MW SCOM 122 FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Explain the role of rules in communication contexts.
-Create expectations about appropriate behavior that is obligated, preferred, or prohibited explicit vs implied Communication becomes inappropriate if rules are violated Determined by context
What are the most common myths about communication?
1. communication is a cure-all 2. communication is just common sense 3. communication quantity equals quality
Explain what a self-serving bias is and how it influences our interactions (personal traits, situations)
Attribute our successful behavior to ourselves but unsuccessful behavior to others or the circumstances
How do depth and breadth of self-disclosure influence the building of relationships?
Breadth - range of subjects discussed about yourself (different topics) Depth - how personal or intimate the information you reveal to others is
How does a speaker create credibility and identification in an introduction?
By developing your purpose with logic and supporting materials throughout the body of your speech; informing that you have conducted extensive research
Define communication competence and describe the skills needed to be an effective and appropriate communicator.
Communication competence: engaging in communication with others that is perceived to be both effect and appropriate in a given context -Effectiveness -Appropriateness -Rules: Explicit and Implicit -Rule violations How to achieve: -Knowledge -Skills -Sensitivity: developing receptive accuracy -Commitment: acquiring a passion for excellence -Ethics
Define persuasion.
Communication process of converting, modifying or maintaining the attitudes and/or behavior of others
What are the primary dimensions of credibility (competence trustworthiness, dynamism, and composure)?
Competence - audience's perception of the speaker's knowledge and experience on topic Trustworthiness - how truthful and honest we perceive the speaker to be Dynamism - enthusiasm, forcefulness and energy exhibited by the speaker Composure - emotionally stable, appear confident, and in control of themselves, and remain calm
***Define listening by its basic elements (comprehending, retaining, and responding).
Comprehending - shared meaning between or among parties in a transaction Retaining - memory, remembering information Responding - provide verbal or nonverbal feedback to person you're listening to
***Explain how connotative meaning differs from denotative meaning.
Connotative - personal subjective meaning Denotative - shared meaning, actual definition
***Explain the problems that can interfere with competent informational listening (conversational narcissism, competitive interrupting, glazing over, pseudo-listening, and ambushing).
Conversational narcissism - tendency of listeners to turn the topics of ordinary conversations to themselves without showing sustained interests in others' topics. Competitive interrupting - occurs when we dominate the conversation by seizing the floor from others who are speaking Glazing over - occurs when listeners' attention wanders and daydreaming occurs Pseudo-listening - pretending to listen Ambushing - occurs when we listen for weaknesses and ignore strengths of a speaker's message
What are the components of doing an audience analysis, and how is a speech adapted based on those components (demographics, values, beliefs, & attitudes)?
Demographics - characteristics such as age, gender, culture and ethnicity, and group generalizations Values - most deeply felt, generally shared view of what is deemed good, right or worthwhile thinking or behavior Beliefs - what a person thinks is true or probable Attitudes - a learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward some attitude object
How does culture influence nonverbal communication?
Different cultures have different meanings for some of the same nonverbal communications
Explain how culture influences communication
Different futures follow different rules and regulations of communication, and people hold different values and beliefs between different cultures
Define ethnocentrism, cultural relativism, and multiculturalism.
Ethnocentrism - notion that one's culture is superior to another's Cultural relativism - all phenomena can be assessed only from the perspective of the culture Multiculturalism - social intellectual movement that promotes the value of diversity as a core principle and insists all cultures be treated with respect as equals
Identify and discuss how the three Aristotelian modes of proof (ethos, logos, and pathos) are used in persuasive speeches.
Ethos - ingredient of credibility; good sense, moral character and good will Logos - building arguments off of logic and evidence Pathos - emotional appeals as powerful motivators
***Describe the listening response styles associated with empathic listening and non-empathic listening.
Evaluate response - makes judgments about a persons conduct Interpreting response - express what we think is underlying meaning of the situation Advising response - tell people how they should act Content-only response - comprehends literal meaning of message but doesn't recognize feelings Probing response - seeks more info by asking questions Supporting response - express core, concern, interest, ect. in time of stress or hurt Understanding response - paraphrasing message to check accuracy of perceptions
What are the main types of supporting materials used in speeches?
Examples, statistics, testimony Types of examples: hypothetical example, real example, extended
What impact do various delivery considerations have on an audience (eye contact, vocal variety, verbal fluency, poise, dynamism)?
Eye contact - helps gain and maintain attention of audience Vocal variety - influence the mood of the audience Verbal fluency - don't use vocal fillers Poise - strive for balance between excessive and insufficient body movement; simple movements; proper gestures can further portray main point Dynamism - eliminate distractive behaviors
Identify and discuss how propositions of fact, value, and policy are used in persuasive speeches.
Fact - alleges a truth Value - judgement that assesses the worth or merit of an idea, object or practice Policy - calls for significant change from how problems are currently handled
***What is the difference between a fact and an inference?
Fact - truth with evidence to back it up Inference - conclusion of unknown based on known info
Explain the major differences between feminine and masculine cultures.
Feminine - affection, nurturance, sensitivity, emotional expression (female traits) Masculine - male dominance, assertiveness, competitiveness (male traits)
What are the critical elements of a competent speech introduction?
