portrait-like faces of animals and human figures. Artifacts recovered from Nazca demonstrate stunning color and bold ornamentation while Maya vases often convey complex imagery. The pre-columbian artistic world has been divided into two principal parts based upon geography- Central and South America. Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras have been excavated most extensively and works from the Central American civilizations are best known. Peru is regarded as the most important civilization in South America. It contains sites that have yielded artifacts from a variety of cultures. There are three basic chronological periods into which materials recovered from these areas have been classified- pre-classic (2000 BC to 300 AD) classic (300 AD to 900 AD) and post-classic (900 AD to 1519 AD)
Discuss the life and work of Pierre-Auguste Renoir.
Renoir was a French painter who originally identified with the Impressionist movement of the mid to late 19th century. Primarily known for his figure painting, particularly of women, much of his work is a study of upper class Parisian society. In this context it's particularly interesting to note that Renoir was himself often quite poor and frequently had difficulty affording paint. His 1880 painting depicting two young women title "At the Concert", is a study in the opulence and luxury common to a theater box. Similarly, the 1881 painting "Luncheon of the Boating Party" is a view into an upper-crust dining experience of the time. Another work of a similar theme includes "Ball at the Moulin de la Galette". By the mid- 1880's he beams immersed in a study of bathing nudes. One of the most notable examples from this period is a paste and wash piece titled simply, "Bather". During this time, the effects of arthritis began to cripple him. In his later years his influence turned toward the supervision of young sculptors where his influence can be seen in the early 20th century works such as Venus and Venus Victrix.
Describe some of the differences between Italian Gothic Style and that of northern Europe.
Romanesque Traditions persisted much longer in Italy than in the north. Statues and niches or small-scale reliefs overlaying wall surfaces were common. Delicate relief carvings such as those by Lorenzo Maitani at Orvieto Cathedral are another distinguishing characteristic. The Last Judgment portrayal on the Orvieto facade is rendered more compassionately than a similar scene might have been in the North. The same degree of importance was not placed on rendering Italian Gothic facades as those of France. Italian gothics were all so astute furniture builders carving ornate designs into pulpits, screens, shrines and tombs. The Monuments of Can Grande della Scala, Lord of Verona, built next to the Church of Sta. Maria Antica supports an ostentatious horse-mounted rendition of Can Grande, sword in hand, with a large grin on his face. The basic architectural style of churches varied from France to Italy which affected interior wall painting. The end walls of the nave and transepts in French churches were usually home to large displays of stained glass. Wall shafts and vaulted ribs left little room for wall paintings there. In Italian churches, windows were often kept small leaving abundant room for painting.
By the early 19th century, westward expansion of the United States spawned an increased interest in documenting the natural environment. Discuss influential painters and works from this movement.
Samuel F. B. Morse, Who had studied in England with Benjamin West, was an early influence on landscape style. However, It would be later, less well-known painters who accompanied Westward Travelers that established the attractiveness of the American wilderness as subject matter in its own right. New York painter Thomas Cole was originally trained as an engraver in England. His meticulous treatment of trees and foliage in landscapes earned him a distinction by his contemporaries as one of the greatest landscape painters of his time. One of his more famous works, Shroon Mountain, has been lauded for its grandiose treatment of American wilderness. John James Audubon's objective scientific study coupled with romantic treatment in his colored engravings and watercolors earned him a landmark reputation. George Caleb Bingham effectively communicated the unique social and environmental circumstances of the frontier environment through his work such as "Raftsmen Playing Cards".
By the mid-fifteenth century, expensive, publicly commissioned classical sculpture had largely been replaced by smaller projects for private patrons. Describe the work from the period that replaced it.
Sculptors mostly turned their attention to pulpits, tombs, and altar furniture or domestic work such as relief and busts. Portraiture busts and classically-styled tombs such as that of Florence Chancellor Leonardo Bruni were popular. His tomb, a five year project by Bernardino Rossellino between 1445 and 1450, is richly decorated in classical ornament. Rossellino also completed a bust of a local doctor, Giovanni Chellini, in 1456 that aptly echoed the classical form of the past. Another classical bust from the period is that of Piero de' Medici by Mino Da Fiesole completed in 1453. The hair and eyes of the work are decidedly antique in the classical tradition. Rossellino's "The Cardinal of Portugal" is a convincing depiction of foreshortened and freestanding angelic movement around a tomb. Pollaiuolo's painting "St. Sebastian" from 1475 colorfully depicts figures in the emerging pyramid-like compositional theme. Andrea del Verrocchio's Bartolommeo Colleoni depicts a frowning rider in full armor on horseback.
