MW Theory Paper 1- Viticulture

Sweetness in grapes (2015)*

*Botrytis* -effect of the botrytis fungus on the vine as it nears maturity in perfect conditions -Distinctively scented in youth, and with considerably more extract than most wines, they are the most complex and longest lived of all the sweet, white table wines -Climate required: mesoclimate which favours misty mornings and warm afternoons in autumn needed, but producers must have the knowledge and the will to sacrifice quantity for nothing more certain than possible quality -In Bd.Rivers Ciron and garonne confluence supplies moisture for morning mists blown of in afternoon to keep spoilage at bay ...EX...Mondavi sprays water, and even nobel rot starter, to create a Sauternes style Sauvignon Blanc in Norther California -Harvest Technique: many tries and much waste, little volume ...EX...In a year as difficult as 1974 at Ch d'yquem 11 tries were made over a 10-week period. In 1990, on the other hand, noble rot spread rapidly and uniformly and the grapes were picked by early October -Other examples: Tokaji, quarts de chaume, bonnezeaux, layon, beerenauslese or trockenbeerenauslese, Nederburg Edelkeur was a South African prototype which enjoyed international acclaim in the 1970s, Griffith in new south wales's Riverina was producing Australian botrytized Pedro Ximénez as early as the late 1950s, ven england has succeeded in producing botrytized wine. -Sélection de grains nobles in Alsace -failed botrytis is 'passerillage', has weight and depth but not of Nobel Rot level. Wines are 'moelleux' *Drying* -varied and growing category of generally intense, complex, often sweet wines made from partially raisined grapes -drying mature grapes either on the vine or after picking -This early concentration technique continues one of the oldest traditions in the gastronomic world -semi-dried grapes naturally resulting in sweeter, stronger and therefore more stable wines -Grapes with maximum extract and sugars are required, which normally entails restricting yields -Those who pick slightly before full maturation claim there is less risk of rot, thicker skins, enhanced resistance during drying, and higher acidity, all of which favour aroma, freshness, balance, and longevity—and concentrate the grapes which remain on the vine. -Only the ripest, healthiest grapes are generally picked, which today means a pre-selection by experienced pickers (reciotto does not mind a bit of savory rancio from oxidation). any incipient mould or rot soon spreads during the drying process -Skins must remain intact, to which end the grapes may well be laid in small trays for transport to the winery. The bunches should be spargolo, loose rather than compact, so that air circulates around the individual berries during the all-important drying process. -Sun drying is still practised in places such as the Sicilian island of pantelleria off Tunisia, in southern puglia, and the Greek island of santorini. The process can be many times faster than drying under cover, but this can result in excessive colour, caramelized flavours, and loss of aroma, bypassing some of the microbiological transformations which are the essence of fine dried-grape wine. -Most grape drying for commercial purposes happens in a winery loft, where windows may be opened to let in plenty of air (essential against the development of rot and mould). Bunches are hung up vertically (on hooks, or on long strings), or laid out horizontally on neutral, bone-dry materials. Straw is rarely used because of its attractions for mice -The duration of the drying process is dictated by the grape variety, the type of wine required, and microclimatic conditions during drying. ...EX...Sugar-rich Greek grape varieties such as Muscat, Aleatico, and Malvasia require less time than more northern varieties (1-2 weeks). Corvina, corvinone or Rondinella for a red Recioto or Amarone will need three to four months, in some cases, for Recioto, even up to six months. Vin Santo Isole e Olena extra concentration many dry 4 months. -The main effect of drying grapes is loss of water and the consequent concentration of sugars. The relationship between water loss and sugar gain is relatively direct. -Depending on the wine style desired, the loss of grape weight by evaporation varies between 10 and 60%. passito wine being somewhere in the region of 35 to 40%, so the potential alcohol is raised by just over a third. -The changes in acidity are not linear like sugar. The total acidity in grapes undergoing a 40% dehydration rises not by 40% but by around 25% -The longer the drying period, the greater the biological change of organic substances and resultant wine quality. -noble rot may develop on the grapes during dehydration but it is not desired by most practitioners, particularly those making the drier styles of dried-grape wines such as Amarone. A further problem is insect infestation, particularly of bees, wasps, and hornets. -High VA from high sugar and long resting. The acetic acid of such a wine may well exceed legal levels, sometimes entailing unacceptably high sulfur dioxide additions. *Freezing* -eiswein and cryoextraction -Freezing concentrates not just the sugar in the grapes, but also acidity and extract, and Riesling Eiswein is routinely the highest in acid -frost of at least −8 °C/18 °F is required, for which grapes are generally harvested between five and eight in the morning of the first sufficiently cold November or December days ...EX...2015 harvest went on into Jan 2016 for Niagra -In Germany and Austria Eiswein has been a separate prädikat with the minimum must of a beerenauslese, namely 110-128 oechsle depending on the region and variety in question -In Canada sugar levels must reach at least 35 °Brix, considerably higher than the minimum requirements in Germany and Austria. Residual sugar at bottling must be at least 125 g/l. Canada first to do red and sparkling icewine -harvesting of Eiswein has become much more routine as a result of the widespread (if controversial) use of semi-permeable plastic sheeting that hugs the vines to protect grapes from birds and rain while waiting for a suitably deep frost -the use of film in fact often promotes humidity and thus a low level of botrytis in the shrouded grapes -If the harvest does not achieve the requisite ripeness or the character deemed appropriate to Eiswein by the individual vintner, the wine usually ends up being bottled as an auslese or subsumed into another wine, even though this practice is technically legally questionable. ...EX...production in Ontario alone is 900,000 litres and routinely retails at more than C$50 per half-litre CRYOEXTRACTION -Freshly picked grapes are held overnight in a special cold room at sub-zero temperatures, −5 or −6 °C (21 °F) for example, and then pressed immediately -The colder the grapes are kept, the less but richer juice is obtained -The wine producer can therefore manipulate how much wine of what quality is made -The technique is particularly useful in wet vintages in which the health and ripeness of individual berries may vary. -In the late 1980s some Sauternes properties, including Ch d'yquem, and Chateaux Coutets experimented with the technique. *Late Harvest* -simply leaving the grapes on the vine for as long as possible in order to concentrate the grape sugars -Auslese: grapes for Auslese should have been picked at least one week after a preliminary picking of less ripe grapes but in practice an Auslese may well have been picked early in the harvest, 83 to 105 °oechsle -beerenauslese: Typically have some botrytis, 110 to 128 °oechsle ...EX...Although all Alsace Vendange Tardive wines are made from ripe grapes, and without the aid of chaptalization, the wines themselves vary considerably in how sweet they are, with some of them tasting rich but almost bone dry.

Vineyard factors for outstanding wine (2007) (1999)*

*Climate* -Cooler climates are best suited to producing light, delicate wines, while hotter climates are most suitable for fortified wine production. -Marginal for what is paired to site -making dry table wines, mean temperatures averaging above about 21 °C/70 °F in the final month to maturity lead to a rapid loss of malic acid from the grapes, and to lower total acidity and generally higher ph in the juice. -Conversely, an average mean temperature below about 15 °C/59 °F in the final month minimizes acid loss to the point that acid levels may be too high. risk that the grapes will not ripen fully at all. -Early maturing varieties need cool climate (Pinot Noir) and late maturing need hot climate (Grenache) -It has yet to be established whether less variable (or more equable) ripening temperatures are likely to result in better wine quality but highly variable temperatures risk greater damage, both by frosts after budburst and by extremes of heat in summer. High diurnal may result in ripe fruit with with retained acidity = balance *Sunlight* -Sunlight duration acts mainly by controlling sugar in grapes and therefore potential wine alcohol content at a given stage of physiological ripening. In practice, however, the relative contributions of sunlight and temperature are hard to distinguish because low temperatures and low sunlight hours tend to go together. -Vines respire more sugar at high temperatures for their normal metabolism, but do not photosynthesize any faster- totally dependent on sun. They therefore need more sunlight hours to generate a sugar surplus for ripening the fruit if in high heat. ...EX... Australia's often cloudy Hunter Valley produces only table wines despite being very warm ...EX...mild to warm, but cloudy, regions of northern New Zealand such as Auckland produce predominantly light table wines. -A strong and constant sugar flow to the ripening berries assures not only their sweetness and sufficient alcohol in the wine, but also that colour, flavour, and aroma compounds are not limited by a lack of sugar substrate for their formation. ...EX...Gadille in Burgundy show that the most critical period for quality is around the start of ripening (August in most European viticultural regions). Good conditions then assure an ample reserve of sugar in the vine, both for early conversion in the leaves and berries into flavour and aroma compounds, or their precursors, and so that sugar and flavour ripening of the berries can continue unabated under the cooler and less sunny conditions normally encountered later. *Slope* SLOPE-Inversion layer: The turbulent surface air over slopes at moderate elevations is therefore usually warmer at night, and in the early morning ISOLATED HILLS- Thermal zones are strongest on isolated and projecting hills or mountains, because these have little or no external source of surface-chilled air. Cooled air from their own surfaces that slips away can be replaced only by totally unchilled air from above. ...EX... Corton at aloxe-corton in Burgundy; the Kaiserstuhl in baden; and, on a larger scale, the Montagne de Reims in champagne. *Aspect* Slopes which face the sun through much of the day (southerly aspects in the northern hemisphere, and northerly aspects in the southern hemisphere) are the warmest, and those facing away from the sun are the coolest. -E aspects of slopes facing the equator have the advantage that they are warmed earliest in the day, when soil and air temperatures are lowest. ...EX.. côte d'or of Burgundy, Rhine Valley of Germany and Alsace. -W slopes can, however, induce higher daytime air temperatures because absorption of sunlight and warmer air temperatures are complementary. This is important in very cool climates. -steeper the slope the more influence of aspect -The climatic contrasts among aspects are greatest at high latitudes and in cooler vineyard regions and at beginning and end of season Transition -The influence of aspect is modified by other climate parameters: sunshine, wind, soil temp -sunshine supports warm soils and hence growth and fruiting by export of cytokinin to vine tops *Soil* -OW and NW debate (result of marginal land vs high potential land) ...EX...Seguin's conclusion that soil physical characteristics predominate as the main influence over grape and wine quality other than climate - among the physical characteristics, the most important are those which govern water supply to the vine. -Texture and drainage are vital -the best wines come from soils that are very well drained, and furnish a steady, but only moderate, water supply to the vines -enough nutrition that growth is restrained but not feeble (limit lateral shoot growth) -Soil nitrogen is most understood mineral. Seguin's work, and that of other European researchers, optimum nitrogen supply to the vine is at most only moderate. The optimum supply for red wine production is lower than for white wine because nitrogen deficiency increases berry skin phenolics but also limits the build up of flavour precursors in white grapes. Lack can produce off flavors (hydrogen sulfide odors) in ferm from yeast (DAP added where legal) -Potassium-deficient vines are more than usually susceptible to drought and vine diseases, and the fruit lacks sugar (see sugar in grapes) as well as colour and flavour. -large vigorous soil means small berries mean congestion and compression within the bunch, and are therefore less likely to split or suffer spoilage as a result of fungal diseases or bacteria. -soil color controls temp above soil ...EX...use to dust white soils with charcoal in Champagne -ROCKS ANS STONES are vital for temperature (transmit heat downward) and drainage, encourage root growth (crevices, and drainage seeks water) ...EX...Slate in Mosel Mönchhof -acid and alkaline balance: potential micronutrient deficiencies that are often encountered at high pH levels can in most cases be readily overcome by foliar sprays or judicious choice of rootstocks Transition -Wet soils are cold soils *Water* -Water absorbs and stores large quantities of heat, with relatively little change in temperature because of the depth to which the heat penetrates, together with the high specific heat of water compared with rocks or dry soil -temperature inertia greatly modifies the temperature regimes of adjacent land -Cool air from over the water is drawn to replace heated air rising over the land in the afternoons, while at night a reverse convection results from chilled air descending from the cold land surface and rising over the now relatively warm water. -In some vineyard areas, these breezes may, in fact, be very strong winds if they are funnelled by mountains ...EX...Salinas Valley in monterey, California. -consistent temp and humidity -reduced spring and winter frosts -Lake effect ...EX...Finger Lakes in NY and around Russia's Black Sea coast. -Water stress at ripening is detrimental, shuts final ripening -Heavy rain pre harvest causes dilution, potential botrytis and spliting ...EX...tight bunches, such as Chenin Blanc and Zinfandel, and where the vines were under drought stress prior to the rain get it bad. Hail at harvest can be devastating ...EX...Chablis hit fall of 2015, relatively unscathed -Virtually all of the world's acknowledged great table wines have so far come from regions with moderately high relative humidities and low evaporation (high evap can stress vines). This is partly because of their lack of stress (see above) and perhaps through their usually restricted temperature variability. *Wind* -drop of 1°C for every 10 kilometers per hour of wind -Soft dry wind can reduce disease -keeps frost at bay -encourages the vine to send down deeper roots in search of the moisture that they are losing in transpiration. Deep roots are a hallmark of most great vineyards. -Not only is the mistral very good at keeping fungal diseases at bay, but it's also good at repelling insect pests (especially grape moths) ...EX...Jean-Pierre Usseglio says he has always noticed that there are fewer insects in plateau vineyards (those most exposed to the wind) than in vineyards on slopes. -Risk of evap -Potential for stoma closing -physical damage ...EX... Vital for US and Aussie hot climates i.e. Low Gap for Zin in Mendo ...EX..."For me," said Catherine Armenier at Domaine du Marcoux, "it's Dr Mistral. It has a hundred times more advantages than disadvantages. It's truly a part of the terroir here" ...EX...Consultant Philippe Cambie pointed out that the mistral makes organic cultivation relatively straightforward, and "gives you savings of at least 50 per cent of treatments" ...EX...Christophe Sabon of Clos du Mont-Olivet calls it "a coin with two sides". The worst risk is when the shoots are about six to nine centimetres long (and April is historically the most mistral-vulnerable month), as the wind can then snap the shoots, provoking harvest losses. You can use attaching wines above the bush vines to hold the shoots in place (as at Ch La Gardine) ...EX...The mistral is especially good for drying the vineyards after the heavy downpours to which the region is prone - "50 to 60 mm of rain," according to Philippe Cambie, "will dry in 3-4 days if there is a mistral afterwards." ...EX...Jean-Pierre Usseglio also says that he prefers to work the soils when there is a mistral, since the wind "lightens and opens up the soil".

