Mort 292 Section #3

Fluorine

- aids in development of teeth and bones

Permanent hardness

(1) Caused by the chloride and sulfate salts of calcium and magnesium CaCl2 and MgCl2 CaSO4 and MgSO4 (2) This type of water hardness can't be removed by boiling; must use ion exchange systems (water softeners), water distillation, or use of soap instead. Soap chemically reacts w/the mineral deposits, forming a product called curd - which is then washed off during bathing, hand washing, etc. Ca ions in embalming solutions actually encourage blood to clot unless the ions are removed by adding a water conditioner/anticoagulant. (3) Addition of chemicals can be also used to remove hardness; accomplished by adding sodium carbonate, transforming soluble salt into insoluble sodium chloride which then precipitates out: CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl

pH range of blood during life

(1) Normal - 7.35 - 7.45 (2) Acidosis - In conditions of diabetes mellitus, the body is unable to oxidize carbohydrates; instead, the body oxidizes fats, creating excess accumulation of ketone bodies. Ketones tend to decrease pH of blood, creating acidosis. The patient can enter an acidosis-induced coma; often fatal.

Colloid solution Components:

(a) Discontinuous phase - solute (gas, liquid or solid) dispersed within a continuous phase. (b) Continuous phase - the solvent is the dispersion medium containing the solute.

Colloid solution Examples

(a) Foam - gas in liquid (whipped cream) (b) Liquid aerosol - liquid in gas (clouds, fog) (c) Emulsion - liquid in liquid (milk, mayo) (d) Smoke - solid in gas (smoke)

Types of true solution

(a) Solid in liquid - arterial fluid, salt water and sugar water (b) Liquid in liquid - wine (c) Gas in liquid - arterial fluids, carbonated water (CO2 dissolved in H2O) (d) Solid in solid - alloys like brass & bronze (e) Gas in gas - air (N2, O2, Ar, CO2, etc)

Quantitatively "How much is there?"-Parts per million

(ppm) - the number of parts of solute compared to one million parts of solution; similar to "ratio" except, (a) ppm is a method for expressing low concentrations (b) 1 ppm is equivalent to 1 milligram per liter

Halogen gases

(salt formers; "halo" is Greek for salt) ~ combine with H to form acids, combine with metals to form salts some used as disinfectants elements of Group VII on periodic table all have similar properties

Strong base

- a base that completely ionizes in water, releasing large number of hydroxide ions (-OH). Ex: sodium hydroxide ("lye" - NaOH)

Weak base

- a base that ionizes only slightly in solution, releasing small numbers of hydroxide ions (-OH). Ex: calcium hydroxide (lime) Ca(OH)2

Ketosis

- a condition in which high levels of ketone bodies cannot be metabolized, leading to lower blood pH.

Anions

- a negatively charged atom or group of atoms; a negatively charged ion such as Cl-, O-, or SO4; negative ions having a (-) charge.

Alkalosis

- a physiological condition in which the blood pH is higher than 7.45; this alkaline condition usually proves fatal.

Cations

- a positively charged atom or group of atoms; a positively charged ion such as Na+, Mg2+, or Al3+, and NH4+; positive ions having a (+) charge.

Classification of salts Normal salt

- a salt in which all the replaceable hydrogen of the corresponding acid has been replaced by a metal. Ex: sodium chloride, NaCl, formed by neutralization of hydrochloric acid (HCl) by sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Classification of salts Acid salts

- a salt in which only part of the replaceable hydrogen of the acid has been replaced by a metal. E.g.: sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 sodium bisulfate, NaHSO4

Electrolytes

- a substance that produces ions when dissolved in water; in solution, electrolytes conduct electricity (can carry or transmit an electric current. Inorganic compounds may be electrolytes while organic compounds are not (ionic v. covalent bonding) Inorganic compounds will disassociate when placed in a suitable solution

Number of hydrogen ions (acids) Polyprotic

- acids that yield more than one hydrogen per molecule in solution; those acids in which dissociation yields more than one hydrogen. Examples: H2SO4 (sulfuric acid); H3PO4 (phosphoric acid)

Strong acid

- an acid that completely ionizes in water, releasing large number of H+ ions. Ex: hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Weak acid

- an acid that ionizes only slightly in solution, releasing small numbers of H+ ions. Ex: carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Electrolysis

- changing the chemical structure of a compound using electrical energy.

Acidosis

- low blood pH resulting from the formation of acidic ketone bodies.

Moderate

- percent dissociation is neither as high nor as low as those acids traditionally called strong or weak.

