Multiple Subject CSET - Subtest 1 (Reading, Language, & Literature)

adjective comparative vs adjective superlative

comparative (more or less - "bigger than") superlative (most or least - "the biggest)

parts of speech

noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection

onset-rime

Onsets refers to the first phonological unit, or the part of the word before the vowel; the initial consonant or consonants (ex: the letter "b" in book ) Rimes are any consonants before a vowel in a spoken syllable; the vowel and any consonants that follow it (ex: the letters "ook" in book) not all words have onset and rime (ex: The one-syllable word smiles - onset /sm/ and rime /ilz/) (The onset /sm/ consists of the phonemes /s/ and /m/; the rime /ilz/ consists of the phonemes /i/, /l/, and /z/) (ex: In the word flip, the onset is "fl" and the rime is "ip").

Connotative meaning

The secondary meaning associated with the word. These meanings can be linked to the words historical usage as well as the context in which it is being used. (Ex: comrade has a negative association-relates to communists; ally has a positive association)

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of the word in spoken language (each vowel and consonant sound is a phoneme)( every phoneme has a different manner in which it is articulated) for example p, b, d, and t in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat. check has 3 phonemes - (/ch/ /e/ /k/) stop has 4 phonemes - (/s/ /t/ /o/ /p/)

Consonants

Require the use of the lips and tongue to alter airflow

Root

Root words are bound morphemes (unable to stand alone) such as -ject in "subject A root is the most basic stem of a word, i.e. what's left when you strip away every last bound morpheme. - A stem is just the thing you attach a bound morpheme to, at any stage. A morpheme that underlies an inflectional or derivational paradigm. For example "believe" is the root of "un-believab-ly"

Pronoun

Something that stands in place of another noun (ex: I, he, she, it, they, him, her)

Article

Definite (the) or indefinite (a, an).

Adjective

Modifies a noun (ex: pouring rain, adj. is pouring)

Stages of Reading Development - Late alphabetic - the beginning reader - learning fluency

(2nd - 3rd grade) - Children beginning to develop fluency in reading texts and recognize words by patterns using knowledge and sight. - Children attempt to read words using phonics knowledge - children can read/reread text within a story, and rhyme and blend words - they can check for the meaning of words to make sense of the text - older students can recognize chunks or phonograms and can identify similarities/differences of sounds within words: (phonograms - group of letters that make a single sound. Ex: ough saws aw-one sound) - Students use phonemic awareness to decode unknown words. - phonics & phonemic awareness + blending, segmenting, & decoding + vocab/spelling +. text comprehension +. listening and writing

Stages of Reading Development - the remedial reader

(3rd - 8th grade) Remedial reading is reteaching all of the modalities taught as a beginning reader and emphasizing identifying reading weaknesses, linking instruction to prior knowledge, increasing instruction time, and dividing skills into smaller steps

Stages of Reading Development - Orthographic - the fluent reader

(4th-8th grade) students reading speed, and accuracy, increases dramatically. The ability to recognize text in larger units is a primary contributor to this increase in speed. - Students read larger units of print and use analogies to decode larger words. - decoding becomes fluent and is representative of adult readers. - reading, accuracy, and speed are stressed systemic and explicit instruction includes word attack skills and words within families, decoding, spelling and vocabulary, fluency, text comprehension, and utilizing metacognition (Before this phase teachers are looking at teaching how to read words) during this phase, teachers will also generally begin to emphasize comprehension by having students perform activities such as summarizing what they have read. 4th grade 6th grade student should be able to: (1) accurately quote text when explaining what is explicitly written (2 )draw inferences (3) ascertain the main theme or the author Central ideas (4) summarize the text (5) identify specific details (6) compare and contrast events in the text (7) explain the relationships between two or more events or people

Stages of Reading Development - Early alphabetic - the beginning reader - decoding

(K - 1st grade) - The beginning reader has an awareness that letters are associated with sounds sounds simple relationships children begin to identify some printed words by decoding simple CVC (consonant vowel consonant) ex: man, sun, pin - children usually know that letters of words represent sounds - children later spell with the first and last consonants (ex: ct for cat) - often omit the vowels. - students begin to develop phonemic awareness by applying the alphabetic principle, associating letters with sounds. - teachers begin to place emphasis on phonemic awareness. - phonics & phonemic awareness + blending, segmenting, & decoding + vocab/spelling +. text comprehension +. listening and writing

Stages of Reading Development - Pre-alphabetic - the early emergent reader

(early childhood/Preschool-kindergarten) - Children rely on story reading from picture books, with minimal prompts. - Children scribble and recognize distinctive visual cues in environmental print - children become aware of the directional nature of text layout (reading left to right, top to bottom- in English) - begin to recognize basic visual cues, such as letters and their names. (They are more likely to recognize the initial letters over end and middle letters) - begin phonemic awareness and concepts of print instruction

Common Reading and Literacy Assessments: - CAP Assessment - Phonics Inventory - Phonemic Awareness - Phonological Awareness

- Concepts of Print Assessment Skill: Print conventions of reading The CAP assessment tests the emergent reader's (kinder-1st) reading readiness. Tests the student's ability to identify front and back covers, the title, directional reading from L to R; print tells the story; where story begins; identify capital vs lowercase letters on page; identify other concepts of letters/words/sentences; identify a few letters on page, where you begin the next sentence; & recognize purpose of spaces - Phonics Inventory Skill: Sound decoding (skill necessary for reading) Shefelbine-BPST II (Basic Phonics Skills Test) assessment evaluates level of student's knowledge of phonics: letter sounds in consonants, consonant digraphs, short vowel sounds, long vowel blends. The Fry Phonics Patterns Diagnostic Test evaluates student's application of phonics skills: short and long vowel patterns. testing: Saying the sound of each letter (or a blend of letters) - Phonemic Awareness Skill: Phoneme segmentation necessary for reading Standard assessment tool: The Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation - assessment tests the kinder or 1st g student's ability to segment (break words apart) from a list of 22 common words - Phonological Awareness Skill: Phoneme deletion Standard assessment tool: Rosner's Test of Auditory Analysis Skills (TAAS) evaluates student's auditory ability by identifying sounds in spoken words. pre-K student should have a command of deleting a syllable from a two-syllable compound word, but assessment is given in kindergarten to evaluate student's understanding of sound separation: ex: "say the word "cowboy," and then say the word again without saying "boy."

Common Reading and Literacy Assessments - Oral Reading Assessment - Reading Ability Assessment - Spelling Inventory

- Oral Reading Assessment (Oral Fluency) Skill: Reading fluency and comprehension Standard assessment: Fry's Oral Reading Assessment oral reading/oral fluency assessment establishes if student requires further practice in decoding words. evaluate accuracy, reading rate, reading/comprehension level. (WCPM) 1-on-1 test measures the student's ability to read words correctly per min. assessment administered few times a year by grade level. score results show an overall avg to determine if the student's fluency is above/at/below grade-level abilities. - Reading Ability Assessment how to calculate fluency; total words read - errors = words correct per minutes (WCPM) Easy: no more than 1 in 20 words are Difficult (95% success). Challenging: no more than 1 in 10 D (90% success). Difficult: more than 1 in 10 words D (89%/< success). - Spelling Inventory Skill: Spelling: FJ'sPrimary and Elementary Spelling Inventories and Pearson's Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction tests measure the student's ability to spell words correctly. spelling skills results can be classified into developmental spelling stages. skills tie to reading: assists in planning appropriate spelling and reading instruction.