hot climate viti? (2010) (2003)*?

*Define* -Hot climate for vinifera, Corresponding average mean growing season temperatures are in the range 18.5 to 21 °C. -south of France; the douro valley of Portugal and the island of Madeira; the Adelaide district and McLaren vale in south australia, the murray darling regions of South Australia and Victoria, and the Hunter valley and Mudgee in new south wales in Australia. *Traits* -high sugar contents and make the best sweet, fortified wines -machine harvesting at night the norm, especially when grapes need to travel far -hotter wine regions where grapes harvested by day can arrive at the winery at over 40 °C/104 °F -Canopy shade of bunches helpful -Early picking to avoid acid loss -Yield cannot be limited by pruning high-vigour vineyards to just a few buds. The yield will still be considerable, as will berry size (undesirable for wine quality). Bunches will be tight, increasing the risk of bunch rot and there will be considerable shoot and leaf growth, which is likely to result in shade rather than vine balance. ...EX... Hunter Valley cloudy and rainy tames hot climate makes high acid Semillon that is low alch ...EX... Corrina Wright from McLaren Vale-based Oliver's Taranga estate pointed out to me last year, she grafted over all of her Viognier to Fiano because the former had failed to deliver in the hot climate. *Challenges* -late-maturing grape varieties such as mourvèdre (Mataro), carignan, grenache, trebbiano, and clairette to avoid over ripening -Pests, Glassy winged sharp shooter -Water concerns, high salts make water hard to take up by vines -Salt concerns -Drought and heat resistant rootstocks -Powdery Mildew, warm and dry powder application ...EX... Graham's has team of 6 spray at budburst and 2 other times a year (backpack and wand) -Vines respire more sugar at high temperatures for their normal metabolism, but do not photosynthesize any faster; they therefore need more sunlight hours to generate a sugar surplus for ripening the fruit. -Excess heat (40C/104F) can cause halt in photosynth and grapes close stoma to hold in moisture -Duero Bake ...EX... Noval has underground insulated cellar *Climate Change* ...EX...Krug feel Champagne picking dates are too late when framed by climate change ...EX...Bob Betz blown away by 16 day June 2014 heat wave in Washington (100+ F and 2 days over 111F) ...EX...Paul Symington feels Douro regs will allow vineyards to move to higher elevations in the valley until they run out of hillside

Aroma (mine)*

*In The Grape* -These volatile aroma compounds are in vastly smaller concentrations than those of the non-volatile taste compounds such as glycerol or various acids, some little more than one part per trillion. -The flavour differences between varieties arises from differences in the types and amounts of volatile aroma compounds in their berries. It is commonly stated that these occur in the skins, but grape juice also contains significant amounts, and sometimes in different proportions from those found in the same grapes' skin. -Contemporary studies of flavour compounds are beginning to provide important links between viticulture and wine quality such as the relationship between canopy microclimate and the development of flavour compounds, which Allen et al. found can be increased tenfold using appropriate vineyard practices. -Most recently, a series of volatile thiol compounds (see mercaptans) has been found to be involved in the varietal aromas of Sauvignon Blanc, Scheurebe, Gewürztraminer, Pinot Gris, Riesling, Muscat, Sylvaner, Pinot Blanc, Petit Manseng, Sémillon, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot. Importantly, these sulfur-containing compounds are present in grape juice and are released, in very low concentration, during fermentation by the action of yeast. -Pyrozine common to Cab family (and SB) -TDN rubber ball aroma of Riesling *Terroir Aroma in Grapes* ...EX...Julia Harding MW IMW tasting of volcanic wines in London came away believing that you could taste volcanic soil in fine velevt tannin and subdued fruit and marked acid ...EX...Ernst Loosen, owner of Weingut Dr Loosen, illustrated some research done recently by Professor Ulrich Fischer at the German Viticulture Institute that the bedrock soil of a vineyard is one of the most important factors in distinguishing terroir which causes specific, identifiable flavour and aroma compounds to develop in the grapes. Hence the interesting difference in taste obtained along the same river: pronounced apple and white peach aromas, and a very assertive acid structure from the blue slate of Bernkasteler Lay vineyard; most delicate and fine, with an elegant citrus and floral character in the aroma from the lighter blue slate and a thick layer of pulverised slate between the bedrock and topsoil in Wehlener Sonnenuhr; more stone fruits in the aroma and a bigger, more muscular structure from softer, red slate due to a high iron content oxidised by ancient volcanic flow in Ürzig and Erden. *In The Winery* -The volatile aroma constituents in grapes are present to only a limited extent in the free form which is directly accessible to the sense of smell. The far greater proportion is bound as glycosides to sugars and sensorially neutral. After crushing the grapes and during storage of the wine, the sugar is split and the glycosidically bound aroma compounds are set free, whereby they become sensorially active. -The splitting of the glycosides is promoted by the low pH of wine or catalyzed enzymatically. Heat accelerates the reaction as well as enzymes derived from yeast or added in wine- making practice as commercially available aroma enhancing enzymes -A large proportion of these compounds occur in grapes combined with sugars as glycosides and as such are odourless flavour precursors. They revert to their aromatic form after hydrolysis of the glycoside by the action of enzymes or acids, a process that has been shown to be important in wine aging. -Some of the types of compounds so far identified among the aroma volatiles in the grape are as follows: monoterpenes, e.g. linalool, nerol, geraniol, found in floral grapes such as Muscat, Gewürztraminer, and Riesling; norisoprenoids, carotenoid-derived, e.g. damascenone (rose oil), megastigmatrienone (tobacco, spice), found in Chardonnay; shikimate-derived, e.g. raspberry ketone, vanillin, zingerone, found in Syrah/Shiraz; nitrogen-containing, e.g. methoxypyrazine (grassy), found in Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc; aliphatics, some gamma lactones, an important component of oak -methoxypyrazines: 'green', herbaceous, or vegetative aromas in Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc grapes, can be detected at one part per trillion in water (the equivalent of one grape berry in a million tons of grapes). - infrared spectroscopy and glycosyl-glucose assay are new and expanding ways to understand aroma *Flavor Over Time* -flavour changing rapidly and markedly during the first few months of a wine's life and then more and more slowly as it matures -'bouquet' more complex aromatic compounds which result from extended bottle age -sinister possibility of 'manufacturing' wines by the addition of traces of flavour compounds to neutral, low-quality wines. Concern about this issue has increased since the discovery in 2004 that illegal flavourings had been added to certain Sauvignon Blanc wines at a winery in South Africa to enhance the varietal character of the wine.