Describe the history and basic principles of screen printing.
Stenciling comprised the majority of early crude screen printing work. Fijian islanders poured vegetable dies on to bark and clothe through holes in banana leaves while later, in the middle ages, wood block stencils were used to decorate recreational items such as playing cards. They were also used as embellishments to religious pictures and manuscripts. Still later, flocked wallpaper created by stenciling because quite popular in England while stenciled walls and furniture became desirable items in 18th century America. The first silk screen process was developed in the early 20th century. This was shortly followed by a color version. A typical screen printing apparatus consists of a stencil fitted under a fabric mesh which has been stretched to a frame. Initially, silk was the preferred screening material but it has been recently supplanted by synthetics such as nylon. To accomplish a print, paper is placed on the underside of the screen and stencils. Ink is then poured on the top of the mesh and forced through on to the paper by dragging a rubber squeegee across it. The resulting image is a product of whatever is not blocked by the stencil.
Explain the history of Surrealism and the principals involved in the movement.
Surrealism began as an offspring of Dada and flourished, for a time, as a legitimate alternative to the more mainstream and formalistic Cubist movement. Its chief proponent was Andre Breton who declared, in his 1924 Surrealist Manifesto, that surrealism is a means of "reuniting the conscious with the unconscious realms of experience". Breton had studied Sigmund Freud and applied a dogmatic psychology to the movement, demanding absolute adherence to its doctrines. The most notable surrealist painters were Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Andre Masson, Rene Magritte, Yves Tanguy, Salvador Dali, Pierre Roy, Paul Delvaux, and Joan Miro, although the work of each bore significant diversity from any one style as each explored their own avenues of expression. Several artists employed techniques believed to evoke or promote psychic response. These included "frottage" which consisted of rubbing with graphite it's over wood or similar surface surfaces and "grittage" which was essentially a scraping of the canvas
Describe the characteristics of Byzantine style that most clearly distinguish it from the style of earlier periods.
The Byzantine movement affected the style of early art form during the latter centuries of the empire. Architecture along with painting, sculpture, and mosaics all bore distinctive characteristics of the era. For the first time to a significant degree, domes, vaults, and arches became primarily aspects of construction rather that merely serving as decorative effects to existing structures which did not rely on them as specific integral components. Highly stylized ornamentation and the appearance of figures in paintings and mosaics served to differentiate the new movement from earlier classical and imperial traditions. Byzantine style as a whole had a much richer appearance that its predecessors. Ornate, multi-colored clothing with geometric designs, hair styles facial features, and the characteristically waif or slider bodily form all exhibit a distinctly Eastern influence. The 10th century work "Virgin and Child with Constantine and Justinian" on display at the Sancta Sophia in Istanbul is Byzantine in every way.
Explain the significance of Carolingian period architecture under the emperor Charlemagne.
The Carolingian period produced a lasting architectural heritage and revival throughout Europe. For the first time in many centuries, architects became concerned with matching the importance and grand style of Late Roman and Early Christian construction. This was largely the result of Charlemagne's desire to transform his growing French empire into something akin to that of the Eastern Roman Empire. The "Gate-hall of the Monastery of Lorsch" is an example of his intended style. The application of Roman orders is evident and is an indication that the building was likely modeled on a Roman triumphal arch. It consists of three tunnel-vaulted passages framed by Corinthian half-columns Its walls are coved by a variety of colored tiles and a row of Ionic pilasters sits above the frieze-band. Charlemagne's Imperial Palace, Ingleheim, bears many hallmarks of classical tradition while the accompanying Palace Chapel is indicative of Early Christian Tradition.
The history of Chine is generally understood by the dynasties that ruled it. The first of these, the Shang Dynasty, existed from approximately 1500 to 1000 BS. Describe artwork which has been discovered from cultures that existed prior to this period.
The Neolithic, pre-Shang peoples of China appear to be relatively primitive by later standards although some interesting works in pottery have been discovered. The Lung- Stand culture of Cheng Tzu Yai produced for functional purposes elegant think black pottery reminiscent of "egg shell" porcelain. A slightly later culture, the Yang Shao, is known to have produced painted and red pottery as well as jade sculpture. The work had been lauded for its beauty and similarity to the pottery of the Black Earth region of the Black Sea. Ancient trade routed existed throughout Asia and it has been speculated that potting techniques may have been imported from this area. One of the most interesting finds from the area is a perfecting preserved, hard-fired earthenware funerary urn on display at the Seattle Art Museum which is believed to date around 2200 BC. It depicts an intricate pattern of swirling geometric designs and symbols.