Gain attention Make clear purpose statement Establish topic significance Review main points
What are some of the influences on perception (gender, culture, past experiences, mood, and context)?
Gender - socialized in different roles Culture - teach about sense of self Past experience - schemas, what we gain from past experience, compare past to present to help deal with current situation Mood - emotional state can help mold how we come to a conclusion Context - what time place, what is expected in a certain circumstance
Define the general purpose, specific purpose, and central idea in public speaking.
General purpose - identifies overall goal of speech; tells audience why you are giving speech Specific purpose - concise, precise infinitive phrase composed of simple, clear language that encompasses both general purpose and central idea of speech Central idea - identifies main concept, point, issue or conclusion that you want the audience to understand, believe or feel
Explain the major differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
Individualistic - "me", loosely linked to each other and individual of group Collectivistic - "we", closely linked to one or more of group (family), harmony in group
***Define the three types of listening (informational, critical, and empathic).
Informational listening - attempts to comprehend message of speaker Empathetic listening - listen to other person and what they need, and take their perspective Critical listening - evaluating merits of claims as they are heard
What distinguishes informative speaking from persuasive speaking?
Informative speaking - to teach the audience something new, interesting and useful Persuasive speaking - convinces listeners and changes their viewpoint
What should be considered when choosing a topic (speaker, subject, occasion, and audience)?
Is it interesting to you?S uitable for audience and something they can relate to Appropriateness of topic or event
Why is reciprocal sharing important?
It creates trust for both of the people in the conversation and creates an open environment so one is not embarrassed; equal levels of investment and trust
***How might the use of slang, jargon, and euphemisms influence the understanding of a communication message?
Jargon - specialized for profession, trade or group (can cause problems with those who don't understand) Euphemism - Word choices that numb or camouflage unpleasant or offensive realities
What are guidelines for the competent usage of visual aids?
Keep aids simple Make aids visible Make aids neat, attractive and accurate Don't block the audience's view Keep aids close to you Put aid out of sight when not in use Practice with aids Don't circulate your aids Don't talk in the dark
Define what culture is.
Learned set of enduring values, beliefs and practices shared by a large group
***Explain the two versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and their relationship to culture.
Linguistic relativity - claim that our native language is powerful influence but does not imprison perception and thinking; more likely to see people commit Linguistic determinism - claim that we are prisoners of our native language; unable to think and perceive in certain ways due to grammatical structure and lexicon of language; direct cause, will not commit
Explain the major differences between low-context and high-context communication styles
Low context - verbally precise, direct and explicit High context - used indirect verbal expression; read between the lines
Explain the major differences between low-power distance and high power-distance cultures.
Low-power Distance - value equal power sharing and discourage attention to status differences and ranking. High-power Distance - strong emphasis on maintaining power differences.
Explain the differences between the major delivery styles (manuscript, memorized, extemporaneous, and impromptu).
Manuscript - have effective sound and rhythm Memorized - all in your head, but difficult to do with longer speeches Extemporaneous - delivered from prepared online or notes Impromptu - delivered without preparation
How are the preparation and presentation of a speech influenced by audience analysis?
Meeting audience expectations Build bridges between you and audience Good style and delivery
What are the types of visual aids that can be used during a speech?
Objects, models, graphs, maps, tables, photographs and drawings
How does the oral style of communication differ from a written style?
Oral - less formal, more simple sentence, highly interactive Competent - oral style has clarity, precision and vividness
Explain how our perceptions of others can influence our communication with them (first impressions, primacy effect, negativity bias, attribution error, stereotyping, self-fulfilling prophecy)
Overemphasizing personal traits and under-emphasizing situational causes; causes prejudice, discrimination Acting on erroneous expectation that produces expected behavior to confirm impressions
Describe the three dimensions related to communicating "empathy."
Perspective talking (see how others see), emotional understanding, concern for others
What are some guidelines for managing speech anxiety?
Prepare and practice Gain perspective (rational thinking) Reframing to make message clear and interesting to audience Coping statements Positive imaging Relaxation techniques (fight or flight) Systematic desensitization (relaxation technique coupled with exposure of threatening stimuli)
What is self-disclosure?
Purposeful communication to reveal something about yourself to others
***Explain how nonverbal communication functions in relationship with verbal communication (repetition, substitution, regulation, contradiction, accentuation).
Repetition - consistency of verbal and nonverbal communication increases the clarity and credibility of the message Accentuation - enhances power and seriousness of verbal message; pounding fist on table Substitution - no words necessary; nodding, yawning Regulation - conversation is regulated by nonverbal cues; eye contact, long pauses Contradiction - mixed messages; inconsistencies between verbal and nonverbal messages; produce tension and anxiety, confusion
What are the components of a competent presentation body?
Roman numerals for main points Capital letters for primary sub points Standard numbers for secondary sub points Lowercase letters for tertiary sub points Use full sentences Logical consistency and clarity
What is a perceptual schema (prototype, stereotype, and script)?