pests (2013) (2008) (2001)*

*Phylloxera* INSECT -lives on leaves and roots of NE and S Amer rootstocks, may weaken but does not kill them, roots mend and seal, sap unpleasant to pest (gums up feeding apparatus, causes harm to juveniles , breed on leaves in the summer -Native to New England, vine grows corky layer beneath wound halting secondary infection of microbs -lives on roots of vinifera, sucks photosynthates (sugar and starch) allows second infection, vine wilts and slowly dies, roots deformed, produces galls from saliva injection -can change life cycle based on host and enviro -dislikes heat and wet soils -single female needs no male to fertilize, can lay 7 gen in 1 summer -galls, red/brown, form of leaf of infected plant, contain unhatched egg -hatched and spends summer on leaves, leaves fall and they go to roots, root galls form with unhatched eggs -warm climate winged seen can fly 100m, lay queen in new site -Spread by climbing, wind, machinery, irrigation, #1 spread is human activity (rootlings) - deep rooting vines may be impacted but survive -70% of European VY destroyed -MO for quarantine: all equip pressure washed, rigorous inspection of plant material, up to 2 year quarantine, vine imp programs ensure up to date handling and clean wood (viruses still spread) -85 per cent of all the world's vineyards were estimated in 1990 to be grafted onto rootstocks presumed to be resistant to phylloxera -multiple biotypes NZ and Germany exchanged showed different kinds og phyllox -as grafting rose so did exchange of material and new spreads of disease -'pre phyllox' vines may be more distinguished by lack of disease. -virology in viticulture was not well understood until the 1950s -Melbourne University training dogs to smell phylloxera -It may even be possible to avoid the introduction of phylloxera and other pests and diseases by creating a local quarantine. -phyllox proof Borner -Geisenheim 50 years to make -highly phylloxera resistant = Riparia Gloire, 101-14 Mgt, SO 4, 5BB ..Ex. AXR1 vinifera x rupestris in CA not phyllox resistant. Once called 'nearest to all purpose rootstock by Winkler textbook' Ex. Belle Pente in OR on own roots -If phylloxera and nematodes are considered a likely problem, the appropriate rootstocks can be used. ...Ex. Zuccardi 1103 for low water, nematode, and phylloxera *Nematodes* -microscopic roundworms -feed on grapevine roots and thus reduce both the size and efficiency of the root system -vines do not necessarily die, they suffer water stress and deficiencies in vine nutrition and grow weakly -live up to 2 meters deep in soil (need air) -killed by flood irrigation -drip irrigation may cause shallow rooting and more destruction -Nematode: low water and nutrient for vine, weak vine, treat with full pull and fumigation, rootstock, hygiene (hot dip material) Fanleaf vector -Nematodes feed on a vine's root system, resulting in water stress and nutrient deficiency. Nematodes may also transmit viruses, specifically nepoviruses, as a result of feeding -rootknot nematode: sandy soil, the knots (swollen tissue or galls) on the roots formed in response to their feeding resemble a string of beads. One female can lay up to 1,000 eggs, and with up to ten generations a year in warm climates they can spread rapidly. -The root lesion nematode Pratylenchus also damages vines by feeding on their roots. -dagger nematode: especially important in spreading a number of virus diseases (see fanleaf degeneration). Other dagger nematodes species spread other virus diseases. Virus particles can survive for many years in root fragments after an infected vineyard is removed. Replanting a new, 'virus-free' vineyard can lead to disappointment, as reinfection with nematode feeding can follow. -Nematodes vector for fanleaf and nepoviruses (seen as yellowing of a vine) -mustard cover protects from nematodes as they find it noxious -Nematodes soil needs to be fumigated then replanted with resistant stock -vineyards in which nematodes were previously present were subjected to fumigation with injected chemicals before planting, but the nematicide DBCP, which was considered capable of controlling all nematodes, is now banned. Methyl bromide and 1,3-dichloropropene are highly effective and can kill nematodes surviving on old root pieces but they may also be banned because of environmental concerns. In California, for example, products such as methyl bromide have been phased out of commercial viticulture in favour of organic alternatives. -Nematode diseases are often spread on infected planting material or by the movement of infected soil on cultivation implements or by irrigation water. Infected nursery plants can be freed of nematodes by dipping them in hot water. Biological control using rootstocks is possible and generally preferred. Some vitis species (solonis, champini, and doaniana) show resistance to nematodes. Among the most nematode-resistant rootstocks are Couderc 1613, Ramsey, Schwarzmann, Harmony, and Dog Ridge. ...EX... Zuccardi moved VY up hillsides for more elegance, no flood irrigation, got nematodes badly, drip irrigation made it worse, rootstocks vital ***EX -Freedom has high resistance to both rootknot and dagger nematodes. not resistant to Phylloxera *Leaf Hoppers* -Leafhoppers: eat leaves reducing photosynth, vector for Flavescence Doreé and Pierce Disease sprays, kill pest habitat, wasp predator that is sulfur sensitive -flavesence dorée spread by leaf hopper insects, kills young vines and reduces the productivity of older ones, turning the leaves a golden colour and causing the grapes to shrivel -Glassy Wing Sharp Shooter: Pierce's disease, pheromone traps ...EX... Beurer Southern Germany brown plastic pheromone canister ...EX...Researchers at UCD have discovered critical enzyme that allows illness to spread through vine ' 'LesA'. It moves through the plant cells, enabling the Xyllela fastidiosa bacteria that causes Pierce's disease to invade the grapevine. The bacteria then lives in the grapevine's xylem tissues, where it feeds on fatlike compounds called lipids. ...EX...The University of California estimates Pierce's disease (PD) costs the state $104 million per year. ...EX... after 20 years of research may be new PD resistant vines. UCDavid Vitis arizonica had one specific gene that helped. Have honed in on 5 that are acceptable for commercial wine. Nearly ready for release. *Others* -Cutworms: eat leaves, new vy, in soil -Grape leaf mite: swelling red bites, little damage, live on leaf -Grasshopper: Eat leaves, sprays, -Leaf-Rollers: catepiller curls leaf, reduced photo, spray -Mealy bugs: honeydew secreation leading to mold tain on grapes. Painstaking to remove and must track and spray, possible disease vector Leafroll -Maely Bugs: Each of these species can feed on the roots, trunk, cane, leaves and fruit clusters of the vine. In doing so, they excrete sticky honeydew, which can build up on the trunks, leaves, and grape clusters, leading to sooty mold and bunch rot. What's more, each species can transmit at least one of the viruses (GLRaV) associated with grapevine leafroll disease. ...EX...To kill mealy bugs These latest generation materials include 1) foliar-applied systemic insecticides that travel throughout the vine to kill mealybugs feeding on the leaves and fruit as well as under the bark and in the roots, 2) soil- and foliar-applied neonicotinoids that provide contact action to kill mealybugs in the canopy and 3) growth regulators (IGR) that kill immature mealybugs on contact. Most of these systemic and IGR materials cause little or no harm to key beneficial insects. growers may use tools other than insecticides, such as cultural or biological controls as well as pheromone dispensers for disrupting mating. -Mites: eat leaves, reduced photo, sulfur treatment, spray, predatory mites -Moths: lay larve in grapes, pheromone trap, predators, spray -Thripes: Young shoots eaten, scare and split grapes -Skeletonizer: eats leafs, spray treats, parasitic wasp and fly -Suzukii Beetle: Suzuki beatle in Southern Germany limited yields but tainted wine with VA Lauffener Katzenbeißer -Wild boar, rabbits, birds, caterpillars ...EX...S of Beaune on RN74 trees house crows, had open hunting, helped crop ...EX... Eyrie VY in OR have large bird of prey nesting site in VY to eat rabbit and small birds ...EX...Symington Family has bird of prey rescue organization ...EX...Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala in the inland zone of Fitou grape berry moths Lobesia botrana (known locally as Eudémis) and Eupoecilia ambiguella (Cochylis) which they combat by spraying Bacillus thurengiensis. The spraying has to be done by hand since otherwise the penetration into the plant is inadequate. "Ceaseless work, otherwise you could lose the whole harvest." ...EX...In 2015 Wild boars destroyed thousands of euros worth of grapes, equivalent to around 130,000 bottles of wine in Chianti. Producers calling for another cull. The population density of wild boar in Tuscany is four times the national average. ...EX..UC Berkley 'In the end, we had great success with a parasitic wasp called anagyrus. It lays its eggs in the body of the mealy bug, and when its young hatch, they eat the mealy bug from the inside out, killing it along the way'. 'I had read that bluebirds enjoyed sharpshooters as part of their diet, so we started off building 50 bluebird houses among the vines, and monitored the numbers,' says Rosenbrand. 'We knew there is a direct link, because we found remains of sharpshooters in the birds' droppings. Today we are up to 1,000 birdhouses, and we keep on building them. It has pretty much entirely solved the problem.' ...EX...The European Grapevine Moth: A successful collaboration between the wine grape industry, county, state and federal agricultural departments, and University of California experts has brought the pest to near extinction in Napa County and the rest of the state. The moth was discovered in North America in Napa County in 2009. In 2010, a program of trapping, treatments and quarantine restrictions was initiated. In 2010, Napa County Agricultural Commissioner staff caught more than 100,000 moths in traps. Over the next couple of years, small satellite infestations were found in nine other California counties. With the utilization of mating disruption, targeted insecticide treatments, and sanitation practices, moth trap counts have steadily declined. No moths were caught in traps in 2014 and 2015,

New site establishment*

*Pre site considerations* -Local planting rights -AOC laws -already planted/ replanting? ...EX replanting ideal to leave fallow 7-9 years (Dominique Lafon) but he only waits 3 years due to economics -Trees Rhyme with disease - Lucie Morton -Maximize air flow *Climate* -What are the planting laws / rights? -Macro, Meso, and Micro climate potentials for best grapes quality at lowest cost for site ...EX...The wider Hawke's Bay area is a little too cool to ripen Bordeaux varieties and Syrah satisfactorily, not so much in terms of overall heat summation as in terms of daytime heat: the sea breezes mean that many summer days peak at 25˚C, which according to Steve Smith MW is not enough of a warm throb for complete phenolic ripeness, even though satisfactory sugar levels can be reached. Gimblett Gravels, by contrast, is a hot spot within Hawke's Bay (its summer-day maxima are 2˚C-3˚C higher than elsewhere in the region), and by crop thinning, deficit irrigating and bunch positioning, growers have no trouble getting to full ripeness in favourable vintages. - measure climate: heat summation (CA), LTI (NZ), MTWM (Aussie) -What will the climate be like in 20 years? ...EX...EX Olivier Merlin chooses rootstock with global warming in mind (delayed ripening, not early) *Geography* -How far from potential markets, electricity, water? ...EX...Argentina lots of concrete aging, so grow grapes to match - bbls expensive to ship -Altitude: to account for local climate (higher the warmer the latitude) -Aspect: account for incoming solar raditation (morning/evening, facing equator/about face) and can accommodate site better in challenging local climate -Slopes: Free draining air, thinner-less fertile soil, may require cover crops/walls *soil prep* -minimize soil moisture if wet region -Plough pan, ripping, and grading/scaping -Green manure, humus content increase ...EX...Croft Patamares in Duero at risk for erosion because of no walls, 3% grade towards drains to allow run off of rain (rice patties, Benzinger in CA does the same). ...EX..."Vigna a Alta" alt to terraces in Duero, planted up and down slopes for mech. Across from Graham's Malvedos property. Totally changes fertility and grows in patchy, has taken 15 years to get right, OK up to 30% incline. Two row terraces up to 40%, 1 row at 45%. Closeness of Vinhos ao alto causes risk of odium and other fungal disease - vines are now being grown further upward to get aeration ...EX...Malvedos taking 18 months just to build walls for terraces while installing drains -drainage ...EX...Genesis-Soils sells a blend of five cultured natural mycorrhizae, best applied to vine roots before planting. Increases mycorrhizae from 10% to 65%. cost is 0.20USD a vine about the same price as a fertilizer application. *Physical structures* -Graham's installing drainage pipes to allow for quick underground run off to avoid erosion -Basic framework of irrigation planned -windbreaks ...EX...Croft olive trees -Hail netting, bird netting ...NY Long Island many bird nets to avoid botrytis -frost protection: windmills, wax candles, fire pits, ...EX...Fetzer uses overhead sprinklers to break up inversion air allowing spring frosts to be broken up -trellising, more complicated and more material = more cost but sunk cost *Layout* -rows face sun midday -best financially to lay along longest boundary and make parallel roads -rows not too long to avoid worker fatigue -set blocks for varieties and soil character ...EX...Zuccardi is using EMR imaging to decide where each type of varietal should go and how to arrange the vine layout to make best orientation to hit majority of finest soils. *Planting vines* -order vines and rootstocks based on character of site and desired outcomes -Plant March to June as vines will catch up to each other -Place peat or fertilizer in planting hole and plant vines fresh from cold storage ...EX...Croft used green plastic jackets to protect vines from wind, had to be opened manually every day to avoid Botrytis ...EX...Yalumba has own nursery to ensure highest quality and total control of grafting, cuttings and vertical integration of plant material to their vineyard