Stages of Reading Development

-The early emergent reader: pre-alphabetic early childhood - kinder -The beginning reader: early alphabetic & late alphabetic decoding (kinder - 1st) & learning fluency (2nd - 3rd) -The fluent reader: orthographic 4th to 8th -The remedial reader 3rd - 8th: Remedial reading is reteaching all of the modalities taught as a beginning reader and emphasizing identifying reading weaknesses, linking instruction to prior knowledge, increasing instruction time, and dividing skills into smaller steps

Strategies that help to improve a child's natural ability to speak linguistically correct English

1) recasting rephrasing what the child has said in a different way; 2) expanding restating in a linguistically correct form; 3) labeling identifying what is said; and 4) echoing repeating the one- or two-word sentences the child has said. These strategies help to improve language patterns and must be a natural extension of how parents respond to children - speak naturally

Affix

A bound (non-word) morpheme attached to a root or base word to modify its meaning or function. There are two types of morphemes-free morphemes and bound morphemes. " Free morphemes" can stand alone with a specific meaning, for example, eat, date, weak. "Bound morphemes" cannot stand alone with meaning. Morphemes are comprised of two separate classes called: bases (or roots) and affixes. A "base," or "root" is a morpheme in a word that gives the word its principle meaning. "free base" morpheme ex: is woman in the word womanly. "bound base" morpheme ex: is -sent in the word dissent. Affixes Prefixes are what comes before the root word - `un-' is added to `kind' to form `unkind. - dis-, uni-, di, pre-, and poly suffixes are what come at the end of the root word. - "ness" is added to "ill" to form "Illness - ly, -ic, -ness, -ian and -less. An affix can be either derivational or inflectional. "Derivational affixes" serve to alter the meaning of a word by building on a base. (ex: the addition of the prefix un- to healthy alters the meaning of healthy.) there are only eight "inflectional affixes" in English, and these are all suffixes, serve a variety of grammatical functions when added to specific types of words: -s noun plural -'s noun possessive -s verb present tense third person singular -ing verb present participle/gerund -ed verb simple past tense -en verb past perfect participle -er adjective comparative -est adjective superlative

Prosody

A component of fluency that refers to reading with expression, which includes the use of appropriate emphasis, stress, intonation, pitch, pauses, and phrasing that demonstrates understanding of syntax and mechanics. may also reflect the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance (statement, question, or comment); or other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or choice of vocabulary

Sentences

A grammatical unit of one or more words, bearing minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it, often preceded and followed in speech by pauses, and typically expressing an independent statement, question, request, or command.

Phrases

A group of words that functions as a single unit within the syntax of a sentence. For example, the rusty bucket. (Noun phrase) These are defined by the unit of speech as which they function.

Krashen's Second Language Acquisition Theory

A person who learns English as a second language after learning a primary language (the language spoken at home) is commonly referred to as an English Language Learner (ELL). Although some of the second language instructional strategies for teaching ELL students may follow the same primary learning stages, it is important to differentiate primary language acquisition from secondary language acquisition. Primary language is an (implicit) unconscious acquisition experience Secondary language is a (explicit) conscious learning experience Krashen hypothesized that primary language acquisition is an unconscious mental process. Infants are not consciously aware of learning how to speak or how to apply the rules of grammar. (children often repeat words just because it "sounds/feels right" when the words are formed together.) On the other hand, when ELL students learn a second language, they must consciously participate in the learning experience to study the rules, conventions, and patterns of the second language. - Hence, primary language acquisition is an implicit, unconscious mental process. - whereas secondary language acquisition is an explicit conscious mental process.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence is made up of only one clause. (Ex: the rabbit ran from the fox.)

Stem

A stem is just the thing you attach a bound morpheme to, at any stage - A root is the most basic stem of a word, i.e. what's left when you strip away every last bound morpheme. - At each stage of affixation, you have a stem and an affix. In the first stage, the bare root is the stem for the first affix. The root+first affix is then the stem in the next stage. An underlying form to which an inflectional ending is attached, and can be made up of a root and affixes. For example, "unbelievable" is the stem of "unbelievably"

Conjunction

A word that functions as a "connector". Usually joining two independent clause. (Ex: but, and, because)

Indicators of fluency

Accuracy: determines that the students are pronouncing the words correctly as the read. Pacing: students are reading the text at the correct speed (according to the speed of their daily speech). Prosody: students are reading with expression, phrasing, pitch and volume according to context and punctuation. how to calculate fluency; total words read - errors = words correct per minutes (WCPM) Easy text: Readers show that no more than 1 in 20 words are difficult (95 percent success). Challenging text: Readers show that no more than 1 in 10 words are difficult (90 percent success). Difficult text: Readers show that more than 1 in 10 words are difficult (89 percent or less success).

Text Comprehension

Although the basics of reading, word recognition and fluency, can be learned in a few years, reading to learn subject matter does not occur automatically. teachers should emphasize text comprehension from the beginning, rather than waiting until basics of reading are mastered basic readers and more advanced readers must understand that the ultimate goal of reading is comprehension Use metacognition reading strategies to think about and have control over the reading, Before reading, they may clarify their purpose for reading during reading they might monitor their understanding after reading they check their understanding of what they read Text comprehension classroom activities - monitoring comprehension - using graphic organizers - clarifying - recognizing story structure - summarizing, paraphrasing, and predicting - making use of prior knowledge - using mental imagery

concepts of print

An important predictor of learning to read - it is the familiarity with print conventions, such as: - reading left to right - reading top to bottom - the direction of print on a page - the use of the spaces to denote words - the ideas that print represents words and pronunciation

Identifying types of clauses

An independent clause is a clause that contains at least a subject and a verb, and can stand alone as a complete sentence. (Ex: the rabbit ran from the fox) A dependent clause (a.k.a. a subordinate clause) is a clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. (Before I woke up, I was sleeping soundly->before I woke up is a dependent clause, I was sleeping soundly is independent) A relative clause is a type of dependent clause that is introduced by a relative pronoun, adjective, or adverb, and usually modifies an antecedent.(something that comes before it) (Ex: I'm trying to point out my dad and I say "he is the tall man" you look over and see a lot of tall men, so I say "he is the tall man, who wears glasses" who wears glasses is the relative clause, the antecedent is man which is being described further as the one who wears glasses. (*look for words like: who, which, and that. These tend to indicate you are looking at a relative clause)

Interjection

An isolated word used to express emotion (ex: wow)

Clauses

Clauses are a group of words that includes a subject (noun) and a predicate (verb) ex: "the rabbit ran from the fox." the subject is typically a noun or noun phrase. It is the main person, place or thing that the sentences describe. - (the rabbit) The predicate is typically a verb or verb phrase that describes the action of, or upon, the subject. - (ran from the fox) * The tradition of subject/predicate structure in clauses and sentences dates back to Aristotle, and is a universal feature of nearly all the worlds language.