Classification of salts Basic salts

- salts that contain one or more replaceable hydroxyl ions. E.g.: basic bismuth nitrate, Bi(OH)2NO3

Number of hydrogen ions (acids) Monoprotic

- those acids that yield one hydrogen per molecule in solution; those acids in which dissociation yields one hydrogen. Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)

Bromine

- used in medicines for nervous system (depressant)

Properties of bases

-Bases(a.k.a. "alkali" which means "ash") are alkaline compounds with a bitter taste. -In aqueous solutions, bases release -OH- ions (hydroxide radical). -Bases can appear in all three states of matter but generally in a greasy or moist powder form - -Constituents are metal elements or metal radicals and hydroxide ion (-OH). -taste bitter -slippery -react with acids -turns litmus blue

Preparation (of oxygen)

-Fractional distillation of air (commercial method): air is pressurized & supercooled to less than 90K - liquid nitrogen + oxygen forms, allowed to stand, nitrogen boils off, leaving pure oxygen remaining. -Electrolysis of water - another commercial method: 2 H2O ==> 2 H2 + O2 Heating of KClO3 (potassium chlorate): 2 KClO3 + MnO2 → 2 KCl + 3O2 + MnO2 (This is known as the "laboratory method" for producing oxygen) Heating of HgO (mercuric oxide): 2 HgO → 2Hg + O2 (Called the "historical/classic method" for producing oxygen)

Hypertonic solution (concentrated)

-Greater concentration outside of the semi-permeable membrane; happens due to body dehydration or excessive intake of salt; water collects in body tissues, producing swelling or puffiness (edema). -Osmolarity (concentration of particles) is greater outside the semi-permeable membrane. -Definition - a solution having a greater concentration of dissolved solute than the solution to which it is compared; -a solution that has a higher osmotic pressure than the red blood cells of the body; -water (the solvent) will move outward to dilute the environment. Effect on red blood cell - gives off solvent and shrivels, water moves out of the cell and it shrinks (crenation). Example - Body dying in salt water: water (the solvent) will move outward from the cells of the body to dilute the environment - the body appears shrunken (crenation effect).

Hydrolysis

-Literal meaning: "Water breaking apart." -The condition of hydrolysis in the dead human body is the 1st step in initiating decomposition. -A chemical reaction in which a substance is broken down or dissociated by water. e.g.: Water molecules self-ionize into hydronium ions and hydroxide ions - HOH + HOH ↔ H3O+ + OH- -a reaction between a salt and water to yield an acid and a base of unequal strengths e.g.: Sodium chloride placed in water creates hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide - NaCl + HOH → HCl + NaOH The splitting apart of a molecule by the addition of water.

Hydrates

-a compound in which there is a chemical union between water and certain substances when they crystallize -the water held in the chemical union is called the "water of crystallization" Examples: plaster of Paris (a.k.a. gypsum) copper sulfate The formula for CuSO4 in its fully hydrated form is CuSO4 ∙ 5H2O

Electrolytic compounds

-a compound that dissociates into free ions when placed in solution -can conduct an electric current -consists of inorganic acids (ionic bonding), bases, salts, and oxides

True solution (crystalloid)

-a homogenous mixture in which the solution is made up of small particles (ions or molecules) that can pass through filters & semi-permeable membranes and which cannot be centrifuged -can be any of three phases (solid, liquid, gas) -transparent to light (particles too small to scatter light) e.g.: salt in water (uniform throughout), many embalming fluids, any mixture of gases Definition - Homogenous molecular mixture of two or more substances able to pass through a semi-permeable membrane the size of the solute particles is less than 1 nanometer (0.000000001)

Strong electrolyte

-a polar or ionic compound that ionizes completely when it dissolves in water -its solution is a good conductor of electricity- has the probability to a greater percent that it will break down (dissociate) to "free ions"

Non-electrolytic compounds - nonelectrolytes

-a substance that dissolves in water as molecules, not ions -its solution will not conduct an electrical current -most organic compounds are non-electrolytic due to covalent bonding

Weak electrolyte

-a substance that produces only a few ions along with many molecules when it dissolves in water -its solution is a weak conductor of electricity- probability is to a lesser percent of breaking down into "free ions"

Arrhenius Theory

-acids are substances that dissociate (break apart) in aqueous solution to yield hydrogen ions; -bases are substances that dissociates in an aqueous solution to yield hydroxide ions.