Phenolic and Physio ripeness (2011)*

*RIPENESS* -alch, ph vs grape flavor -Global warming changing this, chapitalization becoming rarer -confirm with taste! *Traditional Ripeness* -based on must weight, level of sugar and acidity ripe -relies heavily on brix. It is used as a function of berry age because the sugar increases as the berry ripens -White wines are less effected than red wines by high yields in regards to ripeness when skin contact is not required with the wine -High Yields retard ripeness -Once phloem transport has ended, any further increases in sugar level will be due to loss of water, not continued synthesis and translocation of sugar -Assessing changes in berry weight, and noting the point at which the average berry weight starts to decrease significantly while the sugar content increases, can indicate the onset of dehydration ...EX...An historical index of ripeness suggests that an optimal sugar/acidity balance is achieved if the product of the Brix scale value multiplied by the square of the pH is in the range of 220 to 260 (Cape wine academy SA) ...EX...Brunello thought that brink of stress was best for small ripe bunches. In 2011 with heat from climate changes stress can easily lead to arrested development. Sugar levels may soar but phenolic ripening lags dangerously behind.- Walter Speller for JayRo ...EX...Roederer in 2005 had spring rain create shatter so ripeness happened quickly with a smaller crop load - pick early for higher acid. *AROMATIC RIPENESS* -High yield and climate change can effect aromatic ripeness vs sugar ripeness -aromatically underripe: Green-vegy aroma caused by methoxypyrazines -rootstocks can affect as well as site and vine age -Methoxypyrazines are stored in the grapes before veraison, and their synthesis is accelerated under hu- mid growing conditions. After crossing a concentration peak, they decrease continuously during ripen- ing. This decrease is to be explained by the impact of sunlight and correlates with the breakdown of malic acid. ...Acaibo, Lurton, North Cali, picks when seeds are still green. Cares about skin and pH, hates the taste of tartaric acid and finds freshness does much for aromatics more so then phenolic ripeness *PHYSIOLOGICAL RIPENESS* -Contrasts traditional ripeness that was based on must weight, level of sugar and acidity ripe -instead includes aspects of the berry's maturation which describe changes in a ripening grape berry important to eventual quality -skin colour, berry texture including skin and pulp texture, seed colour and ripening, flavour, and phenolic changes, often accompanied by lignification of the berry stem -common to measure anthocyanins and other phenolics -The aim is to pick at as near optimum values of as many of these parameters as possible -factors such as weather conditions, site, and viticultural technique, especially a shaded canopy microclimate, can unbalance these relationships. -A common example is the relatively faster rate of sugar increase in warm to hot climates compared with phenolic development, flavour increase, and acid decrease. The resulting wines tend to be high in alcohol without necessarily being accompanied by ripe fruit aromas and phenolics. On the other hand, varietal flavour appears to increase more quickly relative to sugar in cooler climates. -Skin quality can have major impact -precisely timed irrigation regimes, manipulating crop load, controlling fruit exposure, slowing sugar accumulation by careful reduction of the leaf to fruit ratio, and research into yeasts specifically designed to result in lower alcohol levels. ...EX Biodynamic producer Pierre Vincent claims Bio brings balance to phisio vs phenol ripeness ...EX...Nico Danesi consultant to 3 wineries in Franciacorta in rainy 2014 their producers delayed harvesting as long as possible to try and reach that all-defining physiological ripeness, resulting in a loss of 30% of their total production. *PHENOLIC Ripeness* -describe changes in a ripening grape berry that are important to eventual quality. These include skin colour, berry texture, seed colour and ripening, flavour, and phenolic changes -Phenols are the building units of all tannins and colored pigments -Grapes which are phenolically unripe contain high amounts of extractable, strongly astringent tannin in their seeds. As ripeness progresses, the extraction of less aggressive tannins from the skins increases -A part of the tannins complexes with colloids is extracted from the grape skins. Such tannins associ- ated to proteins or polysaccharides taste softer as the phenolic ripeness of the grapes advances. -Red grapes should release color from the skin when rubbed between the fingers. When perfect ripeness is reached, the berries can be easily removed from the stalks. A brown, wooden stem tissue of red grapes points out a perfect phenolic ripeness. -Ripe berries remain deformed after mild squeezing with the fingers, but unripe berries are elastic and turn back to their initial form -pips change from green to brown and are easy to detach from the juice pulp -pulp should be free of herbaceous notes and viscosity. Gelatinous adherence of the pulp to the skin or seeds goes along with a lack of maturity. The skins should be crumbling after chewing and not tough. Phenolics: -Non-flavonoids, simple, small, benzoic and cinnamic acid in berry pulp, minor influence (These phenolic acids are colourless in wine but may become yellow upon oxidation. From an organoleptic point of view phenolic acids do not have any odour or flavour.) -Flavonoid aka polyphenols, complex and large,powerful antioxidants, reds higher polyphenols, made up of tannin and anthocyanin. Flavonoid tannins have a significant influence on the taste and mouth-feel of red wines. -Tannin, seeds contain 20-55% of total polyphenols so their ripeness and handling is vital -Anthocyanins, color, softer cells under layer of skin, extracted readily -a tannin "is a compound that is capable of interacting with proteins and precipitating them" -red wine tannins ripen late as they increase in soft texture, become more savory to taste, and easier to extract during wine making ...EX... Pierre Vincent, Burgundy, with Pinot Noir acidity balance is less of an issue so phenolic ripeness is more important for picking date. Chard window much shorter. ...EX...Paul Pontallier, who directs Château Margaux says Argentine wines get their astringent tannin: "Grapes in most New World wine regions - and often in Spain as well - ripen very differently from how they do in Bordeaux; they accumulate a lot of sugar quickly and lose acidity before tannins get a chance to ripen well. This is actually why people - for good reason - harvest late, and make wines over 14.5 or 15% alcohol. The problem is that high alcohol reinforces the dryness of tannins, so that the remedy can prove worse than the problem. And low acidity obliges them to add tartaric acid, which also reinforces the dryness of the tannins." ...EX...Nicolás Catena It is all about harnessing the extraordinary intensity of sunlight in Argentina to micro-manage phenolics and produce the optimum quality of wine. ...EX...In hot 2015 Ribera old vines got enough water from tap root. Young vines did not and did not reach phenolic ripeness b/c of shutdown. ...EX...Late 20th century there was an increasing tendency to encourage growers to leave grapes longer and longer on the vine. The aim of this prolonged hang time is riper tannins and phenolics but this is often achieved at the cost of excessively high sugar levels. As a consequence, winemakers may resort to adding water to the must, where local regulations allow, or the use of equipment such as the spinning cone to reduce the alcoholic strength of the finished wine. ...EX...Loureiro makes Rabigato in the Duero which is disappearing because of its low yields. Blending Rabigato grapes picked at very different stages of ripeness (Kiwi Sauvignon style), hence its combination of high acidity and high alcohol. Potential to age.

Biodynamic viti (2008) (2002)*

-1924 Rudolph Steiner -impressive results without reassuring science -Earth is a living being -Bd mix and sulfur allowed -up to 4 kilos per hectare per year rolling average of copper allowed in the vineyard -1st Intl Biodynamic Wine Forum in 2004 keynote Joly -French government soil microbiologist Claude Bourguignon showed levels of microbial life was much higher in bio and organic Vy and life went much deeper in BioD VY, found copper levels to be much lower -Demeter Intl acts as an umbrella body for many national certification bodies which adhere to internationally agreed production standards. In many countries, Demeter standards are additional to government-recognized organic standards. ...EX...Biodynamic producers including the award-winning Ancre Hill Estates in Wales (UK), have provided evidence that it is possible on certain sites, to produce quality wine without using pesticides. former vineyard supervisor at Nyetimber *Horns* -Horn manure and horn silica 2 main sprays --Buried horns for 6 months to ferment and build micro biome -Horn manure sprayed as sun sets, (improve soil, microbes, deeper vines rooting) -Horn silica sprayed at sunrise (plant vitality, upright growth, ripen fruit and wood, discourage shade growing fungus) -One further field spray, the silica-rich common horsetail, is used to encourage fungal spores to remain in the soil rather than affecting the vine *Fertilizer* - herb preparations added in small doses to fertilizer: yarrow, chamomile, stinging nettle, oak bark, dandelion, and valerian -When not available, substitutes may be used. For example, Casuarina stricta is often substituted for common horsetail (Equisetum arvense) in Australia. -Compost material should be generated on the vineyard, not bought in, and biodynamic growers are encouraged to keep their own livestock, with horses useful as a replacement for the tractor. -prepared in fermentation in animal organs -Biodynamic compost is said to make the soil especially receptive to the cosmic—earthly, solar, planetary, stellar, and especially lunar—rhythms *Lunar Work* -Plants as having four components: -root (earth) -leaf/shoot (water) -flower (air) -fruit (fire) -correlate to moon in Zodiac. -These windows occur every 9 days or so but for 2-3 days only -Cellar work correlates as well, long aged wines bottled under Leo t seal in fruit *Pest Controll* -Collected, killed, burned and spread ashes -pyrethrines (from chrysanthemum) natural insecticide -Pheromone traps *Dynamized* -Stirring preps and changing direction creates chaos, that is when lunar energy is locked in *VY Practices* -weeder geese 4 per acre -mow-and-trow and mulches ...EX Maysara in Oregon bottling wine without sulfur and using Yarro, found flavor taint issue but still pursuing ...EX Beckmen family 125-acre Purisima Mountain Vineyard, Ballard Canyon, Demeter in 2009 ...EX Pierre Vincent, 5 years Bio see big advantage, yield is easy to balance BEURER ...EX... Weingut Beurer co-plants figs, peaches, sage, mint, and rosemary ...EX... Beurer Baking powder sprayed to absorbe moisture - burned some leaves ...EX... Beurer brown plastic pheromone canister ...EX... Beurer insect motel ...EX... Beurer 2004 made conversion, mushrooms popped up and then went away showing real change in the ecology of the site ...EX... durring conversion vines not prepared, lost entire lot to odium PONTETE-CANTET ...EX Pontet Canet 700 cu meters of fert a year (50 cows and 1 bull), 300 horns a year ..EX 2007 Ch Pontet Cante forced to spray b/c not strong yet. This is why he does not believe people who say they follow but don't cert ...EX Ch PC disease is expression of problem not problem ...EX Ch PCmono culture creates pest and disease attack and we are doing work arounds ...EX Ch PC says bio is cheaper, no chem purchase, and future of no wine is biggest expense ...EX Ch PC says corporate copper direction calls for 2,400g spray of copper. Because he uses support he uses 20-200 per ha and 100g in fall. Support herbs nettles, willow, and horsetail, flowers. Conventional standard 1000g 2-3x at end of season ...EX...AWGA funded study by Adelaide in Mclaren Vale. Planned 3 years but extended to 6 as major soil changes occurred in year 3. Testes of bio, next to organic, next to low input conventional, and high input conventional. Yields were 100% high input, 90% low input, 79% Organic 70% biodynamic. Their biggest measure was that weed competed for moisture (regional concern). Flat cost meant Bio was more expensive to make, but sis not account for the premium that Biodynamic grapes fetch. Blind sensory panel found Bio and Organic to be much higher quality. First year little difference between plots, but became more marked with each year. ...EX...Australia, Application 501 can have a reflecting of light affect and drying affect. *List* Nicolas Joly of Clos de la Coulée de Serrant in savennières from the mid 1980s; Domaine Huet of Vouvray, Domaine Leflaive of puligny-montrachet, and Domaine leroy in Vosne-Romanée from the late 1980s; chapoutier in Hermitage, Kreydenweiss, Ostertag, and Deiss in alsace in the early 1990s; and Comtes Lafon in meursault in the early 2000s. Other biodynamic domains include Nikolaihof in Austria's Wachau, Pingus in Spain's Ribera del Duero, and Viñedos Organicos Emiliana (VOE) in Chile, Fetzer in CA