Basics of punctuation

Commas should be used to set off nonessential clauses and phrases, appositives (a second noun describing a proceeding noun), introductory clauses, and interrupting words or phrases. A good rule of thumb: if a phrase could be removed from sentence, and the sentence would still make grammatical sense, then that phrase should generally be separated by a comma. Commas should also be used to separate elements in a list or series of words. Semicolons are used to separate independent clauses when the separation is not done by a coordinating conjunction/when the clauses are joined by a conjunctive adverb (such as "however"/"therefore") (I went to the store; however, it was closed) They are also used to separate items in a series if there are commas within the items. (Ex: I went to the store and bought toys such as balls, blocks, stuffed animals; food such as grapes, bread, and meat.) Apostrophes: has three uses: 1) to form possessive nouns; - ( 's ) to the end of plural forms that do not end in s: the children's game - ( 's ) to the end ofsingular form of the word (even if it ends w letter s: the owner's car. - ( ' ) to the end of plural nouns that end in s: the houses' roofs 2) to show the omission of letters; contractions - don't = do not - I'm = I am - shouldn't = should not 3) to indicate plurals of letters/numbers/symbols. ​ A colon is used to introduce a quotation, and explanation, an example, or series, and is generally translated to mean "as follows" whether or not the phrase "as follows" actually appears within the sentence. A colon should not be used following any conjunction of the verb "to be". Capitalization: first word of a sentence/proper nouns always capitalized.

Conjugated verb

Conjugation is the variation of the form of a verb. A conjugated verb has been changed and gives the reader information about the action. A verb conjugation provides us with important details, such as who or how many people are performing the action. It also expresses tense - changing the verb ending so that it agrees with the subject (Ex: I see, you see; he/she it sees) (Ex: She sang with me, but she didn't sing with her) (Ex: He sung too loudly, so I let him sing on his own)

Complex sentence

Contains one or more dependent clauses in addition to the main clause. (ex: before I woke up, I was sleeping soundly.) (ex: After the movie ended, they went out for ice cream"

Compound sentence

Contains two or more coordinate independent clauses, usually join by one or more conjunctions, but no dependent clause. (Ex: the rabbit ran from the fox and he got away.)*if not using a conjunction you would comin one them with a semicolon.

Components of reading and literacy - decoding & comprehension

Decoding Word recognition - concepts of print - phoneme awareness - alphabetic principle Fluency - phonics - sight words - automaticity Comprehension Academic language - background knowledge - syntax sentence structure - vocabulary Comprehension - comprehension monitoring - reorganizing texts

decoding

Decoding is the process of translating print into spoken words, in order to understand the meaning (semantics) of the written letters. this primarily refers to word identification using phonics knowledge and phonemic skills to turn a printed word into sounds (ex: the word "cat" in a book, should be read as the word /k/ /a/ /t/) (ex: Multi-syllable words reading - upsing -> upping 1st & last syllable -> up-set-ing read all syllables in word = upsetting)

Historically-related languages

English language learners who speak a language historically related to English may acquire English as second language more easily do to the similarity between Latin roots that underlie the vocabulary of both English and their native languages. Some other languages that are Latin-based are French, Italian, Spanish, and Romanian. (English language learners who speak something like Chinese or Japanese will have a harder time because they are nothing a like. (*although English has a lot of Latin words its syntactic structure is anglo-Saxon or Germanic. There are also Germanic vocab in English as well as Latin (Ex: Fire-short harsh Germanic sound; conflagration- has a melodic Latin sound; both mean the same thing))

Stages of 2nd language acquisition

First stage: preproduction: A period when second language students begin to internalize the English language, they have minimal or no language and comprehension skills: physical gestures, pointing, drawing, physically acting out second stage: early production: A period when students have limited comprehension and language skills but can speak familiar one or two word responses telegraphic speech Third stage: speech emergence: A period where students have increased comprehension and language abilities students begin to produce simple sentences and phrases. some basic grammar/speech errors. reading comprehension/ writing skills are limited fourth stage: intermediate fluency: students have an advance command of the English language and comprehension. students combined phrases and sentences and have a good command of oral and written communication fifth stage: advanced fluency: students have competency in English oral and written communication. Students should be participating fully in grade-level classroom activities the students practicing prosody (the patterns of stress and intonation in a language) during English Language Learner (ELL) instruction, time should be devoted to developing vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and overall oral language

Fluency + implications of teaching fluency instruction in the classroom

Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately, effortlessly, and with expression (prosody) fluent readers can accurately read aloud and silently fluency is important because it provides a bridge between word recognition and text comprehension fluency develops gradually over time and through extensive practice Sometimes students may recognize words but cannot read aloud using prosody (reading with expression): to read with prosody readers must be able to divide the text into meaningful chunks of phrases and closes, knowing when to pause appropriately within and at the end of each sentence

Morphology

Is the study of word formations, the analysis of the structure of words, word stems, and affixes: the study of meaningful units of language, called morphemes (a unit of meaning that cannot be divided into smaller elements - ex: book) and how their patterns of distribution contribute to the forms and structures of words. For example, the word unbelievably is made up of the following morphemes: un-believe-able-ly

Verbals: Gerunds

Gerunds are verbals that function as nouns and have an -ing ending. Since gerunds are derived from verbs and have an -ing ending, they do express action. However, because gerunds function as nouns, they occupy slots traditionally held by nouns in sentences such as subjects, direct objects and objects of prepositions. Gerunds may occur as one word, or they may be part of a gerund phrase. Gerund, functioning as subject Reading is my most beneficial summer activity. Gerund, functioning as direct object James enjoys swimming. Gerund, functioning as object of preposition You will get good grades by studying. Gerund phrase, functioning as subject Eating on the run is one of the most unhealthy American habits. Gerund phrase, functioning as direct object The teacher simply cannot excuse sleeping during class. Gerund phrase, functioning as object of preposition We found the keys by looking on the ground next to the car.

Grammatical agreement + agreement errors

Grammatical agreement is based on the concept that words in a sentence must match in number (singular or plural), gender (feminine or masculine), in person (first second or third person). Grammatical agreement is one of the most fundamental concepts of standard written English and appears in three forms subject-verb, noun-noun, pronoun-antecedent Types of agreement errors: Subject-verb - Errors occur when the verbs that refer to nouns don't agree in singular or plural number and gender a plural subject goes with a plural verb a singular subject goes with a singular verb (ex: " here on the table is an apple and three pears" -> the subject is plural, so it should be "here on the table are an apple and three pears") Noun-pronoun - errors occur when nouns that referred to other nouns in a sentence don't agree in singular or plural number; pronouns stand for a word, - The number of a pronoun must agree in number with its antecedent, (the word, phrase, or clause to which it refers) - Personal pronouns have distinctive singular and plural forms (he/they, his/their, him/them) (ex: You forgot to take Steve's iPad → Steve forgot to take his iPad) Pronoun-antecedent - Errors occur when the number of the pronouns singular or plural doesn't agree with the antecedent - the antecedent of a pronoun is the word to which the pronoun refers (ex: his refers to the antecedent "Dr Martin Luther King Jr delivered his famous speech "I Have a Dream" in 1963")