Importance (of hydrogen)

-acts as a reducing agent -most abundant element in the universe -lightest gas known -"tissue gas" is largely free hydrogen gas ~ along with methane

Hygroscopic

-any substance having a natural affinity to water -readily absorbs moisture -able to attract additional water e.g.: sulfuric acid, phosphorous dioxide, hydrogen peroxide

Properties of acids

-from latin word "acidous" which means "sour"; acids have a sour taste. -Dilute acids react with metals above hydrogen in electrochemical series, liberating H2 gas. -In aqueous solutions, acids give off H ions. -Acids are corrosive & extremely hygroscopic. -They can appear in all three states of matter. -Acids turn litmus paper (pulp paper chemically treated to change color in presence of acidic solutions) from blue → red.

Properties (of hydrogen

-highly diffusible, is lighter than air -a reducing agent -colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, slightly soluble in water -flammable(light blue flame) but does not support combustion.

Occurrence of oxygen

-most abundant element on earth -21% of volume of atmosphere and 89% of the mass of water is oxygen -Slightly soluble in H2O.

pH Range during rigor mortis

-pH changes from slightly basic to acidic -fall in the muscle pH to around 6.6 - 6.3 results in coagulation (PM stiffening of muscles)

pH Range during advanced decomposition

-pH shifts back to the alkaline register -Extreme cases over time can result in saponification (the formation of soap from fat under high pH conditions) or adipocere formation typically occurs after the onset of putrefaction in warm, moist, environments and is seen as deposits of a yellowish-white, greasy, wax-like substance. Adipocere develops as the result of fat hydrolysis with the release of fatty acids.

Naming salts

-salts are named according to the type of acid, binary or ternary, from which they are derived -salts of binary acids retain the name of the metal ion, followed by the stem of the non-metal and an -ide ending -NaCl is sodium chloride -salts of ternary acids retain the name of the metal ion, followed by the name of the polyatomic ion -NaHCO3 is sodium bicarbonate

Buffers

-substances that resist change in pH when an acid or a base is added to a solution Definition - substances that in solution are capable of neutralizing within limits both acids and bases in order to protect the solution against changes in pH. Buffer solution - a mixture of a weak acid or a weak base and its salt that resists changes in pH when small amounts of an acid or base are added.

Solute

-that part of a solution that is being dissolved and appears in the lesser amount. -the component of a solution present in a lesser amount a) A substance dissolved in solvent to form a solution b) The component of a solution present in a lesser amount

Application of osmotic principles to embalming

-the initial fluid injected into bodies of normal moisture content should be slightly hypotonic to the contents of the tissues, -the initial fluid injected into edematous bodies should be slightly hypertonic in order to bring water out of the tissues, -the initial fluid injected into dehydrated bodies for embalming should be more hypotonic to draw water into the tissues.

pH: Hydrogen-ion concentration / pH scale- Definition of pH:

-the measure of the H+ ion concentration of a solution. -Scientists use pH scale (potential of hydrogen) as a means of comparing the amount of H+ or OH- ions present -the measure of hydrogen ion concentration of a solution; a measure of the ( H3O+ ) in a solution.

Reduction

-the opposite of oxidation -always accompanies an oxidation/reduction reaction Reduction is: the removal of oxygen, the addition of H, a gain in electrons, or a decrease in the oxidation number of a substance (a) The addition of hydrogen to a substance (a substance undergoes reduction): 2CH3OH + O2 → 2HCHO + 2H2O (methyl alcohol is oxidized & O2 is reduced) (b) A decrease/loss in the positive oxidation number (a substance is reduced); (c) A gain of electrons (hydrogen is reduced and becomes a reducing agent)

Osmosis

-the passage of pure solvent from a solution of lesser solute concentration to one of greater solute concentration when the two solutions are separated by a semi-permeable membrane which selectively prevents the passage of solute molecules, but is permeable to the solvent; -the flow of solvent, usually water, through a semi-permeable membrane into a solution of higher solute concentration. [Note: by osmosis, the diffused embalming fluid out in surrounding tissues (interstitial spaces) now passes through the cell membrane and into the cell itself. Since osmosis is the flow of a solvent (which causes dissolving) through a semi-permeable membrane from the area of lesser concentration to the area of greater concentration (remember: it's the concentration of the solute), the interior of a cell being more concentrated compared to that of the water-bearing embalming molecule, solvent flows from the less concentrated solution through the membrane into the more concentrated solution. Remember: walls of cells & and of specialized structure within cells (organelles) are semi-permeable membranes.