grape to site and style (2015) (2000)

-Cab suited to flat sites, BD and Tokalon has 1% grade, Opus One has 3% grade ...EX...Touriga Franca planted on bottom of slope. Needs warmth to fully ripen and is often indicator of vintage if ripens fully and well. ...EX...Chardonnay, planted on 30% of the total vineyard, was traditionally grown on the east-facing slopes of the Côte des Blancs but has proved suitable in many other subregions, especially the Côte de Sézanne (In Champagne it grows vigorously and buds early, thus making it susceptible to spring frosts.)

Cold Climate Viti (2015)*

-Define, average mean temperatures for the growing season of below 16.0 °C/60.8 °F -ripen only early maturing grapes (chasselas, müller-thurgau, gewürztraminer, chardonnay, pinot noir, and gamay; especially warm mesoclimates for varieties such as riesling, ripens early to mid season -Most are white or only pale red, anthocyanin pigments and tannins in the grape skins needs greater and more prolonged warmth than does ripening of the flesh. -Sunshine sunshine, continental climates. *Winter Freeze* -continental climate (colder temps, not moderated, larger temp variation) -Frost resistant varieties -European vinifera varieties sensitive to cold require relatively warmer sites, however, where annual minimum temperatures of −20 °C/−4 °F are recorded no more than once in a decade. -Riesling and Chard frost resistant, even though PN ripens earlier may not be suited if frost risk (Baden) -Hybrids are frost resistant -rootstock selection -Crown gall often develops from frost injury -site selection vital (air drainage can raise temp 10F from valley floor sites that take in cold air),lake effect ...EX...Médoc suffered far less from the great winter freeze of 1956 than the inland vineyards of St-Émilion and Pomerol -vine mgmt to avoid winter stress is to achieve maximum carbohydrate reserves at the end of the growing season. Suitable training system, appropriately severe pruning level, and thinning so as to restrict yield, high yield can act to reduce levels of vine carbohydrates. *Winter Protection* -bury vines in the autumn ...EX...in Russia vines are trained in fan shape for easy burial. Same in Ningxia China where is gets -20C with wind -gets little below freezing (air may be 36C cooler) -labour intensive and expensive ...EX...russia, parts of the ukraine, some of the central Asian republics, and china still acceptable price to pay for viticulture. severe winters in upper new york state in the early 2000 has some reconsidering - just those few canes to be used for fruiting the following year are buried. Vines are also trained so that they have several trunks, so that those killed in winter can easily be replaced. -Fan training and taille Chablis -Aspersion spraying of vines ...EX... In 2012 Barolo was at risk of frost but freezing rain and snow coated vines protecting them ...EX...Long Island and Finger Lakes has dallied in growing hybrids, which have never successfully drawn the attention of fine-wine consumers. *Frost Damage* -Spring and Fall -overhead sprinklers support ...EX...Fetzer uses overhead sprinklers to break up inversion layer and allow cold air to move. Drought has meant frost damage in spring. -ice forms in the plant tissue of buds, infloresence, and young shoots & leaves -plant may recover by producing from basal buds but yield is depressed - defoliation, which is a problem if the fruit is not ripe and the vine's reserves of carbohydrates have not been restored. -VY site selection -late pruning delays bud break -Maintaining the soil as a firm, moist, weed-free surface helps encourage soil warming and nocturnal reradiation ...EX...in 1991 frost damage was so great in western France, particularly for the earlier budding white grape varieties, that total French wine production, which averaged nearly 55 million hl in 1991-2000, was less than 43 million hl/1,135 million gal. ...EX...even seemingly mild or cool (not cold climates) may suffer frost like 2014 Mendoza or Taurasi ...EX ... 2016 Spring Brice de la Morinière, managing director of Domaine Leflaive in Puligny-Montrachet was in New York at the time. Checking in with his team, he learned that when the sun rose, the ice and water on the vines magnified the rays, burning the leaves and shoot tips *Frost Control* -overhead sprinklers for inversion layer -darken soil to absorbe heat (Champagne and soot) -Aspersion -site selection/ drainage/ stoney soil -high trellis -wind machine -helicopter -smudge pot ...EX...Lazo machine, which is a liquid propane gas powered burner towed behind a tractor on frosty nights. Hot air is blown by a fan out of the burner at 1000 °C but cools quickly so the vines are not burned. -freeze the soil through drip irrigation. It warms the vines and soil directly, and (if the soil was previously dry) improves its heat conductivity so that more warmth comes up from below. The release of latent heat as the water freezes on the vines protects the vine tissue from injury. -late budding and early ripening grapes (Chard and Pinot bud early, microclimate needed)

Costs (2015) * MW Bookmark

-Important to understand price per ton paid for fruit vs yield in tons per acre and break even/profit point ...EX....Steve Matthiason (Napa) suggests gross revenue should double farming expenses *ESTABLISHING* *Land Cost* ...EX... in Champagne prices can be over 1.8m euros per hectare *Clean Up of Old VY* -Removal of old metal, plastic sheeting, steaks -Up root, pile and burn old vines -Testing for nematodes on multiple locations -$600/per acre *Soil Treatments* -Ripping: Soil can be ripped with two wingless tines (shanks) in more than one direction to improve access to stored soil moisture and decrease compaction caused by previous farming activities. Alternatively, a single winged tine can be used to make a single pass down the future vine rows to purposely restrict rooting depth and access to total available water. -New French philosophy emerging that soil should be tilled as little as possible where Matthiasson believes soil should be as even as possible for consistency of ripening -Fumigation if needed ...EX...Bruce Coulthard of Genesis-Soils sells a blend of five cultured natural mycorrhizae and complementary ingredients especially selected to aid grapevines. He says inoculating vines with these spores can significantly reduce vine stress, reduce water requirements and fight some plant diseases. Cost is 0.20USD a vine (similar to fertilizer application) -Cover crops applied the fall before, mowed in the following spring in prep for planting material. *Pre planting* -Planning of vineyard: may involve some EM imaging or boring of holes to determine soil variation -Installation of vineyard trellising system in spring with a straw marking where each vine will go. Expense will be determined by material, time. May be done by owner, contractor, or may be simple steak in the ground or full complex system with swinging arms -Pergola requires lots of material, guyot requires minimal material, goblet smallest material but may increase expense later on with labour required for hand harvesting -Trellis installation (over 2 years) $10,000/ per acre for VSP *Irrigation Material (where legal)* -Drip irrigation, flood, overhead -Fertigation potential (CAN-17 liquid fertigation material) ...EX..Zuccardi moving up hillside for better fruit incurs new costs of fumigating soil and no flood irrigation, must install full drip with precision delivery to account for varied soil -CA UCD establishing VY Irrigation water is applied weekly through August in years 1 and 2, beginning in late May or early June. Beginning in year 3, the start of the irrigation period will be in June and continue into September. -Drip installation $3,200 per acre *Vine Material* -$5 for 20/20 plant material (full virus protection) Steve Matthiasson, $2 for green grower for Peter of Holus Bolus, Rob of Gallo $3.40 a vine, Bob Betz $3 for ungrafted vines in WA due to little need for grafting -Vines hand planted by owner, contractor, or machine planted -Grow tubes may be desired ...EX... Croft used grow tubes in new plantings for wind protection but needed to open them everyday to avoid botrytis development and allow fresh air -Applications of weed control herbicide may be needed to keep vines from being over competed with or shadowed. Pre- Emergent 'Chateau' or 'Prowl' and post emergent 'Buccaneer' may be use in CA ($25 per acre each) -Cover crop planted again after vines take hold -Plant material $5,800 per acre: 8-foot by 5-foot (row-by-vine) *Wind Breaks/Pest Controll/Frost protection* -Windbreaks offer many benefits. They reduce leaf tatter, sandblast desiccation, and wind damage to growing tips. Protected grapevines produce greater leaf area with larger leaves, longer shoots, higher pruning weights, increased vine capacity, longer internode length, improved pollination and fertilization, improved berry set, and improved stomatal conductance and photosynthesis. Evapotranspiration is improved and water stress is reduced. -Olive oil trees for windbreaks and stop erosion at Croft new planting in new site ...EX...Boxed in VY in New Zealand, trees that leaf out before budbreak. Netting for birds. -Expense of netting for birds (Long Island) or hail (Mendoza) Manual netting can cost as little as $200 to move each season, while fully automatic machines can cost $7,000 or more. -Over the row netting expensive and time consuming -Side netting less time and expense and easier, but more material as must cover top and bottom of fruit to keep birds out -Overhead Netting: Full canopy overhead nets are a new way to protect a vineyard. ...EX...One company that makes overhead netting netting is Smart Net Systems in British Columbia, Canada. -Windmachine ($250 per acre), Sprinklers, smudge pots, etc *Labour* -No shoot thinning or pruning 1st year -2nd year cartons are lifted and in Feb vine is pruned and trained, carton replaced (hand) -2nd year May training begins, July carton removed for good and trained again, third pass may be needed in August ($1,000 per acre) -Pest Control Advisor may begin in 3rd year: monitors insect and mite pests, beneficial insect populations and looks for signs or symptoms of foliar diseases beginning in the third year to determine if control measures are necessary. *ONGOING* *Labour Concerns* -Pest Control Advisor $70 -Hand harvest $450 per acre labour cost -UCDavis: Labor rates of $20.10 per hour for machine operators and $16.08 for general labor include payroll overhead of 34%. The basic hourly wages are $15.00 for machine operators and $12.00 for general labor. ...EX...Noval steep terraces of Douro mean backpack and bell sraying each plant. Bonterra in CA will ride ATV and mass spray whole row in 2 minutes! *Plant material* -Potential for 2% replanting costs $102 per acre -Cover crop replanting $25 per acre every year *Pruning* -Winter pruning $300 per acre -Move wires $400 per acre (by hand) -Fruit thinning $200 per acre, by hand -Green harvest $300 per acre *Applications* -Weed applications $125 per acre -Disease applications $300 for mildew (North Coast CA) -Drip fertigation $25 per acre ...EX... in 2015, water in Murray Darling (Australia) cost nearly $300 per megalitre, with 4.5-8 megalitres of water required per hectare. The demand for water meant for some winegrowers it was more lucrative to sell water than their crop. In this case, the stagnant tonnage prices suggest there was not the demand to increase the price per bottle regardless of cost inputs. *Others* -Property Tax ($944 North Coast CA), Liability Insurance ($21), Office ($300), Foreman ($583), Sanitation ($85), and Interest on operating capital *ALTERNATIVE METHODS* *Organic and Biodynamic Costs* ...EX...in Napa the average annual farming cost is $7,000/acre for a conventional vineyard versus $10,000/acre and $10-11,000/acre for an organic and biodynamic vineyard, respectively (Doug Hill) but may earn more $ per bottle -Must take into account local pressures and climate -CA $275 non-refundable fee is due to CCOF. -Demeter USA LOCAL costs: Fee: $300 per annual application. Licensing Fee: Assessed at .05% of gross sales over $100,000 per year. Peer to peer system -10ha vineyard about 500 euro per year France (Chateau Feely) ...EX...Pontet-Canet says the vineyards of the world are on fire, saving his vines is worth every penny ...EX...Château Miraval says wine is cheaper to grow organic because chemical cost so much and climate is mild