Describe the origin and importance of the Gospel Book of Otto III and provide and overview of its illustrated contents.
The Reichenau monastery on an island in the Lake of Constance is considered the more important center of manuscript creativity during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Gospel Book of Otto III is considered the finest production and a great medieval masterpiece. The book depicts a scene of Christ washing St. Peter's feet in the style of a colorful ancient painting. The hues are a soft pastel and the background is similar to illusionism of a Greco-Roman landscape. The illustration is particularly notable as well for its depiction of the feet washing as more of a spiritual action than a physical one. Another illustration depicts St. Luke enthroned amidst two rainbows with a completed manuscript resting on his lap. A cluster of clouds above show an ox surrounded by five Old Testament prophets and an outer circle of angels. Beneath his feet two lambs are depicted drinking the life-giving water of his evangelism. The illustration is considered and explicit message of salvation to the faithful.
The period beginning in the mid-18th century following the demise of Baroque and Rococo styles has been referred to as the Classic Revival. Discuss this period and the style exemplified by it.
The Western classic Revival or neoclassicism began as a resurrection of Roman architectural form through about 1815 when it was replaced with a greek-style thereafter. The entire movement was promoted by continued archaeological discovery as much as an increased interest on the part of society at the time in the ancient ruins of Rome and Greece. Work of the period exhibits a blend of both fact and romantic idealism. An example of this is the Doric Temple at Hagley Park and Worcestershire, England. Completed and 1759 by James Stewart, it appears designed as if already in a state of ruin. Indeed, the ruinous appearance of ancient structures served as an inspiration for otherwise unrelated work such as those of Italian architect and engraver, Giovanni Battista Piranesi. His Carceri (Prisons) published in 1750 is considered an imaginative piece based upon themes suggested by the enormous vaults of Roman ruins.
Provide a descriptive overview of commemorative relief sculpture from the Roman imperial period.
The alter of the Augustan peace is an early and notable example which was erected in the last decade before Christ as an idealistic expression of hope for a new era. It exhibits elaborate allegorical panels and historical friezes in early three-dimensional relief. The famous arch of Titus carved some 90 years later evokes a purposeful and realistic impression of movement. Another famous display is the column of Trajan carved during the early 2nd century to commemorate the campaigns of Dacian. It has a frank, factual style of continuous relief which spirals around the shaft of the column as an unbroken historical narrative. It is, in a sense, representative of the height of allegorical consideration for accuracy. By the time of the column of Marcus Aurelius was carved in the late 2nd century, more stylized and less strictly accurate physical and historical representation became popular.
Michelangelo's enormous fresco for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel ultimately measured more then 5400 square feet by the time it was completed 4 years after it was begun. Provide and overview of this famous work.
The enormous Fresco is best understood as a series of narrative strips. The central narrative consists of nine scenes from The Book of Genesis - 3 each for "the creation of the world", "the creation and fall of Adam and Eve" and "the story of Noah". The side narratives illustrate the connection between the Old and New Testaments. The objective of Julius II commissioning appears to have been twofold - the assertion of the Christian faith and his role as its leader as well as his independence from dominating authorities such as Louis XII of France. The finished product is much of Michelangelo's devising, however, he was not entirely enthusiastic about the commission and by his own poetic testimony he much preferred to work and sculpture. The Unfinished Mausoleum of an earlier commissioned by the same patron, none other than the pope himself, weighed heavily on his mind. The project was physically demanding as well. He perilously worked upside down on self-designed scaffolding for successive days and months and a remarkable feat of endurance that has yet to be equaled.
The seated Buddha at Anuradhapura, Ceylon is one of the most renowned representations of Buddha in history. Describe the statue and its significance.
The figure is a 79 inch dolomite statue dating from the 6th or 7th century AD. Its pose, treatment, and curled hair are characteristic of Gupta style although it exhibits a rare austerity and lack of sensuality that belies in Sinhalese origin. Rendered in a meditation pose, it effectively conveys an intense degree of concentration made more convincing by cues of facial structure like the pronounced cheekbones and jaw. The sternest of appearance differs stylistically from Gupta work of the same time in its notable "lack of prettiness" as one historian described it. The stylistic departure from "prettiness" and "sensuality" are consistent with the conservative doctrine of Hinayana Buddhism thought to have been practiced by the Sinhalese. The figure shows substantial weather erosion which has, at least in the opinion of some, added to its mystery and mystique.