Softening of water

-water conditioning that creates soluble sodium or potassium based salts by ion exchange -this process is used largely in home water-softening systems -Na ions provided in the water-softening unit are "traded" or exchanged for the Ca ions found in hard water.

Self-ionization of water

-water consists of polar molecules w/oxygen pulling hydrogen -hydronium (H30+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) formed when H2O molecules collide, forcing a H atom to leave its electron behind and shed its proton: HOH + HOH ↔ H30+ + OH- -hydronium ion (H3O+) - formed by the attraction of a proton ( H+ ) to an H2O molecule. -hydroxide ion (-OH-) - formed by the loss of a proton to an H2O molecule.

Different ioniziations

1. Acids 2. Bases 3. Salts 4. Anions 5.Cations 6. Electrolysis 7. Electrolytes 8.Non electrolyte compounds

Lewis Theory

A "Lewis acid" is any atom, ion, or molecule which can accept electrons A "Lewis base" is any atom, ion, or molecule capable of donating electrons. "Lewis acids" are substances which are electron-deficient (or low electron density) and "Lewis bases" are substances which are electron-rich (or high electron density). An alkaline or basic substance is one which has a lone pair of electrons which may be used to complete the stable group of another atom, and that an acid is one which can employ a lone pair from another molecule in completing the stable group of one of its own atoms- the basic substance furnishes a pair of electrons for a chemical bond, the acid substance accepts such a pair.

Amphoteric

A compound that can act as both acid & base. "Water is one of the most common & important amphoteric compounds."

Suspension solution

A heterogeneous mixture of solute and solvent in which the size of the solute particle is greater than 100 nanometers A nanometer is one billionth of a meter, or 0.000000001 meters. One hundred nanometers would be 0.000000100 meters. particles of solute do not pass through filters or membranes and will settle out over time e.g.: muddy water, some external cosmetic, dust particles in the air, aerosol spray, cloud droplets

Anhydrous ("without water")

A hydrate which has lost its water of crystallization

Arrhenius theory about acids

A substance that dissolves in water and produces hydrogen ions ( H+ ),

Arrhenius theory about bases

A substance that dissolves in water and produces hydroxide ions ( -OH- ),

Lewis definition of acid

A substance that tends to accept a pair of electrons

Brønsted-Lowry definition of bases

A substance that tends to accept a proton

Lewis definition of bases

A substance that tends to donate a pair of electrons

Brønsted-Lowry definition of acid

A substance that tends to donate a proton

Arrhenius definition of acid

A substance that yields hydrogen ( H+ ) or hydronium ions (H3O+ ) in an aqueous/water solution

Arrhenius definition of bases

A substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous/water solution

Brønsted-Lowry theory about acids

All acids are proton donors

Brønsted-Lowry theory about bases

All bases are proton acceptors

More types of true solutions

Alloy - aka solid solution, metallic substances, brass, bronze, stainless steel, etc. Characteristics of a solution - Homogeneous - a sample of matter with uniform composition; it remains mixed and will not normally separate out. Miscible solution - a solution of 2 mutually soluble liquids Emulsion solution - a mixture of two insoluble liquids, one being dispersed throughout the other in small droplets (oil & vinegar).

Chlorine

Atomic number: 17; 35 amu greenish, yellowish gas with pungent odor (a) Occurrence - diatomic molecule; in large amounts, vapors are toxic; reacts with and destroys lung tissues. (b) Importance - maintains salt balance in body fluids; as a bleaching agent; as a disinfectant - in neutral or acid solutions, kills microorganisms.

Iodine:

Atomic number: 53; 127 amu (a) Occurrence - diatomic molecule; insoluble in water; acts as thyroid hormones. (b) Importance - thyroid function; bones, teeth development; maintain water balance in body tissues & blood, acid/base balance.

Base values

Blood 7.35-7.45 Eggs 7.6-8.0 Bile 7.8-8.6 Saliva 6.2-7.4 Tap water 6.5-8.0

Oxygen

Colorless, odorless & tasteless gas non-metal element listed in Group VIA found in its free state as O2 The name "oxygen" means "acid former."