Mineral deficiencies in the vineyard (1999)*

-The mineral elements most likely to be deficient in vineyards are nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, zinc, boron, iron, manganese, and magnesium Nitrogen- rarely in lack as vine needs little and vigour, in general is avoided. Needs certain amount to have vigour at start of season to get leaves out to ripen in time. optimum nitrogen supply to the vine is at most only moderate. The optimum supply for red wine production is lower than for white wine because nitrogen deficiency increases berry skin phenolics but also limits the build up of flavour precursors in white grapes. Lack can produce off flavors (hydrogen sulfide odors) in ferm from yeast (DAP added where legal) Acidity influences the speed at which organic matter is mineralized so that a soil pH of 5.5-6 can limit nitrogen supply to the vines -Nitrogen is essential for vine growth and is one of the three major elements, along with potassium and phosphorus, needed most for plant growth. It is an important component of proteins, and also of chlorophyll. The most common symptoms of nitrogen deficiency, which can be expected on sandy soils low in organic matter, are reduced vigour and pale green or yellow leaves. -cover crops containing clover and other legumes should also be monitored carefully as they might add excessive nitrogen to the vineyard soil. ...EX...Croft uses red clover for Nitrogen fixing, sandy soil and gully washer downpours remove nutrients off slopes -nitrogen deficiency increases berry skin phenolics but also limits the build up of aroma precursors in white grapes -A further complication has arisen from recent research showing that low nitrogen contents in the berries can be a cause of difficulties in wine-making, leading to stuck fermentations and the presence of hydrogen sulfide and its malodorous mercaptan derivatives in the wine. This is especially common with grapes grown in warm, sunny climates. (overcome with N additions to must) -problem of combining suitable nitrogen nutrition for vine balance with optimum concentrations of natural nitrogen compounds in the berries remains largely unsolved. Potassium -Soils deficient in potassium, or potash, may result in grapes of high acid concentration and low ph because low potassium levels allow greater concentrations of acid tartrate ion to stay in solution. -Potassium: Deficiencies are common in cool and humid climates, where the efficiency of water use for growth and yield means that potassium and some other elements are diluted in the plant. -Potassium (K) deficiencies show up first in older leaves as chlorosis, which may become a marginal burn when severe. Potassium-deficient leaves are often shiny. Severe deficiencies can inhibit growth, yield, and sugar content. They can be confirmed easily by analysing for potassium levels in leaves or petioles, and 1.0 to 1.5 per cent K is the optimal range. Potassium deficiency is more evident during drought or in cold soils in spring, both of which reduce the roots' uptake of potassium. -Potassium-deficient vines are more than usually susceptible to drought and vine diseases, and the fruit lacks sugar as well as colour and flavour. Phosphate fertilizers are not readily available to plants grown in acid soils, so liming might increase growth because it makes more phosphorus available to the vine. -Phosphorus in the vine is an essential component of compounds involved in photosynthesis and sugar-starch transformations as well as the transfer of energy. Phosphorus deficiency is rare, and found mostly on acid soils, sometimes in hillside vineyards, but its symptoms are a gradual loss of vigour and, sometimes, some red spots on the leaves. -Possible specific quality roles for the trace elements (copper, zinc, manganese, iron, boron, and molybdenum) remain obscure but potentially interesting. ...EX...Pontet-Canet has 40 cows on hand for fertilizer. Stoney soil means water carries away nutrients easily. ...EX...Limestone is generally deficient in iron, which is needed in the pigmentation of red grapes. White grapes often found on Limestone -Alex Maltman from Guild Somm ...EX...Mayasara in Oregon bury cow horns and create Bio d mixtures to spray vineyard with minerals that are not too heavy handed. ...EX...Fertigation used in Gimblett Graves which is 90% gravel and has low organic content. Bob Campbell MW involved in Bio-start trials to evaluate best regimes of nutrient mixes -Calcium content can effect acidity/alkalinity causing chlorosis in alkaline and CAL may be added to acidic soils -organic matter needed in sandy soils to hold minerals and water -water can was away nutrients, drought can concentrate salinity -Continued use of the same parcel of land for viticulture over extended periods of time reduces the levels of nutrients. Studies of old vineyard soils in Bordeaux have shown that fertility can be restored by heavy applications of organic matter, lime, phosphorus, and potassium. Organic matter such as mulches and animal manures can be used to fertilize vineyards, but they are typically lower in nutrient content and more expensive. They often, however, improve soil structure by their organic matter content. Such forms of fertilizer are favoured for organic viticulture.

influence the alcohol levels (2010) (2006) (2003)*

-Very lose rule, sunlight creates phtosynth creates alcohol, therefor closer to equator means more alch due to more sunlight hours *altitude* -retards budbreak, shortening season -slows ripening -Lower temperatures can be further compounded by the generally greater rainfall and cloudiness at higher altitudes. -Such effects are most marked in cool viticultural climates, where the rates of vine and berry development are directly limited by temperature. -as restrained styles preferred wine regions moving up hills ...EX.. Zuccardi Malbec moving from floor to hills, restrained alcohol and ripeness *Weather* -Temp is more about ripeness, sunlight is more about abv levels but hard to differentiate as they often rise and fall together at site (Australia's often cloudy Hunter valley produces only table wines despite being very warm) -Average mean temperature during ripening strongly influences potential wine style -Late-maturing varieties such as Grenache, Mourvèdre, Carignan, and Muscat of Alexandria need not only high heat totals to reach maturity, but also moderately high temperatures during ripening for maximum wine quality. -Sunlight means a strong and constant sugar flow to the ripening berries assures not only their sweetness and sufficient alcohol in the wine, but also that colour, flavour, and aroma compounds are not limited by a lack of sugar substrate for their formation. -Heavy rain can lead to temporary juice dilution and sometimes to incomplete ripening, especially if accompanied by lack of sunshine. -Drought high potential abv or retarded ripening low abv ...EX...Mendocino Low Gap - mild, humid afternoon sea breezes reduce stresses on the vines and greatly improve day conditions for photosynthesis and ripening *Yield* -pruning controls yields -rootstocks control vigor -some grapes sugar accumulation more sensitive to yield than others (red over white, Pinot Noir and Merlot particular) ...EX...Grenache yield sensitive D'Arenberg selection for bottling highly tied to yields *exposure* -canopy management to avoid or increase shade -Canopy management techniques are essentially aimed at producing an 'open' canopy microclimate, which is characterized by good leaf and fruit exposure to the sun and other climate elements, and therefore not much shade -Canopy management techniques, especially trellis change, can offset the negative effects of vines with excess vigour, but are not always necessary for low-vigour vineyards such as those found in most of the classic fine wine regions of Europe -Lyre: two upward trained curtains better leaf and fruit exposure (inverted GDC), medium vigor vines ...EX... excessive alcohol: "Drip irrigation and VSP trellising have been the two worst things that happened to viticulture over the last 30 years," longtime grower Pete Opatz -vineyards are healthier on the whole and new wine clones ripen rapidly and earlier

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harvesting options (2012) *

-harvest a vineyard by hand requires between one and ten man-days per hectare, as opposed to less than five man-hours per hectare by machine. -cost, labor, people mgmt, and style of wine are considerations ...EX...Manual labour in Australia (with a high minimum wage of $19.06AUD/hour for a skilled vineyard labourer) may increase the price per bottle, whereas in Chile (with a minimum wage the approximate equivalent of $2.87AUD/hour) the bottle price may not be affected. ...EX...2027 Cellars (Niagara Pensinsula), the overall cost of machine harvesting is $40-50/hour versus hand harvesting at approximately $400/hour. *HAND HARVEST* -can be employed in any site -only need secateurs and basket -harvest culture, marketing, and traditions -nobel rot , sparkling (whole bunch, delicate, no excessive skin contact from machine harvesting) -whole bunch, carbonic -when stalks needed for drain or tannin -If the fruit is at a convenient height and the crop heavy, an experienced picker can harvest up to 2 tonnes a day -worker fatigue in an issue (Bd trained close to ground, or pergola) (experienced picker may have < 500 kg/1,100 lb in a day's work) -low yields increase costs -expensive (up to 10x more than machine), time consuming, skilled labor ...Ex. Chateau d'Yquem employs 140 pickers who can do 5-6 tries over 3 months. 1 vine=1 glass ...Ex... Workers in Aussie would harvest cane, then grapes, as cane mechanized, grapes mechanized *MACHINE HARVEST* -large operations -speed at peak condition and inclement weather -can run at night (hot climate, where grapes harvested by day can arrive at the winery at over 40 °C/104 °F) -triage tables for different level of botrytis -specific planting needed -flat terrain -shaking can tear skin, O2 protection needed (potassium metabisulfite dust), closed containers quickly to winery are best -machine harvested grapes (no MOG) can be transported in closed tankers with CO2 gas -excessive skin contact risk, esp whites becoming too phenolic ...EX...machine-picked Sauv Blanc has 10 times more thiols than hand-picked fruit, which, Jamie Goode said, may be due to damage to the Sauvignon, or the creation of aromatic chemicals during machine harvesting as a signal to other plants. ...EX...Croft has to train spur canes up on wires for new 1.5 meter machines for terraces ...EX...Vinho ao Alto vines have problems with machines slipping if any moisture present.