Usage

How you apply the rules of morphology, syntax, and semantics to your own writing and to analyzing and editing the writing of others. *There are a number of important usage concepts you should know for the tests. •Avoid sentence fragments (an incomplete sentence, which is usually missing a noun, verb, or other key pieces of information) •avoid faulty parallelism. (Clauses within a sentence should share the same tense and form. Inconsistencies, such as switching from an infinitive to a participle, lead to faulty parallelism.) •avoid amphibolies. (An amphiboly is an ambiguity in meaning, often caused by a misplaced, squinting, or dangling/ misplaced modifier: (Anne prepared a roast for the family that was served burned → Anne served a burned roast to the family) (I voted for the most qualified candidate - we don't know who they are) • avoid redundancy. "Redundancy is a form of wordiness in which you say the same thing over again twice." • ensure that subjects and verbs agree. Singular and plural subjects and verbs must match be careful not to be thrown off by sentences in which the subject follows the verb. (These sentences typically begin with "here" or "there".) •many, much, fewer, and less.. Be sure to use these words correctly. Many and fewer apply to countable items, while much and less apply to uncountable items. •either/or and neither/nor.. Or can be used independently, but nor must always be used in conjunction with neither. •avoid double negatives. Double negatives occur when to negative words are used in a sentence. They essentially cancel each other out. • avoid comparisons of unlike things. Example: "his test score was much higher than the other students." (It is comparing the scores to the students)

Verbals: Infinitives

Infinitives are verbals that are made up of the word to and a verb. Infinitives may function as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. Since infinitives are derived from verbs, they do express actions or states of being. When infinitives function as adjectives and adverbs, they are usually found preceding nouns and pronouns in sentences, and when they function as nouns, they are used as subjects, direct objects and objects of prepositions. Infinitives (to + verb) should not be confused with prepositional phrases (to + noun or pronoun). Infinitives may occur as to + one verb, or they may be part of an infinitive phrase. Let's take a look at some examples: Infinitives functioning as nounsTo love is the greatest achievement. Infinitives functioning as adjectivesJason's group was the last to arrive. Infinitives functioning as adverbsThe students must pass the TAKS tests to graduate. Infinitive phrase functioning as nounRanee wanted to arrive at her destination. Infinitive phrase functioning as adjectiveThe Smiths were the first family in our neighborhood to adopt a child.

Progression of reading: CCSS for English language arts and literacy

K - Actively engage in group reading activities with purpose and understanding. 1 - With prompting/support, read prose and poetry [informational texts] of appropriate complexity for 1st g. 2 - read and comprehend literature [info. texts.] of appropriate complexity and proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. 3 - By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [info. texts.] at the hig grades 2-3 text complexity band independently and proficiently. 4 - By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [info. texts.] in grades complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. 5 - By the end of the year, read and comprehend literature [info. texts.] at the hi grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. 6 & 7 & 8- read and comprehend literature [info. texts., history/social studies texts, science/technical texts] in grades 6-8 text complexity and proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at the high end of the range. read and comprehend literature at the higher end of grades 6-8 text complexity, independently and proficiently.

California language arts framework minimum amount of time per day to be allocated for langauge arts acqusistion Education

Kinder - 3rd grade - 2 1/2 hours 4th - 8th grade - 2 hours

Language Acquisition vs Literacy

Language Acquisition vs Literacy literacy development, or the process of continually learning and improving communication skills through listening, speaking, reading, and writing, develop the ability to speak a language orally because of language acquisition, which is the natural process in which human beings learn to speak - biological model of language acquisition called nativism - innate, language-specific abilities that facilitate and constrain language learning. - Social/Function of language acquisition, non nativists - language abilities develop out of general cognitive abilities and social interactions with fellow learners and the surrounding community. Stages - the pre-talking stage - the babbling stage - the (one-word) holophrastic stage - the two-word stage: "mini-sentences" (with simple semantic relations) - the telegraphic stage: early -multiword stage - (multi-morpheme) - the multi-word stage: Grammatical or functional structures emerge child-directed speech (0-24 months) holophrase/gestures (8-12 months) telegraphic speech (2 years) fast mapping (2-5 years) Private speech (3 years) overregularization (4-5 years)

Universal Language Acquisition Theory

Language acquisition is a theory based upon the formative work of Noam Chomsky, which states that language is innate and universally inherited by all human beings. Chomsky suggests that infants are neurologically prewired to learn language. (ex: children intuitively know how to combine a noun with a verb to form grammatically correct phrases) According to contemporary linguists, the acquisition of language develops when children interact with their social environment. when children are exposed to the linguistic construction and patterns of words by hearing people talk, new brain pathways are formed (neuroplasticity). cognitions, behavior, and emotions stimulated by environmental changes enhance language abilities.

Stages of language development

Language development is highly variable, but series such as Roger Brown's five stages can be useful indicators when evaluating whether a child's language development is normal or exceptional(below or above the norm). The following outline is drawn from Brown's work as well as the work of a number of other language development theorists, and lists important and widely-accepted developmental milestones Ages 0-12 months: during the early 1st stage, infants exhibit vocalizations in the form of cooing and crying and later begin to develop a pattern speech in which they repeat certain phonemes in the form of consonant-vowel strings. (Ex: ma ma ma ma) Age 12-26 months/approx. 1-2 years old: early in the toddler phase(12-18 months) toddlers typically speak their first words, which tend to be simple and monosyllabic. They usually communicate using holophrases(single word used to communicate an entire meaning "food" means I am hungry) During the late toddler phase (1 1/2-2 years), toddlers typically begin to utilize forms of the verb "to be", and begin incorporating articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. Toddlers often communicate using telegraphic speech. (When they typed in telegraphs they wouldnt include all the words to save time/energy- "sheriff arrives noon") Toddlers use present tense only and the first person subject pronoun. Questions are signaled by intonation and later in the form "what+X+doing/going". "No" and "not" are added to sentence structure. During this phase, children typically error in both underextending and overextending word meanings.(dog-schema 4 legs and furry; they see a cow say doggy- that's overextending)(dog-there's is a lab, they see a poodle and don't know it's a dog-underextending) Ages 27 months-4 years: in early childhood, children begin to use quasi-model verbs such as "wanna."

The social/functional model

Non-nativists such as Elizabeth Bates and Catherine Snow argue that there is no specific biological "hardwiring" for language, and instead support a psychological and social/functional model of language acquisition. They believe that language abilities develop out of general cognitive abilities and social interactions with fellow learners and the surrounding community. (Ex: they would argue that if a child was raised by wolves they wouldn't develop language because wolves aren't using it. This has evidential support as well with cases where children were extremely neglected and never learned to talk. * many modern theories have come to support the idea that both biological and social pre-conditions contribute to language development.

critical period for language acquisition

Linguistic Scholars agree that all children experience a critical period when they find it easier to learn verbal skills in their native language. the critical period of language acquisition corresponds with brain development. it begins in infancy and ends in puberty Research confirms that the first few years of life are the optimal time for infants to acquire language. If children do not interface with language in early childhood, they may demonstrate a limited range of language fluency, predominately with grammar systems.