Dialysis

Definition - The process of separating substances from a solution by taking advantage of their differing abilities to pass through porous membranes; involves sizes of different particles; a process in which water and small solute particles pass through a semi-permeable membrane. Note: dialysis resembles osmosis except the dialysis membrane will allow passage of solvent, small molecules, and ions, but will hold back colloids (most poarticularly 6 proteins)

Hypotonic solution (diluted)

Definition - a solution having a lesser concentration of dissolved solute than the solution to which it is compared; a solution that has a lower osmotic pressure than the red blood cells of the body; water moves inward to dilute the inner concentration. greater concentration inside of the semi-permeable membrane; due to excessive water ingestion or loss of electrolytes (electrolytes monitor the balance of moisture (H2O) for the body)- i.e., the osmolarity is less outside the semi-permeable membrane so concentration is greater inside. Effect on red blood cell- takes on solvent and burst, water flows into the cell and it swells (hemolysis). Example - physiological salt solution: death in fresh water → water enters body cells and the body appears swollen or puffy (hemolysis).

Isotonic solution (normal solution) (results in no movement of solution particles)

Definition - a solution having an equal concentration of dissolved solute as the solution to which it is compared; a solution that has the same osmotic pressure as that of the red blood cells of the body - osmolarity is the same (equal) on both sides of the semi-permeable membrane. (ii) Effect on red blood cell - no net movement of water in or out of the cell

Qualitatively - "What is it or what is in it?"

Each of the following terms relating to concentration are controlled or influenced conditions such as temperature, pressure and agitation. (1) Solubility - the measure of how well two substances mix (2) Dilute solution - a solution containing a relatively small amount of solute (3) Concentrated solution- a solution containing a relatively large amount of solute Each of the following terms relating to concentration are controlled or influenced conditions such as temperature, pressure and agitation. (4) Saturated solution - a solution containing all of the solute the solvent is able to hold at a certain temperature and pressure. Any additional solute will remain undissolved in the container. Each of the following terms relating to concentration are controlled or influenced conditions such as temperature, pressure and agitation. (5) Unsaturated solution - a solution containing less of the solute than can be held in solution by the solvent. (6) Supersaturated solution - solution with more solute than it can hold. Typically, the additional solute will settle out of the solution as a precipitate

Preparation (of hydrogen)

Electrolysis of water - commercial method: two water molecules with electricity added gives off 2 diatomic hydrogen atoms and 2 diatomic oxygen atoms Electrolytic hydrogen is the purest commercially available grade of hydrogen and is made by the electrolysis of water. 2H2O ==> 2 H2 + O2 'Electrolytic Hydrogen' is relatively expensive because of the cost of the electrical energy necessary to make it.

Formula of water

H2O When pure, water = 2 hydrogen atoms + 1 oxygen atom Note: both hydrogen & oxygen are gasses when uncombined "True" chemical name: dihydrogen monoxide

Acid values:

Gastric juices 1.6-1.8 Lemon juice 2.8-3.4 Black coffee 4.8-5.2 Urine 5.5-7.5 Milk 6.3-6.6

pH dependence of formaldehyde

HCHO must be buffered to bring the pH to a normal range similar to blood. Most embalming fluids are buffered to a pH range between 6.5 - 9.0. (1) Highly acidic conditions in the dead human body can polymerize the formaldehyde too quickly (2) Highly basic conditions can decomposed HCHO before it can react sufficiently with tissue

The following are factors influencing solubility:

Nature of solvent and solute (polarity) Some compounds may not dissolve in water due to the strength &/or differences in their chemical bonds (dissimilar electrical properties). 1) Polar - substances w/regions of positive and negative charges as found in ionic compounds & polar covalent bonds 2) Nonpolar - substances formed by covalent bonds with equal sharing of electrons Temperature: as temperature increases, the solubility increases for most substances due to greater movement of the solute molecules and more of an opportunity for solvent molecules to "squeeze in." Not so for gasses in a liquid: solubility for a gas decreases with a rise in temp since gas molecules have greater movement and can escape from the solvent.

Hydrogen

Occurrence - most abundant element in the universe present in all living things, though very little free hydrogen (uncombined) mostly combined with other elements in acids, gases, water, plant and animal tissue, gases. Group IA "special" element 1 amu

Strength of acids & bases

On the basis of strength, acids (and bases) are classified as being either strong, moderate or weak, depending on how well the acid (or base) dissociates into either hydrogen/hydronium ions or hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution.

Properties of aqueous acids & bases

One of the main properties of acids & bases: -acids dissociate in aqueous solutions to produce hydrogen ions -bases dissociate in aqueous solutions to produce hydroxide ions

The following are factors influencing solubility 2 more examples

Pressure (note: mainly involves a gas dissolving in a liquid) the force per unit area exerted on a material (Henry's law: an increase in pressure increases solubility) Agitation Effect on a liquid: increased agitation increases solubility Effect on a gas: increase agitation decreases solubility (when a gas is being dissolved in a liquid)

Quantitatively - "How much is there?"