row spacing and management (2014)*

-ideally face sun midday -rows up and down slope over 10% incline so machines don't slip sideways -plant 90 degrees to prevailing wind causes wind break by first row -if row not straight it will begin to lean to the side and may snap supports -planting on random topology will require special row planning to keep supports stable and growth even -large equipment requires shorter rows for machinery turn around (lost crop vs efficiency) -rows over 200 m are too long and stress wire tension -number of posts take up space and are cost of establishment -long rows cause access issues and harvesters will fill baskets. Best to arrange in workable blocks - in traditional VY row space 1 m (bordeaux, bourg, champ) - new world 2.5 common - 4 m seen in vinho verde, la mancha, italian tendone -excessive shading, especially in vigorous sites where canopy grows large ...EX "Vigna a Alta" alt to terraces in Duero, planted up and down slopes for mech. Across from Graham's Malvedos property. Totally changes fertility and grows in patchy, has taken 15 years to get right, OK up to 30% incline. Two row terraces up to 40%, 1 row at 45%. Closeness of Vinhos ao alto causes risk of odium and other fungal disease - vines are now being grown further upward to get aeration ...EX...divided canopies and swing arms can mean more space needed Texas 11 feet between rows. The Watson System cross arms and foliage ...EX...Maximum sunlight interception key. The steep slopes of the Mosel allow access to sunlight at higher planting than flat land ...EX... Conversley in New Zealand Marlborough flat planted vineyards may incourage partial shading as a way to carry more crop and complement ripe with less ripe flavors in a high potential site. ...EX...2.5 meters through much of Fetzer vy for small tractors, where very narrow 1 meter tractors designed for Taylor Fladgate to mechanize on Duero terrace. ...EX...Hand harvesting at Pontet Canet means more vine density to soak up water and create density through competition -Densely packed rows can keep cold air from draining, row orientation can affect as well. It can also hold humidity in causing frost ...EX....GDC or Lyre in cold finger lakes takes more room

botrytis (2013) (2009) (2006) *

-if white grapes infected additional SO2 in picking bins, better pre ferm settling, prompt ferm, high dose active yeast may show no taint -lost fruit aroma and flavor -spraying begins at first few leaves, every 10-15 days, until harvest interval -BT may infect flower in wet cond, bunch rot results -can become resistant to chems -Scala reliable tool -bio fungicide Sentinel from NZ -Stem rot -Botrytis spores germinate either on wet surfaces or where the ambient humidity is at least 90 per cent. Optimal infection temperatures are 15 to 20 °C/59-68 °F. -rain at harvest creates particular risk, early harvesting results in lower abv -can cause issues in grafting nurseries -emerging shoots in spring and young bunches which fall off with obvious effects on yield if effected early in season - flower parts infected and remain trapped in the developing bunches. - dry autumn needed to restrain growth for dessert wine -Birds can attack grapes causing wounds where botrytis enters -Thrips in NZ are a vector -mechanical damage to plants can cause wounds -can enter plant through stomata -poor yields, manual labor -loss of pigment, off flavor - Charcoal fining can remove taint in red wine, but cannot make quality wine - can raise potential alcohol above allowed level -volatile acidity risks -green harvesting creates bigger grapes in tighter bunches incresing risk -Thin Skinned grapes with sugar: Sem, Ries, Chenin, Furmint -Merlot P.N. Carignan also susceptible -Cab and Chard resistant -different clones have different tolerances -leafy canopies to be avoided -bunch thinning can aid -removal of fallen leaves and pruning material avoids over wintering - spraying another option, 6 from flower to harvest in wet area -fungus adapting to resist chems > change to natural menthods -antagonistic fungus being researched to combat, varies in control -BOTRY-Zen® from New Zealand -Ex Hambledon in Hampshire England Chard hangs 1 week longer, can get undesirable marmalade flavors. -EX. Bedell Cellars Long Island NY nets to protect from bird damage -EX. Merlot susceptible to in 1991 Cheval Blanc made no grand vin due to rain before harvest ...Ex. Margan winery Hunter Valley perfect cond. ...Ex. Chateau d'Yquem employs 140 pickers who can do 5-6 tries over 3 months. 1 vine=1 glass ...EX Leopold at Dufort-Vivents adds tannin powder to grey rot affected fermentations to improve color at primary. NOBEL ROT -may have fungus for 6 weeks, slow water release -high acid grapes balance sweetness -natural antibiotic occurs that inhibits yeast growth and ferments slowly and does not referment

canopy management (2006)*

-improve yield a quality, control vine disease, especially on high vigor sites -New World 80s and 90s -canopy microclimate -principles were best formulated by the experimental work of Professor Nelson shaulis of Cornell University in New York state. 1960s showed better exposure to improve yield, quality, and grape composition (eating grapes) -mechanical harvest and pruning followed -significant reduction in diseases such as powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot with open canopy -early site selection in NW was not great, canopy mgmt was a great way to cope (opening vines in high vigour sites). Shading vigor was made worse by agro chem, fertilizers, and irrigation -trellising can lead to great exposure to improve on poor terroir (vine training highly related) -bugbreak and fruitfulness are harmed by shade, open to sunlight -global concern about the use of agricultural chemicals, there is a swing towards using canopy management to help control fungal diseases and reduce reliance on sprays (IPM) -hard for sprays to penetrate dense canopy -as main shoots grow, throw out side shoots, vigor of this causes canopy overcrowding -better canopy management, less copper used *Cycle* -SHOOT THINING which removes unwanted shoots early in the season -removing excess shoots allow remaining plant to grow in more open condition (shoot removal common to high quality cane pruned sites). -TRIMMING, which cuts off excessive shoot growth in the summer -trimming side shoots keeps sun on grapes -LEAF REMOVAL leaf removal in the fruit zone, which allows more fruit exposure to sun and wind -SHOOT POSITIONING, which makes trimming and leaf removal easy and effective -pruning also affects canopy density, as well as vine balance. -These needs to be repeated every season. Trellising offers more permanent solution to many canopy problems (canopy shape, size, and density) -increasing the canopy surface area and decreasing shading ( geneva double curtain, lyre, scott henry, and smart-dyson ) -less scope in the Old World for canopy management since row spacing is traditionally less, and trimming and leaf removal are used anyway. -traditional viticulturists may ascribe the quality and disease effects solely to the associated lower yield or vigour, and more generally to the terroir. Not canopy mgmt, often not used as seriously as in NW -Spain La Mancha uses canopy mgmt -Contemporary thinking about canopy management suggests the optimal degree of leaf and fruit exposure might vary according to variety and region. There have been instances where excessive fruit exposure has had negative effects on quality. For example, in association with high temperatures it can lead to loss of colour, an effect sometimes called 'berry pinking'; and berries may shrivel if they are exposed to too much heat. ...EX...Stefani Poni at the Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore di Piacenza finds that leaf removal pre-bloom helps reduce bunch compactness in varieties such as Trebbiano and Barbera, allowing for higher brix and anthocyanin ...EX 20 years ago copper 20 kilo per hectare used! (Benjamin Leroux) ...EX Univ of Adelaide has app for phone that measures leaf index ...EX Leaf area measurment can be an indicator of irrigation, vigour, vine balance and correlates with the final quality of the berry Dr. De Bei from Univ of Adelaide ...EX Lalou Bize-Leroy trimming, rolls vines up into 'princess laya buns' to avoid hedge trimming to avoid laterals, hard to manage, but great idea ...EX Dominique Lafon height, hedging higher means less lateral and increases ripeness, requires taller tractors that risk tipping ...EX..."Vigna a Alta" Closeness of Vinhos ao alto causes risk of odium and other fungal disease - vines are now being grown further upward to get aeration ...EX... Vinho Verde pergola was meant to give air movement and allow crops to be grown over and under of fertile soil. Now switching to mechanical with less labor. ...EX...Pete Opatz thinks keeping a canopy to ripen few grapes in CA has lead to high alcohol wines and is a waste of resources.

Grafting *

PROCESS -scions taken from mother garden, tested for purity and health - each cutting will have 1 fruit bud, disinfected and stored -rootstock wood comes from specialist growers in Southern France and Northern Italy, wood is harvested in winter, disinfected, and stored -grafting most common was Omega machine, fast and well, found to introduce wood disease -more nursery now, few can do Anglaise which is preferred now -scion and rootstock are matched for diameter so 2 cambium layers match up and form callus, immediately dipped in luke warm grafting wax -set in boxes with wet sand/peat up to below graft, soil warmed and stored happily, in a few weeks can be planted -usually in March and April in field in May -after 1st growing season they are inspected, cut back, bundled and ready for sale -Grafted vines need replanting 30-40 years -ungrafted vines last 80-100 years -hybrids may have future but grafters forced them out, 1930s hybrids outlawed -grafting research mostly in the hands of state funded inst (Geisenheim, Montpelier, Bd, Davis) -Nurserymen grow rootstock, pay plant-breeder's royalties to developers. Hist -first graft was Cadillac spread through France by Montpellier to save from phylloxera -Stock came from Texas (limestone soil) -Grafting made vines highly productive and created deluge of wine causing price crash further compounding crisis. Caused riots in Narbonne 1907, Champagne 1911, lead to AOC ROOTED CUTTINGS -take cuttings stimulate root growth and plant -risk of no rootstock -cheap and self done -alternative is purchasing cutting from vine nursery FIELD GRAFTING -cut out planted vines of rootstock and put new ones on top -oft needs irrigation -trained labor needed -good climate needed -growing in popularity - a lot of work, some failure is common, but currently considered best LAYERING -antiquity statements -risks of no rootstock, and inheritance REPIQUAGE -replacing old vines, lowers avg age of site TOP GRAFTING -done in spring as breaking into leaf -trunk is cut and two wedges are made for new variety -bound by grafting tape -once bleeding stops wood will fuse and flourish -suckers from previous variety need to be grubbed off -risk of wind damage -quick and cost effective ECONOMIC AND STRUCTURE -ungrafted vines 80-100 years, grafted 30-40 -roostockes are licensed to nurserymen, pay plant-breeders royalties to developer