The biological model (universal language acquisition theory)

Linguists Noam Chomsky and the late Eric Lenneberg argued for a biological model of language acquisition called nativism. language acqusition - Nativism theorizes that children have innate, language-specific abilities that facilitate and constrain language learning. (They believe there are specific parts of the brain dedicated to speak-there is evidence to support that). Many nativists also believe that children have a critical period during which they are best able to acquire language skills. (Children are sponges when they are young) * many modern theories have come to support the idea that both biological and social pre-conditions contribute to language development.

Homonyms

Other important components of usage are correct word choice and spelling. Homonyms, homophones, and homographs can often lead to confusion. Affect/effect: if you can replace the word with cause it is probably affect (verb). Effect is a verb or noun can be replaced with result. (It can also mean to bring about) Ascent/assent: go up/give agreement Council/counsel: group of people/talk to someone about problems Dual/duel: 2 of something/ a fight Elicit/illicit: draw out something/illegal Gorilla/guerrilla: animal/someone fighting against government Incite/insight: to provoke or cause/ understand Pedal/peddle: pedal on bike/ to sell something Peer/pier: colleague/ a deck that goes out over water There/their/they're: location/ possession/ they are

Verbals

POS (parts of speech) derived for verbs, such as: - participles ex: adjective - have been) - infinitives (ex: to + verb - to get) - gerunds (ex: noun: you can pass the exam by studying )

Verbals: Participles

Participles are verbals that usually function as adjectives and occasionally function as adverbs. Participles generally end with an -ed or -ing ending. Since participles are derived from verbs, they do express actions or states of being. When participles function as adjectives, they are usually found preceding the nouns and pronouns in a sentence. When participles function as adverbs, they are typically found following the verb in a sentence. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles have an -ing ending. Past participles may have one of several past tense endings, including -ed, -en, and -d. As with gerunds, participles may occur as one word, or they may be part of a participial phrase. Present participlesThe running water provided a picturesque view. (adjectival)The clown was able to stop the raging bull from attacking the rider. (adjectival) Past participlesThe crushed bug was an unpleasant sight. (adjectival)He was able to repair the broken lock. (adjectival) Present participial phrasesThe car stopping at the light was hit by the truck. (adjectival)The bull came running towards the rodeo clown. (adverbial) Past participial phrasesJames, amused by the crowd's response, continued to perform magic tricks. (adjectival) Shaken from his near-death experience, John was unable to speak. (adjectival)

Phonemic awareness vs Phonics

Phonemic awareness: - Phonemic awareness instruction emphasizes phoneme sounds - tasks are usually oral - children have an awareness of individual sounds in spoken words - children use mostly auditory and oral skills - children learn to manipulate sounds Phonics: - phonics instruction emphasizes graphemes or letters in print - tasks are associated with the sound-spelling relationship in print - children have an awareness of printed written words and their sounds (sound and written symbol relationship) - children use both visual and auditory skills - children learn to read and write letters according to sounds and the spelling of the letters

Phonemic awareness

Phonemic awareness: blending phonemes - The active, listening to a sequence of separately, spoken, phonemes, and then combining them to form a word strongly related to reading achievement: the awareness and manipulation of distinctive individual sound phonemes that make up spoken words: the ability to hear, think about, identify, and manipulate these specific sounds in spoken word - Phonemic awareness instruction emphasizes phoneme sounds - tasks are usually oral - children have an awareness of individual sounds in spoken words - children use mostly auditory and oral skills - children learn to manipulate sounds Although phonemic awareness is a widely used term in reading, phonemic awareness is not phonics. phonemic awareness is the understanding that sounds of spoken language work together to make words Children who demonstrate phonemic awareness competency can identify and isolate sounds, manipulate sounds, and blend/segment sounds into words (both written and spoken) If a child knows that a word is made up of letters and that letters make sounds they have phonemic awareness. If they do they are able to: - perform segmenting (breaking it apart) - blending (give it to them broken up they put it together), - rhyming (the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds - phonemes - in spoken words) phonemic awareness skills should be mastered by the end of kindergarten - one of the goals in kindergarten is to help students understand that letters of words change, and sounds change, the alphabetic principle The best predictors of a child's feature reading success is the mastery of the alphabetic principle, phonemic, awareness, and concepts of print phonemic awareness is one component of phonological awareness (listening skill: the ability to hear, think about, and manipulate sounds)

Teaching literacy - istening, speaking, reading, and writing

Phonics approach: emphasizes learning phonemes to sound out words (decoding: they are able to sound out the words based on understanding the letters and the sounds that go with it, and when they put the sounds together they can recognize the word from their oral vocabulary)(the strength of the phonics approach is it allows children to decode unknown words as long as they are spelt phonetically) (Disadvantage: a lot of words are not spelt phonetically) Whole language approach: emphasizes reading immersion techniques to help familiarize students with the irregularities in English spellings. (Word walls and word sorts are used in WLA, this approach also uses high frequency reading selections)(weakness of this approach is they don't allow children to sound out words) read aloud instructional exercises: - Student adult reading - student reads allowed one to one with adult - Coral (unison) reading - read along as a group - audio assisted reading students read along as they hear affluent reader read the book on audio recording - partner reading - students take turns reading aloud to each other - readers' theater - students rehearse and perform a play for peers

Teaching phonological awareness in the classroom

Phonological awareness is not interchangeable with phonemic awareness (A subcategory of phonological awareness - identifying and manipulating the individual sounds in words) Phonological awareness includes identifying and manipulating larger parts of spoken language, such as words, syllables, and onset and rimes - as well as phonemes. it also encompasses awareness of the other aspects of sound, such as rhyming, alliteration, and intonation phonological awareness tasks - Deleting and identifying, worried boundaries (deleting:"saying pill w/o the "p') (manipulation: reordering, phonemes in a syllable) (addition: adding extra phonemes to a word or syllable:) - Distinguishing, initial, media, and final sounds - blending sounds together Adding letters to form words In the classroom: 1. Teachers help children identify and make oral Rhymes "the pig has a (wig) " - "Pat the (cat)" - "the sun is f(un)" 2. teachers help children identify and work with syllables in spoken words. ("I can clap the parts in my name: An-drew") 3. teachers help children identify and work with onsets and rimes in spoken syllables or one-syllable words ("the first part of sip is s-" ) ("the last part of when is -in")

phonological awareness

Phonological awareness: a listening skill, typically developed in kinder, the ability to hear, think about, and manipulate sounds, they know 1.) sounds can make up words 2.) sounds can be manipulated into different sounds 3.) words can be separated into different sounds, sylables, and rhymes 4.) words have meaning Phonological awareness includes identifying and manipulating larger parts of spoken language, such as words, syllables, and onset and rimes - as well as phonemes. it also encompasses awareness of the other aspects of sound, such as rhyming, alliteration, and intonation Phonological awareness is not interchangeable with phonemic awareness (A subcategory of phonological awareness - identifying and manipulating the individual sounds in words)