Schema - mental frameworks that create meaningful patterns from stimuli Prototype - best example of something Stereotype - generalization about a group or category of people Script - predictable sequence of events that indicates what we are expected to do in a situation
Explain the three elements of the perceptual process (selecting, organizing, and interpreting).
Select - what we pay attention to Organize - perception into schemas (prototypes, stereotypes, scripts) Interpret - what it means or how we perceive (context)
Define self-concept and describe how it is formed (reflected appraisal, significant others, and society).
Self-concept - the sum total of everything that encompasses the self-referential term "me", your identity; roles we normally participate with Reflected appraisal - refers to messages you receive from others that assess your self-concept, metaphor of a mirror; look for a reflection from others, ones we are commonly interacting with Significant others - you need significant others to shape your self-concept, value opinions most highly Society - evaluating yourself by comparing yourself to others
***Explain the abstracting process (sense experience, description, inference, and judgment).
Sense experience - pay attention to something Description - using senses Interference - what it means Judgement - subjective evaluations
***Explain the four elements common to all languages (structure, productivity, displacement, and self-reflexiveness).
Structure - phonemes: sounds that correspond to vowels, morphemes: how words are constructed, words, sentences, syntax: rules that govern how we combine words into sentences, semantics: rules that govern the meaning of sentences Productivity - invent words, change the meaning of older word Displacement - use language to talk about things that are not here (imaginary world, past and future, things NOT in the moment) Self-reflexive - use of language to talk about language, how you can improve conversation
What are the critical elements of a competent speech conclusion?
Summarize main points Refer to introduction Make a memorable finish
interactive model of communication
THE PING PONG VIEW Two way - participants act as both senders and receivers of messages. - we are all constantly adjusting our communication with others based on the feedback we receive
transactional model of communication
THE SENDER-RECEIVER IMPACT VIEW - recognizes that communication influences all parties involved
linear model of communication
THE STRAIGHT-ARROW VIEW One way: transmission of a message to a receiver with no receiver response, listeners are passive targets. Communication, from this perspective, involves a sender who sends a message through a channel to a receiver in an atmosphere of noise
Describe the characteristics of an appropriate or effective oral citation.
The initial citation of a source should be complete but references to the same source can be abbreviated unless the abbreviation could cause confusion to the audience Should hear relevant information that can lead there adder to go search for it Where does it come from? Is it reliable? Being able to site the date, so researcher knows how up-to-date your research is because things change overtime and could no longer be true Use the citation where you've placed the evidence to avoid plagiarism
Identify the organizational pattern used in speeches (topical, spatial, causal, chronological, problem-solution, and Monroe's Motivated Sequence).
Topical - shapes info according to classifications. Spatial - perceptual arrangement of objects on Earth. Casual - looks for why things happen and then discusses the consequences. Chronological - suggest a specific sequence of events. Problem-Solution - explores the nature of a problem and proposes a solution. Monroe's Motivated Sequence was used for sales presentations.
What are signposts and transitions, and how are they used in constructing a presentation?
Transition - connect what was said with what will be said Signpost - an indicator that the main point/topic is changing They are used to organize a speech and the topics
What are the rules for constructively and appropriately self-disclosing and responding to self-disclosure?
Trust, two way sharing, cultural openness, situational appropriateness, incremental disclosure
How does one avoid plagiarism?
Use your resources, internet, search engines, directories, virtual libraries/librarians Evaluate websites: consider source, try to deter main if source is biased, determine whether document is current
***Explain how nonverbal channels of communication differ from verbal channels.
Verbal - single channel, discrete (start and stop) Nonverbal - multichannel, continuous (NO start and stop), more truthful/more difficult to hide
What are the criteria for evaluating supporting material?
What do you mean? How do you know? Why should we care?
define the basic communication elements contained in the communication models
channel - medium through which a message travels, such as oral or written sender - initiator and encoder receiver - decoder of a message message - stimulus that produces meaning encode - creation of a message decode - interpreting the meaning of the message context - The environment in which communication occurs; the who, what, where, when, why, and how of communication. fields of experience - Cultural background, ethnicity, geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of a lifetime that influence message noise - interference with effective transmission and reception of a message feedback - The receiver's verbal and nonverbal responses to a message.
How do constructive versus destructive communication climates influence relationships?
constructive conflict - Conflict characterized by communication that is cooperative, supportive, and flexible. destructive conflict - Conflict characterized by escalation, retaliation, domination, competition, cross- complaining, defensiveness, and inflexibility.
explain the two aspects of every message: content and relationship
content - what is actually said and done relationship - refers to how that message defines or redefines the association between individuals
List the characteristics of an ethical communicator.
honesty, respect, fairness, choice, and responsibility
***Explain the major types of nonverbal communication (kinesics, paralanguage, territoriality, proxemics, and haptics)
kinesics - study of both facial communication and gestures paralanguage - vocal cues territoriality - predisposition to defend a fixed geographic area, or territory, as one's exclusive domain proxemics - study of the influence of distance and territoriality on human communication haptics - the study of touch Physical appearance, facial expressions, gestures ,touch, paralanguage (change sound waves to have different meaning, how you say it), space (culturally determined)
three models of communication
linear, interactive, transactional