Describe the changing ideal of the human form and clothing that occurred during the 6th century and provide examples of their rendition.
The mosaics of the S. Vitale church in Ravenna depict figures which are radically different in appearance to those of earlier centuries and offer some of the first and finest examples of the new ideal. A tall, slender form adorned in exquisitely decorated clothing became fashionable, as did smallish feet and faces, long spindly fingers, and large haunting eyes perpetually fixed in an everlasting gaze. The entire effect seems intended to evoke the "divine authority" of the Byzantine emperor and his court. Clothing adorning figures is frequently used as an additional illustrative element within a larger scene. Justinian's empress Theodora is depicted in S. Vitale mosaic wearing an elaborately embroidered mantle with a design that clearly shows the infant Jesus and the three Magi carrying their gifts to Mary. This new style continued as a basis for depicting human figures and their clothing throughout the remainder of the Byzantine age.
Provide and overview of the 19th century Gothic Revival.
The revival's popularity was primarily centered in Europe-- England in particular. The Houses of Parliament in London, the Rathaus (Town Hall) and Votive Church in Vienna, as well as the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam are notable examples of the style. The revival was seen in the New World as well. Architect Richard Upjohn designed the Trinity Church on Wall Street in New York which has been lauded as a good early example of the Revival style. The Smithsonian Institution was begun in 1848 under the direction of James Renwick Junior, who, just a few short years later, produced the now-famous St Patrick's Cathedral in New York. The government buildings in Ottawa, Canada were granite executions in High Gothic style by Fuller & Jones and Stunt & Laver between 1861 and 1867. Situated above a nearby river for a decidedly dramatic effect, their most notable components are considered to be the polygonal library and entrance tower.
Provide a brief description of notable Old Kingdom Egyptian sculpture.
The slate palette of King Narmer dated 3100 BC is one of the oldest surviving artifacts from the beginning of the period known as the Old Kingdom. Along with the 2650 BC wood portrait panel of Hesy-ra from Saqqara, it depicts the typical Egyptian theme of fair-featured, partially clad figures ritualistically wielding various implements amidst a backdrop rendering of animals or other figures. The Great Sphinx is perhaps the most famous Egyptian sculpture of all. Constructed during the reign of Chefren, it along with an impressive 66 inch diorite statue of the pharaoh, are rare and notable remnants of what is thought to have been a very prolific era of art for the Egyptian people. The 56 inch slate statue of Mycerinus and his queen recovered from Giza is another well-preserved artifact though to have been carved around 2500 BC. "Prince Rahotep and his Wife Nofret" thought to have been carved in limestone around 2610 BC is notable for its rare, well-preserved painted finish as is the painted limestone relief "Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt", dated from around 2400 BC
Provide a synopsis of the Persian Artistic tradition.
Until recent history, the inhabitants of what is now modern day Iran were tribal, nomadic people. As such, monuments and written records, both of which are almost completely absent from Persian history, cannot be relied upon as a basis for an early era artistic investigation of its people. Instead, much of what is known about Persian art comes from objects buried with the dead. The decorative employment of animal motifs was particularly common to the Persian people. Examples include the bronze Pole Top ornament from Luristan dated around the 8th century BC, as well as the chased gold stag from Kostromskaya thought to have been created around 650 BC. Another noteworthy work is the 4th century BC Gold Rhyton. Persians proved to be an adaptable people, however. The Persepolis palace begun in 518 BC by Darius I is grand in every way. The structure is marked by huge columns as well as vast numbers of halls, rooms, and courts assembled on a huge raised platform.
Provide a brief overview of the early life of Vincent Van Gogh through his friendship with Paul Gauguin.
Van Gogh was one of four sons of a rural Dutch clergyman. His brothers were art dealers in Amsterdam and The Hague. Vincent alternated between an interest in art and theological study until the age of 24 when he decided to become a painter. He had a particular interest in expressing a compassion for the downtrodden and humble members of humanity. His body of work, particularly early drawings made at the family home in Holland, exhibited a lack of technical capability and has been criticized as crude and clumsy. Van Gogh's style began to emerge and solidify, however, in oil with the 1885 "Still Life with Apples and Two Pumpkins" and "Fishing Boats as Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer" completed in 1888. During this time Vincent's health deteriorated- largely due to an overindulgence of alcohol and tobacco while in Paris. Shortly thereafter, he befriended Gauguin and the two formed a small artistic community in the southern town of Aries. Their personalities were quite dissimilar and, in a heated discussion, he attacked Gauguin with a knife, mutilating his own ear.