Pluralization and conjugation

Pluralization is typically when you add an S at the end of a word but often times there are irregularities and kids will typically try and over regularize the pluralization of a word. for example: it's not mouses it's mice. Conjugation of verbs is the linguistic process in which a verb changes its form in order to reflect aspects like person, number, tense, mood, etc. (has irregulars as well and defy the rules of morphology) Important verb tenses to know are present (I do), past (I did), and past participle (I have done) (ex: I jump, I jumped, I'm jumping) typically when it has "have" it is a past participle but not always - the form of a verb, typically ending in -ed, have you worked

Preposition

Suggests relationship between two things, can be temporal relationship in time (before, during, after) could be a spacial relationship (above, below, inside, outside) other ones like: of, by, with and for.

text complexity (ELA CCSS)

The CCSS approach to determining text complexity is a three part, grade-specific process - All three factors must be considered in measuring text complexity. The CCSS presume that each successive grade level requires an increased sophistication in students' ability to comprehend text. (3) The first component of the CCSS model, qualitative measurement of text complexity, assesses the purpose, structure language conventionality, and clarity of text. (2) The second component, quantitative measurement of text complexity, assesses word length, frequency, sentence length, and text cohesion. (3) The third component, matching reader and task (to the text), assesses the reader's motivation, knowledge, and experiences with the appropriate text.

automaticity

The ability to read and recognize a word or series of words in text accurately and effortlessly - the child's ability to read or say a word without having to think about it skilled readers use automaticity unconsciously or involuntarily when reading text: they have the ability to read words quickly and accurately, without having to stop and think about each letter or sound in the word. There is basically no effort in decoding.

Denotative meaning

The dictionary definition of the word -it's specific and direct meaning. (Ex: comrade and ally have a very similar meaning)

Syntax

The examination of various ways words are organized to create meaning and the pattern of structure of word order in sentences. The study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences and the patterns by which words are combined to form phrases. Syntax is the order or arrangement of words and phrases to form proper sentences. The most basic syntax follows a subject + verb + direct object formula. (Ex: "l ran quickly to get out of the pouring rain" is made up of various parts of speech, all organized according to the rules of syntax so that the meaning of the sentence is clearly conveyed.)(can be different in other languages. Ex: the White House / the house white) 4-5 year old - has the ability to combine words into phrases and sentences, and speak with correct syntax and verbal constructions 2-3 - year old uses just enough words to get his meaning across, telegraphic speech, such as two words sentence

Basics of capitalization

The first word of a sentence, and proper nouns, are always capitalized. (Certain words, like mom can serve as both a common noun and a proper noun, depending on context, and should be capitalized accordingly. (If you are using mom in replace of her name it should be capitalized.

Language Acquisition theories

The gist of all theories is that language acquisition is the natural process in which human beings learn to speak or make meaning of a language based on exposure to the natural environment. As young children, we begin to learn to say words, phrases, and sentences by imitating what we hear. All of this happens without a teacher giving us lessons on grammar or sentence structure. The older we get, the more vocabulary we build. A child goes from babbling to uttering words and sentences and understanding what words mean without formally being taught how to read or write. Theories of Language Acquisition: Differences & Examples The four main theories of language acquisition are The Behavioural Theory: imitation Behaviourism proposes that we are a product of our environment. Therefore, children have no internal mechanism or ability to develop language by themselves. BF Skinner (1957) Cognitive Theory: The Cognitive theory of language acquisition suggests that the primary drives behind our actions are our thoughts and internal processes. Jean Piaget (1923) assumes that children are born with relatively little cognitive ability, but their minds develop and build Nativist Theory: biological model of language acquisition called nativism - innate, language-specific abilities that facilitate and constrain language learning. Noam Chomsky (1957) proposes that children are born with an instinct or drive for language learning which he calls the language acquisition device (LAD). He argued that even if a child is not educated in their country's language, so long as they grow in a normal environment, they will still devise a system of verbal communication. Therefore, there must be an innate, biological component to language acquisition. Interactionist Theory Models include: - biological model of language acquisition called na

Grapheme

The letters that represent the sounds in written language The individual speech sounds that make up words are called phonemes. The individual letters or groups of letters that represent the individual speech sounds are called graphemes graphemes are the smallest part of written language that represents a phoneme in the spelling of a word - the written or printed representation of a phoneme (ex: in the word "team" the "ea" makes a long "ee" sound) (ex: ph → /f/) (ex: in the word eight, the 'eigh' represents /ay/ sound) digraph, trigraph, quadgraph

Phonology

The rule system within a language by which phonemes are sequenced, pattern, and uttered to represent meanings. (can also mean the study of this rule system) It focuses on the systematic organization of sounds, including how they are combined, patterned, and used to convey meaning within a linguistic system. Phonology is concerned with the sound structure of language and the rules governing the distribution and sequencing of speech sounds

Pronunciation

The same letter, or group of letters, can often represent multiple phonemes. in the case of vowels, these may be referred to as Long and short sounds. The rule of pronunciation often depend on placement. (Dipthongs: oa, ou, oo) *may ask which is the most consistent

Etymology

The study of the historic and cultural origins of words. It can lend clues to a words correct spelling, and can also affect a words denotative and connotative meaning. (The history of how a word comes to mean what it means.) (Ex: horseradish: it used to be called merradish: mer meaning sea in French, and an intruding group of people came and thought they were saying mare-radish; mare meaning horse so they started to call it horseradish and then other people caught on and now that's it's name)

Semantics

The study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. Meanings are constantly evolving, and vary among cultures, ages, social groups, and geographic regions. (Ex: how adults use a word may be different than how a teenager uses it.)(what cold means can different to people living in different places)

Vowels

They are sounds that can be produced without occluding, diverting, or obstructing the flow of air from the lungs. (We don't have to move our lips, tongue, or mouth to make the sounds of vowels)

Vygotsky's Second Language Acquisition Theory

Thought development is determined by language. - interrelationship between thinking processes and language processes. Language is not just an instrument of communicating one's knowledge, it is at the center of learning experiences; its a powerful tool that shapes all thoughts and perceptions. Without the language of words, thoughts and perceptions would not exist. Vygotsky's theory lends insight to understanding second language acquisition: To acquire knowledge of a second language, a student must think before any new ideas can be formulated. Therefore, if a student is learning English as a second language, the student must be competent in his primary native language before he can think about the concepts, rules, or conventions of the second language. A solid command of the primary language must be present before each new understanding of the second language can be internalized and mentally unified. Language and thought each provide a resource for the other.

Analyzing sentence structure and function

Types of sentence: Declarative: to declare something. (I am going to the store Interrogative: question (are you going to the store?) Imperative: tells someone to do something; it is imperative that you do this thing (please go to the store) Exclamatory: exclamation (wow that's a really cool store!) *variations in sentence structure and purpose can make writing more interesting.

Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives

Verb: a verb that functions as some other part of speech in a sentence: three basic types: Gerunds are verbals that function as nouns and have an -ing ending. Since gerunds are derived from verbs and have an -ing ending, they do express action. However, because gerunds function as nouns, they occupy slots traditionally held by nouns in sentences such as subjects, direct objects and objects of prepositions. Gerunds may occur as one word, or they may be part of a gerund phrase. Participles are verbals that usually function as adjectives and occasionally function as adverbs. Participles generally end with an -ed or -ing ending. Since they are derived from verbs, they do express actions or states of being. When they function as adjectives, they are usually found preceding the nouns and pronouns in a sentence. When they function as adverbs, they are typically found following the verb in a sentence. There are two types of participles: present and present. Present participles have an -ing ending. Past participles may have one of several past tense endings, including -ed, -en, and -d. As with gerunds, participles may occur as one word, or they may be part of a participial phrase. Infinitives are verbals that are made up of the word to and a verb. Infinitives may function as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. Since infinitives are derived from verbs, they do express actions or states of being. When infinitives function as adjectives and adverbs, they are usually found preceding nouns and pronouns in sentences, and when they function as nouns, they are used as subjects, direct objects and objects of prepositions. Infinitives (to + verb) should not be confused with prepositional phrases (to + noun or pronoun). Infinitives may occur as to + one verb, or they may be part of an infinitive phrase.

Vocabulary + implications of vocab instruction in the classroom

Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to effectively communicate our thoughts - fundamental to higher-level thinking. Vocabulary acquisition begins in early childhood with oral communication and later builds to written communication (reading). Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print. classifying everyday high-frequency and low-frequency vocabulary words into organized categories: Tier 1: Basic everyday words: do not require instruction: do not challenge average native speaker. Tier 2: High-frequency "general academic" words that have multiple meanings. Appear in multiple academic subjects: informational, literary, and technical texts: the focus of most direct instruction: provide the best indicators of a student's vocabulary Tier 3: Low-frequency, context-specific words appear in specific/specialized subject areas. ex: molecules, radioactive, Congress, Pythagorean, and intelligence quotient. Strategies for teaching tier 2 vocabulary words Emphasize the meaning of a word Provide repeated exposure to the word through reading texts Introduce word parts Use context clues Use print and digital dictionary's, and other reference aids

segmenting

When children break words into their individual phonemes, they are segmenting the words. they are also segmenting when they break words into syllables and syllables into onsets and rimes (ex: a child may break the word "sand" into its component sounds - /sss/, /aaa/, /nnn/, and /d/) (hen: /h/ - /e/ - /n/)

parallel sentence structure

When they are two more linked constructs, they must show the same grammar construction: (he liked swimming, weightlifting, and to run --> he liked swimming, weightlifting, and running)

Morphemes

a meaningful morphological unit of a language/meaning that cannot be further divided; divided into smaller elements - ex: book A "morpheme" is a short segment of language that meets three basic criteria: 1. It is a word or a part of a word that has meaning. 2. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful segments without changing its meaning or leaving a meaningless remainder. 3. It has relatively the same stable meaning in different verbal environments. deals with the meaning and structure of words in their smallest unit. Morphemes can have more than one syllable. The smallest piece that is meaningful. (ex: unbelievably-> un-believe-able-ly) (ex: in, come, -ing, = incoming) free morphemes are stand-alone words - Night - The word "night" can stand by itself and hold its meaning and cannot be cut into smaller morphemes bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone and only occur as parts of words - -ish, as in "childish." - bound morpheme suffixes are -ly, -ic, -ness, -ian - Bound morpheme prefixes examples dis-, uni-, di, pre-, poly

Adverb

a word that modifies (describes) a verb, and describes how the verb was done. (ex: quick-ly, bad-ly) a lot of them end in ly but not all. (Ex: He is often wandering the streets) (Ex: very, rather, quickly, quite, easily, carefully, today, yesterday, early, late, soon, here, there, everywhere)

The alphabetic principle

alphabetic principle - the understanding that there's a systemic and predictable relationship between written letters and spoken words the alphabetic principle helps children accurately and automatically decode words to read both in isolation and in the context of texts The idea that sounds used in oral speech are represented by written symbols, and that the symbols can be combined to form units of speech such as words. defines 3 rules for writing & speaking english 1.) letters are named with uppercase & lowercase letters 2.) each letter, group of letters, represents sounds 3.) using the systemic relationships between letters and phonemes (letter-sound correspondence), you can decode the english language to identify, pronounce, and spell words The alphabetic principle applies to many modern languages, including English, but sounds, and the way they are represented symbolically, may still very between these languages. * The Chinese use logographic, which means their symbols represent a meaning

blending

blending is the ability to fluidly combine individual sounds to form words. it is also used to combine onsets and rimes in order to form syllables, and it is used to combine syllables to form words: combining individual phonemes to form words or combining onsets and rimes to make syllables, then combining syllables to make words. students fluently join together the individual sound-spellings; also called letter-sound correspondence in a word. (ex: with a word like jam, students start by sounding out each individual sound-spelling (/j/, /ă/, /m/). Then, they slowly blend those sounds together ("jjjaamm").)

early childhood language acquisition terms

child-directed speech (0-24 months) (motherese) primary caretakers often modify their speech to make it easier for a child to learn language. modifying sentence structure, repeating keywords, and focusing on present objects - first words are spoken by 12 months - usuallty familiar objects or persons (holophrases) - first sentences spoken by 18 to 24 months and are usually two-word sentences (telegraphic speech) holophrase (8-12 months) A holophrase is a composite of a one-word & nonverbal gesture to express a complete and meaningful thought: Toddlers recognize that symbols (words) represent a specific object, desire, or event, they say one word and/or gestured expression to communicate thoughts/ feelings . symbolic gestures are observed when the toddler shakes his head to indicate no when he doesn't want to eat/blows on food to mean hot. Representational gestures are demonstrated by child showing what he desires (holding up a bottle to show he to drink). telegraphic speech (2 years) early form of speech: when a toddler selectively omits or simplifies words in a phrase/sentence to communicate message. This is usually a 2-year-old's first two-word sentence consisting of just enough words to get the meaning across (ex: "no..hot," meaning "the food is too hot to eat"). fast mapping (2-5 years) As children learn new vocabulary, they begin fast mapping to figure out the meaning of words. a mental process in which young children can use the context of a word or phrase and arrive at the words meaning Private speech (3 years) talking outlous to oneself w no intention to communicate w others: self regulation to organize guide & control their behavior (vygotsky - responsible for higher levels of functioning overregularization (4-5 years) grammatical errors - foots instead of feet, singed a song

The basic structure of a speech

contains three parts the opening/introduction, answers, important questions, the topic, and the main points. The body develops the main points for supporting evidence. The conclusion restates the main points of the speech, and hopefully inspires audience.