Ratio - the number of parts of solute compared to the number of parts of solution. Ex: HgCl2 is mixed at one part of the disinfectant to 1000 parts of water (1:1000) Percent by mass - a percent concentration that relates the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution (that which "contains" the solute) the amount of solute compared to the amount of solution. Can be expressed as: Mass ÷ volume - the grams of solute in exactly 100 mL of solution Mass ÷ mass - 37 grams of HCHO gas in 100 grams of solution = 37% (formalin by weight or mass) Percent by volume - a percent concentration that relates the volume of the solute to the volume of the solution (that which "contains" the solute) the number of solute particles compared to 100 particles in solution. Can be expressed as: Mass ÷ volume - the grams of solute in exactly 100 mL of solution Volume ÷ volume - 40 mL of CH2O gas in 100 mL of solution or 40/100 = 40% (formalin)

Composition of salts

Salts are substances formed (other than H2O) resulting from a reaction between an acid and a base (neutralization). Such a salt (acid/base reaction) contains metal elements (or radicals) and non-metal elements (or radicals).

Oxidation

The addition of oxygen (O) ~ the removal of hydrogen (H) ~ the removal of electrons ~ an increase in the oxidation number of a substance (a) The combination of a substance with oxygen (oxidation); (b) An increase/gain in oxidation number (a substance is oxidized); (c) A loss of electrons (oxygen is reduced and becomes a reducing agent)

Preparation of Hydrogen by the Action of Metals

The alkali metals, lithium, sodium, and potassium react violently with water at ordinary temperature, yielding hydrogen: 2 Na + 2 H2O ==> 2 NaOH + H2 Other metals, such as zinc, yield hydrogen gas when placed in dilute (aqueous) acid: Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Purpose of Dialysis

To prevent damage to cells it is crucial that fluids within body cells be isotonic with the tissue fluid that surrounds them; this process occurs in the kidneys. Normally the kidneys regulate excretion of salt and water into the urine. Location - Osmosis in the kidneys is dialysis Hemodialysis: a mechanical cleansing of the blood by an artificial kidney using the principle of dialysis.

Ionization

The disassociation of a substance in solution into ions, may be single atom or group of atoms.

Tyndall effect

The light beam is not visible as it passes through a true solution (left), but it is readily visible as it passes through colloidal iron (III) oxide in water.

Hydrolysis of a salt

The major chemical reaction of salts is hydrolysis salt ions turns into water molecules into H and OH ions

Neutralization

The reaction of an acid and a base to produce a salt and water - acids react with bases to form water and a salt: HCl + NaOH → HOH + NaCl

Neutralization:

The reaction of an acid and a base to produce a salt and water - acids react with bases to form water and a salt: HCl + NaOH → HOH + NaCl

Quantitatively "How much is there?"- Index

The strength of embalming fluids indicated by the number of grams of pure formaldehyde gas dissolved in 100 ml of solution/water. Index usually refers to a percentage; for example, an embalming fluid with an index of 25 usually contains 25% HCHO gas. This is your "mass ÷ volume" - the grams of solute in exactly 100 mL of solution

Example of redox reaction

When a reactive metal such as magnesium reacts with a diatomic molecule of oxygen, the metal gives up its outer valence electrons & is oxidized; the oxygen atoms take on the electrons and are reduced in their oxidation number. The formula to the chemical reaction would be written like this: 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO Each of the magnesium atoms are oxidized by a oxygen atom & lose two electrons; in the process, their individual oxidation numbers increases by two (2+) Each of the oxygen atoms gain the two electrons lost by each of the magnesium atoms, thus they reduced because their oxidation number goes from zero to 2- When a metal such as magnesium is placed in water, the hydrogen atoms of a water molecule are replaced by the Mg atom. H2 gas is evolved (given off) and an oxide is formed: MgO The term reduction comes from the Latin stem meaning "to lead back." Anything that that leads back to magnesium metal in the previous slide therefore involves reduction. 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO Best way to remember redox is OIL RIG Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain

How to remember different acid/base theories

When attempting to answer questions related to the three acid/base theories, remember this: Arrhenius dealt with hydrogen ions (acids) & hydroxide ions (bases) Br∅nsted -Lowry dealt with proton donors (acids) & proton acceptors (bases) Lewis suggested that electrons were either gained/accepted (acids) or lost/donated (bases)

Solutions

a homogenous mixture of one or more substances (solutes) dissolved in a sufficient quantity of dissolving medium (solvent) three categories of solutions: -crystalloid -colloid -suspension

Acid vs. base [review in notes]

a pH less than 7 is acidic; a pH more than 7 is basic (alkaline). Acidic solution - a solution with a greater concentration of hydrogen than hydroxide ions. Basic solution - a solution with a greater concentration of hydroxide than hydrogen ions. Neutral solution - a solution with equal concentrations of H3O+ and -OH- ions.