Provide a brief overview and history of Roman decorative painting during the imperial period of the 1st and 2nd centuries.
Very little official Roman painting has survived to present day. Most of what is known about the period comes from the 1st century decoration of tombs and private houses unearthed in Herculaneum and Pompeii. Examples of the earliest style show a heavy Hellenistic influence where walls are made to appear as tough they are constructed of multi-colored marble slabs. This initial style remained as a basis for subsequent work although it eventually evolved through the use of perspective. Architecture, scenes, and landscapes behind painted columns were common. Notable examples include large frieze paintings such as the Odyssey landscapes on display in the Vatican. Style continued to evolve throughout this period with the increased use of landscape and various depictions of well-known scenes such as the Dionysiac rites in the Villa of Mysteries of Pompeii- also on display in the Vatican.
Perhaps no other ancient civilization has influenced modern artistic and architectural style more than that of the ancient Greeks. Despite the proliferation of remaining artifacts, explain the unique difficulties inherent in wearing a coherent and authentic picture of their artistic history.
Virtually every major civilization since ancient Greece has adopted or incorporated some aspects of Greek style as its own. This popularity throughout the centuries has spawned numerous copies of virtually every kind of art. With older work, it can be difficult to distinguish the genuine article from a copy. Greeks were prolific writers who documented much of what they considered their most important artistic accomplishments in sculpture, paint, and architecture. Unfortunately, in some instances multiple copies of a lost original have been found that vary to a certain degree in their style or substance, making collaboration with a supporting manuscript or actual remains difficult. All of this can be frustrating for the art historian concerned with accuracy. Still, what is known and what remains of ancient Greece is seen by many as an opportunity rather than a disappointment. Though a number of questions remained unanswered, much has been learned through diligent scholarship over the past two hundred years.
The rock art of eastern Africa is not as well-known as that of other areas although a substantial number of sites have been located in Tanzania. Describe the general chronological progression of this work.
While the chronology of rock art throughout Africa spans almost 7000 years, Tanzanian art appears to span perhaps 1000 years or more. Among the earliest finds are drawings in monochrome of animals painted in silhouette. Somewhat later, outlining was introduced which shows more detail. Following this, outlines thickened and poses became more rigid. Later, phases depict human figures, many with geometric designs. Art discovered in Uganda is substantially more recent- perhaps 2000 years or less. A consistent pattern of activity up to the modern era has been discovered from Zambia north through Kenya and into Somalia. Some Zambian paintings depict 20th century technology such as motorized vehicles. Portuguese influence in the Lower Congo is evident beginning around the 15th century. Many cave drawings such as those at Mbafu depict crucifixes and shields and are thought to be related to the consecration of Don Henrique as the first Congolese bishop in 1518.
Describe the new realism of the early Netherlandish art and provide an overview of some notable work from the late 14th and early 15th centuries.
Work from this period often contains symbolic meaning in naturalistic forms. Fruits, plants, furniture, and buildings were routinely imbued with religious significance. Early pioneers in the new form worked in Dijon at the Chartreuse de Champmol which was a Carthusian monastery patronized by Philip the Bold between 1394 and 1404. Philip's court was, for a time, considered one of the most culturally rich in all of Europe. His patronage, along with that of merchants, ensured good funding for early artists prior to the move of Philip's court to Bruges in 1420 "International Gothic" style was still pervasive during the early period but had largely vanished with Robert Campin's "Master of Flemalle". Here, the Annunciation is depicted in contemporary interior that aptly relates the experience of an ordinary individual. The use of objects and shadows are hallmark characteristics of Campin. Jan Van Eyck, court painter to Duke Philip the Good, imbued his style most aptly in the work, "The Madonna with Canon van der Paele". Distance and depth are rendered with striking accuracy which was still rare at this time. Fine detail and obscure symbolism are also characteristically evident in this piece. His fine coloring and exquisite detail on the "Adoration of the Lamb" central panel of the Ghent alter piece is another fine example of Van Eyck's style and characteristic of the realism from this period.