Derivational morphemes

derivational morphemes can be added to a word to create another word - a morpheme that is combined with roots or stems to form new words with new meanings, and has the potential to change the part of speech. (verb to a noun, adjective to an adverb) the prefixes or suffixes added to a word to give the word a new meaning. - The prefix in- and the suffix -ed are derivational morphemes - In the word "unhappy," the un- prefix changes the meaning of the word "happy." - in the world "lovely." The suffix -ly changes the meaning of the word "love." - teach + er = teacher - un + clean = clean (ex: adding -ly to unbelievable; it changes it from an adjective to an adverb) unbelievable to unbelievably (ex: adding -er to sing: changes it from a verb to a noun) a noun) sing to singer

provincialism & sophistication in language

ideas / behaviors / language typical of places outside the capital city, so are seen as old fashioned or simple ex: Mark Twain used colloquial language to enhance the resting setting and culture gap essential to the literacy battle of wits between provincialism and sophistication

Text Comprehension - informational vs fiction vs nonfiction text

informational text is a subcategory of nonfiction text: the main purpose of it is to inform the reader about historical, scientific, or technical events. (print and digital interdisciplinary textbooks, professional reference, articles informational text comprehension strategies : - teach various strategies that include, but are not limited to: different media or formats such as self-monitoring, rereading, note taking, outlining, summarizing, mapping, videotaping, videoconferencing, and using learning logs. - Using graphic organizers, outlining, and note taking will help students concentrate on refining key features from popular print informational texts, fiction and nonfiction text comprehension strategies using comprehension strategies that include drawing logical conclusions, thinking outloud and identifying context clues Understanding text structure: They need to know with fiction to to find the setting, characters, problem, story events, and solution y plot), and story themes/lessons. With nonfiction, the reader should for the main ideas and supporting details, the frameworks ciated with nonfiction (problem/solution, chronological, cause/effect, compare/contrast, and detail structures), and information the texts features. (graphic organizers) For questioning skills: teach students to evaluate question types: teach question words...(who, what, where, when, why, and how.) Students generate questions and read to answer them.

Phonics

is an approach to the study of the relationships between letters and the sounds they represent, and can also mean reading instruction which teaches sound-symbol correspondences in order to help students sound out words. phonics refers to matching sounds to individual letters or groups of letters, symbol/sound relationships Phonics and phonemic awareness are not the same thing. Phonics is a method of teaching phonemic awareness. (You teach phonics, what the child learns is phonemic awareness)

Phonemic awareness classroom instruction

phoneme isolation: "Tell me the first sound you hear in the word ball" /b/ phoneme identity: "Tell me the sound that is the same in dog, doll, and dig: /d/ phoneme classification: "Tell me which word does not belong": "ball" "bell" "run" phoneme substitution: " Tell me what word is formed when you replace the /b/ sound in ball with the /t/ sound" phoneme segmenting (orally separating words): "Tell me the individual sounds of the word bat": /b/, /a/, /t/ phoneme blending (orally blending sounds): " listen carefully to the sounds I am saying and put the sounds together, /c/, /a/, /t/.": cat Implications of teaching: - help children, by emphasizing phoneme manipulation (blending and segmenting phonemes in words), by combining or blending separate sounds in a word; help children break or segment a word into separate sounds - help children recognize which words in a set of words begin with the same sound - help children isolate and say the first or last sound in the word Ex: (1) teacher says the sounds /j/ /a/ /m/ = the word jam (2) Teacher encourages student to say the word out loud (3) teacher writes the word down: jam: /j/ - write j; /a/; -write a; /m/ - write m (4) Teacher encourages reading the word together after writing the word

Phonics Classroom Instruction

phonics is the understanding that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes and graphemes Good phonics instruction is Systematic and Explicit: Systematic is a plan of instruction that includes a carefully selected set of instructions to help children understand the relationship between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language Explicit phonics instructional lessons provide teachers with precise directions for teaching the relationships phonics instruction is most effective when it begins in Kinder or 1st, approximately 2 years of phonics instruction is sufficient for most students the goal is that teachers systemically help students learn to automatically identify the sounds associated with the corresponding letter (the relationship between sounds and letters can be referred to with the terms: grapheme-phonic correspondence, letter-sound association, sound symbol, and sound spellings) (ex: the sound for C is represented by /k/ in cat and /s/ in scent) The goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn the alphabetic principle - the understanding that there's a systemic and predictable relationship between written letters and spoken words - the alphabetic principle helps children accurately and automatically decode words to read both in isolation and in context of texts systemic and explicit instruction vs non-systematic instruction: see image

Teaching Phonics in the Classroom (implications + criticisms)

phonics is the understanding that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes and graphemes: implications: 1. Assess phonics and other word identification strategies. select and use formal and informal tools such as decoding test, fluency test, and site were checks to collect data and analyze plan instruction 2. plan instruction that is systematic, explicit, and sequence according to the increased complexity of linguistic units including sounds, phone names, on sets and rhymes, letters, letter combination syllables, and morphemes 3. explicitly teach and model phonics, decoding, and other word identification strategies and reading for meaning - positive feedback for word identification errors 4. select and design resource material and strategies for assessment and instruction, including materials for teaching, decoding, and word identification strategies, and sight word Mastery in multiple and varied reading and writing experiences 5. provide fluency practice by: - practicing decoding to become automatic in reading - providing application and practicing decoding skills to develop fluency in controlled vocab, and word recognition skills taught out of context - continue to develop fluency through the use of decodable texts & other written texts 6. Provide ongoing assessments to demonstrate the students' progress towards the Mastery of CCSS Criticisms: Most critics argue that children should receive complementary instruction in both phonics and phonemic awareness. To be able to blend sounds together to decode words, children need phonemic awareness to break words into sounds. Critics believe reading programs that focus on both phonics and phonemic awareness are more effective than those that only focus on letter-sound relationships

Pragmatics

the ability to engage in conversational speech: studies the way in which context of verbal and nonverbal communication can change the meaning of communication and comprehension. Situational context, verbal tone, body language, knowledge and belief of the speaker, and the relationship between the speaker and the listener are all factors that can contribute to how the meaning of a word, clause, or sentence is interpreted. (All the factors besides the words themselves) (ex: "he's a nice guy" said sincerely; "he's a nice guy said sarcastically) *most language learners develop an intuitive sense of these rules through observation. The rules of this can vary greatly between cultures. (Ex: how close you stand to someone when you speak to them, standing too close in some cultures is rude and in others its normal)

Infinitive verb

the base form of a verb with the word to in front of it - It doesn't have a time element to it, it's just and idea of doing something. (Ex: to run, to get, to have, to sleep, to eat, to help)

stages of child language acquisition

the pre-talking stage the babbling stage the (one-word) holophrastic stage the two-word stage: "mini-sentences" with simple semantic relations the telegraphic stage: early multiword stage ( multi-morpheme) the multi-word stage: Grammatical or functional structures emerge

Identifying types of phrases

when trying to identify the type of phrase, look for the most important word in the phrase, called the head word. Typically, this will coincide with the function of the phrase. Examples: (ex): "Full of bubbles" the head word is bubbles which is a noun so this is a noun phrase (ex): "We climbed up the hill -> We climbed up the very steep hill. head word is over, this is usually used to say someone is past something, obstacle, age... So this is a prepositional phrase (ex): "Jump up and down" the head word is jump so this is a verb phrase. Occasionally, a phrase's headword will not coincide with its function - So also think about how the phrase would be used in a sentence before deciding on its type. Example: "The rich" could be referring to a group of people or an object like chocolate, so it is a noun phrase but there are no nouns in it "the" is an article and "rich" is an adjective (it is typically used to describe something)