Physiological solution

a solution that exerts the same osmotic pressure as normal body fluids.

Types of solution

a. Aqueous solution - a solution in which water is the solvent b. Tincture solution - iodine (solute) in alcohol (solvent).

Factors influencing diffusion

a. Temperature - the warmer the solution, the faster the rate of diffusion; directly proportional. b. Concentration of solute - crush or powder; increase of concentration, increase of diffusion rate; directly proportional. c. Pressure - the force per unit area exerted on a material; directly proportional. d. Size or molecular weight of solute - the larger the molecule the slower the diffusion; inverse relationship. e. Agitation - increase in agitation, increase the rate of diffusion; directly proportional.

Ternary acids aka oxy-acids

acid compounds that contain H and one type of non-metal radical. The name begins with name of element other than hydrogen and ends in "-ic"; if same three elements form more than one ternary acid, the acid with the lower number of oxygen atoms ends in "-ous". Examples: carbonic acid (H2CO3) phosphoric acid (H3PO4) phosphorous acid (H3PO3)

Binary acids aka hydro-acids

acid compounds that contain hydrogen and one type of non-metal element. Name begins with prefix "hydro", name of element other than hydrogen, and ends in "-ic" Examples: hydrochloric acid (HCl); hydrosulfuric acid These acids contain no oxygen.

pH indicator

acid-base indicator - acids change blue litmus to red; acids remain colorless in phenolphthalein (red litmus) - it's possible to use certain colorful fruits and flowers to create pH indicator*. (1) Litmus - pulp paper which has been chemically treated; acids turn blue litmus red while bases turn red litmus blue. (2) Phenolphthalein - this white paper pH indicator changes to pink at pH 8.3 and becomes red at pH 10; it shows no color change in acidic solutions.

Br∅nsted -Lowry Theory

an acid is a proton donor, and a base is a proton acceptor.

Salts

any group of substances that result from the reaction between acids and bases other than water

Hydrogen bonds

attractive forces that occur between the hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the oxygen atom of another molecule(these same bonds or forces can occur between hydrogen and nitrogen and also between hydrogen and flourine. This attraction creates surface tension in water.

Dissociation

breaking down of molecule or compound into free ions

Temporary hardness

builds up in pots and pipes where hot water is involved Often observed around the outlet of faucets such as showers & bath tubs where hot water is used (1) due to presence of bicarbonate salts of Ca & Mg (2) can be removed by boiling or by a home's hot water system (3) boiling H2O produces a decomposition reaction, converting these soluble substances into insoluble substances which can be filtered out: Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Properties of water

called the "universal solvent" could be considered an oxide compound utilizing hydrogen transforms into the gaseous state ("steam") at 1000C (2120F) @ 1atm freezing point (forms solid crystalline lattice) /melting point at 00C (320F) @ 1atm

Basic anhydrides

chemical compound that reacts with water to form a base Oxides of metallic elements (metallic oxides) form basic anhydrides. E.g.: calcium oxide, CaO, reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2

Acid anhydrides

chemical compound that reacts with water to form an acid Oxides of nonmetallic elements form acid anhydrides. E.g.: carbon dioxide, CO2 , is the anhydride of carbonic acid, H2CO3 Anhydrides of organic acids, like the acids themselves, contain the carbonyl group, CO

Nitrogen

colorless, odorless, tasteless gas (1) Occurrence - diatomic molecule; 80% of atmosphere; forms amines w/strong odor of decomposition; present in all living organisms. (2) Importance - necessary in living tissue for tissue production; the keystones to structure of proteins; nitrogen-based organic compounds combine with formaldehyde to produce decomposition-resistant substance called coagulate. (3) Ammonia ( NH3 ) - an alkaline compound containing one atom of nitrogen covalently bonded to three hydrogen atoms. (a) Preparation - protein decomposition. (b) Significance - Decomposition product of protein; further decomposition of protein inhibited by adding HCHO; neutralization of formaldehyde by ammonia; when combined, the compound formed is called urotropin.

Water

colorless, odorless, tasteless substance; called the universal solvent in that most natural substances decompose over time when placed in water (hydrolysis)

Number of elements

constituents of acids are hydrogen & some non-metal element or radical (i.e., sulfate/sulfite radical or phosphate/phosphate radical, etc). Ex: hydrophosphoric acid - a binary acid consisting of hydrogen & phosphorus

Efflorescent

hydrates so fragile they will immediately lose their water of crystallization when exposed to air

Occurrence of water

most abundant compound in nature exists as a liquid at room temperature

Osmotic classification of a solution

osmolarity: (high or low) = concentration of particles in solution (H2O)- hemolysis (hypotonic) versus crenation (hypertonic) - RBCs

Anhydrides

oxides of metals and nonmetals By reacting with water, anhydrides form either acids or bases.

Forms of oxygen (allotropism)

oxygen may exist as ozone, O3, molecular oxygen (stable), O2, or as nascent oxygen, O O, O2 and O3 are different allotropes of oxygen. Know: Allotropes are 2 or more forms of the same element that differ in their molecular or crystal structure, and therefore also differ in their properties

Importance (of oxygen

present in all living organisms can be liquefied and solidified by extreme pressure and low temperature

Distillation

process of vaporization and condensing water when water is vaporized, substances that cause hardness remain behind

Common aqueous bases / common base compounds:

sodium hydroxide NaOH ("lye" - used in drain openers like "Draino") calcium hydroxide (lime) Ca(OH)2 potassium hydroxide (potash) KOH

Colloid solution

solutions like milk and some co-injection fluids which have particles in between the particles sizes of true and suspension solutions. A homogenous solution-like system in which the size of the solute particles is between 1 and 100 nanometers particles of solute pass through filters but not membranes can exhibit Brownian motion in the air or the Tyndall effect of scattering light due to size (can scatter light passing through solution)

Deliquescent

substances like CaCl2 & NaOH draw in so much moisture they self-liquefy used in caskets as mold inhibitors having the ability to absorb enough moisture from the air alone to dissolve (self-liquefy) hydrate is in solid form when dry.

Hydrophilic

substances that have an affinity for water (name means "water loving")

Solvent -

that portion of a solution that does the dissolving and appears in the greater amount NOTE: H2O is the universal solvent aqueous solution = water is the solvent tincture solution = alcohol is the solvent a) A substance which does the dissolving in a solution. b) A substance that dissolves or is capable of dissolving. c) Usually the component of a solution present in a greater amount.

Hardness of water

the condition of water which results from dissolved minerals and metallic ions such as calcium, iron (II) and magnesium presence of calcium in water used for embalming may promote blood clotting (ionized Ca in the blood is part of the body's blood- clotting process

Surface tension:

the force that acts on the surface of a liquid and tends to minimize surface area, causing the surface of a liquid to contract. Molecules within the bulk of a liquid are attracted equally in all directions by neighboring molecules; molecules at the surface of a liquid are attracted only downwards or sideways.

Solubility

the measure of how well two substances mix the maximum amount of one substance which can be dissolved in another substance under given conditions

Quantitatively - "How much is there?"- Molarity

the number of moles of solute in exactly 1 L of solution; purely chemical term for expressing the concentration of a solution; the number of moles of solute in exactly 1 L of solution.

Osmotic pressure

the pressure/resistance controlled by the outer cell membrane; the pressure required to prevent the flow of water into the more concentrated solution.

Diffusion

the random movement of molecules or other particles in solution from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration until uniform concentration is reached (equilibrium) Diffusion can refer to movement of embalming fluid that has left the vascular system and is now out in surrounding tissue in a given area, particles seek to be equally distributed Note: generally, diffusion is slow and is a good method of transport over short distances only- while it takes just a few seconds for glucose (sugar) molecules to diffuse from a blood vessel to a point one cell diameter away, it would take 11 years to diffuse to a point 10 cm away (.4 inches). Body cells are close enough to blood vessels so that nutrients and waste products can diffuse rapidly between the cells and the blood. Our bodies have an intricate vascular system that tries to keep vessels as close to individual cells as possible - this requires a network of over an acre of capillaries in the average body.]

Oxygen supports combustion

the rapid oxidation or burning that produces heat and light O2 does not burn but assists (i.e., supports) another substance to burn/ oxidize.

Expressing concentrations

the ratio of the mass or volume of a solute to the mass or volume of the solution or solvent. a) Quantitatively - "How much is there?" b) Qualitatively - "What is it or what is in it?"

Dehydration (desiccation)

the removal of water from a substance. Heat drives water away, creating a dry substance