Vineyard site concerns (2013) (2003) (1999)*

TOPOLOGY (lat, alt, aspect, layout) WEATHER (length of season, frost free days, heat summation/degree days/LTI/MTCM sunlight hours, diurnal shift, winds, rainfall) WATER (irrigation, body of water), PESTS AND DISEASES (pests, diseases), SOIL (type and depth), COST (trellis/training, Rootstock, clone, desired cropping level, quality) -Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and digitized databases changing the game, days of trial and error may be at an end *Topology* -Altitude: mean temp falls by 0.5c per 100m rise, cold 300m above sea level, hot may be 1000m above sea level. Higher elevations to take advantage of lower temperatures, more delicate wines. -Aspect: incoming solar radiation 'insolation' greater up to 40 degree slope (significant end of growing season sun's heat is weaker), thermal zones, thinner less vig topsoil, erosion, drainage --S(N)E site:morning sun, cool night (Southern Hemisphere Prefered) --S(N)W site:warm slower but warm evening, prevailing winds common= may cool site = can reduce extreme heat mid day ...EX...Chablis air drainage for avoiding spring frosts on flowers *Weather* -180 frost free days required -days from flower to harvest good indicator -global warming -May include evaluating climatic data from famous region and trying to replicate =homoclimes ...EX...Oregon Pinot Noir and Burgundy MACRO -determines by virtue of temperature and sunshine hours which vine varieties should be grown, and the resulting likely wine style and quality. -For example, lower temperatures produce more delicately flavoured wines, and hot climates produce wines relatively high in alcohol. MESO CLIMATE - shelter from wind, unique pockets, soil, - Diurnal Temp: regions warmer at night heat up faster during the day, high diurnal aids acid retention , crisp fruit -Extent to which cold air drains away, and the likelihood of spring and autumn frost. -Proximity to lake effect may buffer in cold weather (transition to water) ...EX...Heat traps in the vieyard for later ripening clones or varietals Charles Symington and Touriga Franca *Water* - Body of Water: lake effect, Gulf Stream (9C at lat), In summer warm air off land replaced by cooling air off water equalizing -Drought and irrigation laws -Bordeaux= Gironde, Germany= Rhine, Mosel, Austria Burgenland = Neusiedler Sea, Hungary = Lake Balaton, Australia = Hunter Valley, NY= Finger lakes, Canada= Niagra Penn, Napa & Somoma= Petaluma gap and SF bay ...EX...Acaibo winery new site establishment during CA drought used sensor in vine that reported water level to computer for watering -Excess water may lead to vine diseases (transition to pest and disease) -The balance between rainfall and evaporation indicates the likelihood of drought, ...EX...Sanlúcar de Barrameda whose sweet ground water is lifted up through the sandy soils, unlikely as it may sound, by tidal pressure. Climate change may increase this. -Tie in, rainfall and humidity affect the likelihood of many vine diseases, especially important fungal diseases such as powdery mildew, downy mildew, and botrytis bunch rot. The likelihood of these diseases can be estimated by reference to climate records. -Threat of nematodes may be evaluated by knowledge of indigenous types, or of the previous crops grown on the site. -It may even be possible to avoid the introduction of phylloxera and other pests and diseases by creating a local quarantine. -If phylloxera and nematodes are considered a likely problem, the appropriate rootstocks can be used. ...EX... Zuccardi moved VY up hillsides for more elegance, no flood irrigation, got nematodes badly, drip irrigation made it worse, rootstocks vital *Soil* -Site selection normally involves a process of soil mapping and physical and chemical analysis of soil samples. Potential problems such as poor drainage or soil acidity to be treated appropriately before the vineyard is planted. -water holding capacity and nutrient -plowing technique depends of size and ability to manage (horse vs tractor) -erosion ...EX...Croft Patamares in Duero at risk for erosion because of no walls, 3% grade (rice patty, Benzinger in CA does the same) towards drains to allow run off of rain. To further help with erosion grasses are grown in winter and mowed under in spring as mulch -Soil depth and nutrients may indicate high vigor -vigor may require extra labor for canopy management and trellising material (transition into cost) *Costs* -financial value in potential for quality -Price it can command if or if not appellation -Proximity to services -Frontage to busy roads is essential if retail sales are expected from the vineyard site. Good communications with markets and proximity to a supply of labour can also be significant. The performance and reputation of other vineyards in the area can also be commercially important.

Soil Texture*

*Texture* -Soils predominantly of clay are described as heavy textured. -Loams are medium-textured soils, normally containing a fairly even balance of clays, silt, and sand, together with a moderately high organic matter content. -Sands are light-textured soils, often loose and gritty, with at most a low clay content. -porosity is space avail for water -permeability is ability for water to get into and drain from soil (how well spaces are connected) -CEC = cation exchange capacity, determines fertility, humus and minerals from rocks ...EX...Fetzer and Matthiasson like even texture through soil to make an even crop. CHALK - micro pores can absorb water and release it as soil begins to fry -Allow roots to pentrate deep accessing water and allowing roots to have even temperature ...EX...Clay soils important for deep rooting keeping roots cool to delay flowering and avoid spring frosts CLAY -Clay is the finest of the inorganic soil fractions, particles conventionally less than 0.002 mm in diameter. -If mixed in water, most of the particles remain in colloidal suspension for a long time. -Because their surface areas are so large relative to their volumes, they have by far the greatest capacity for combining with, adsorbing, and holding plant nutrient elements and water. -Fertile soils normally have at least a moderate proportion of clay. ...EX...In the area below Chalone -- referred to as wet Champagne -- the poor-permeability clays and sands of the lower Cretaceous period are dominant. SILT -Silt is an intermediate fraction, comprising the particles ranging between 0.002 and 0.05 mm in diameter. -small enough to be carried in suspension by turbulent rivers -large enough to settle out fairly quickly, silt particles are prominent in alluvial soils deposited by river floods. SAND -Sand particles are the largest of those generally thought of as truly constituting soil, and range from 0.05 mm up to 2 mm in diameter. -Unless mixed with a proportion of clay, sand remains loose under most conditions. -In contrast to clay, the surface area of a sand particle is small relative to its volume, so it has little capacity for surface binding and storing of plant nutrients or water. ...EX...Noval top of terraces have sandy soils that they grow ungrafted vines of Tinta Roriz ORGANIC MATTER -Organic matter plays an important complementary role, especially on very sandy soils where it is practically the only medium for nutrient and water storage. -Organic matter also helps to make clay soils more friable. ...EX...Pontet-Canot has 40 cows on hand to produce fertilizer STONES -Stones limit soil water-holding capacity -affect temperature both within and immediately above the soil. -Stony soils usually well drained and have a low water-holding capacity, while a surface layer of stones greatly enhances resistance to soil erosion and reduces surface water loss by evaporation. -stones less likely to be eroded ...EX...Zuccardi EMR scans to match varietals to soil type, Cabernet Franc on stoney sites - skin color development more sensitive to cool moisture than Malbec. QUALITY -Clay and clay-loam soils can be suitable if they contain ample calcium (as in most limestone-or chalk-derived soils) and at least some organic matter. -strongest growth of vines usually on loams and silty soils. Soil fertility and vigor potential issue -Soils in the clay to loam texture range will store in the vicinity of 15 mm/0.6 in of water per 10 cm/4 in of soil depth, in forms that the vine roots can extract. -Sand will hold 10 mm or less of root-available water per 10 cm of soil depth. Dryness and lack of nutrient may be an issue -Deep Sand may have benefits: Bordeaux, vine roots penetrate many metres if the subsoil texture and drainage permit, and can thus exploit a large enough volume to compensate for the low water-holding capacity per soil volume unit. -Sand: fertigation/irrigation where permitted -An ideal soil for wine quality (depending on climate and the rate of evaporation) (regard with potential for irrigation) will balance texture against root-available depth to give an adequate storage capacity for water and nutrients, and to provide the vine with a steady moderate supply of both for balanced growth and fruiting. ...EX...Bordeaux: range of soils for quality, from the dominant deep, stony sands of the médoc, because of low water-holding capacity to heavy (but well-structured) clays in pomerol, because the water is present but not easily available to the vines. For BD it is better than intermediate textures such as silt or loam soils, which can hold significant supplies of water readily available to the vine.

Rootstocks (2011) (2002)*

-Different species of vitis have different root distribution and habits, a difference that is deliberately used in the breeding of rootstocks. -SOIL (water/nutrients/texture/pH/salt/lime) -CLIMATE (cold/heat/drought/sunlight) -WATER (drip, flood) -PESTS -VIGOUR (nutrient and water uptake, extent of root growth) -FRUIT QUALITY -NATURAL AFFINITY between root and scion -LEGAL ALLOWANCE of appellation -salt & drought resistance important b/c climate change. (EU wine limits 394 g/l Na 606g/l Cl) -rootstocks struggle with lime, more chlorosis (iron is locked up, needed to produce chlorophyll) berlandierii -some rootstocks induce Magnesium deficit limiting photosynth - nursery concerns: ability of mother plants to produce wood, easy of cutting roots, ease of graft -riparia = (River grape likes cool moist) vigor reducing, phyllox, shallow rooting -rupestris = (rock grape) vigor increasing, phyllox, digs deep, drought resisting (AXR1) -berlandieri= phyllox, limestone high pH, digs deep, copes with salt, drought resistant, vigour -Nematodes soil needs to be fumigated then replanted with resistant stock -champini= fights nematodes, copes with salt - longii= fights nematodes -Rootstock Scion combo= minimize adverse soil & achieve balance of root shot growth with objectives -phyllox proof Borner -highly phylloxera resistant = Riparia Gloire, 101-14 Mgt, SO 4, 5BB - nematodes= Ramsey, Dog Ridge, Harmony -vigour reducing (global warming)- Riparia Gloire de Montpelier, 420A, 41B, 161-49 101-14 -vigour inducing Rupestris St George, 99R, 101R ***Ex. Zoccardi 1103 for low water, nematode, and phylloxera ***EX Zoccardi 101-14 for drip irrigation as it limits vigor and is good for nematodes. Is not deep rooting so encourage to go deep an avoid nematodes ...Ex. Zoccardi has some flood irrigation that kills phylloxera but drip irrigation encourages nematodes as root don't reach deep and they live 2 meters into soil ...Ex. *AXR1 vinifera x rupestris in CA not phyllox resistant. Once called 'nearest to all purpose rootstock by Winkler textbook' Ex. Belle Pente in OR on own roots ...Ex Benjamine Leroux, Burgundy still recovering from poor SO4 rootstock planted in 70s and 80s ...EX Benjamine Leroux, Burgundy, riparia most common selected rootstock, high quality, less productive, expensive because it is difficult for his local nursery to grow SO4 is much easier but lower quality ...EX Dominique Lafon, Burgundy, riparia is great but doesn't tolerate limestone on the hillside, he is using 3309 cross 16149 for very high limestone but may have issues- some have died (shoots sensitive to wind), 428 'riparia of limestone' has been trying side by side for 15 years and likes, all rootstocks have costs and benefits he says variety is best ***EX Olivier Merlin chooses rootstock with global warming in mind (delayed ripening, not early) ***EX Fleury in Champagne uses SO4, biodynamic and wants fruit to ripen before threat of weather since spraying is limited (struggles to take up magnesium) ...EX-110R low water sites in warm climates, Yalumba uses and propogates ***EX -Goldeneye in CA use 420A imparts low to vigour and induces low yields on high potential sites, sensitive to potassium deficiency ***EX-Porto, Taylor-Fladgate planting first vineyard to test rootstock and vine affinity instead of wholesale selection ***EX -Freedom has high resistance to both rootknot and dagger nematodes. not resistant to Phylloxera ...EX Jon Pollard of Gusbourne Wines (England) attributes the above average fatality of Chardonnay planted on 161-49 to the rootstock's low vigour ...EX Bisol Winery (Venice) reports that the local grape variety Dorona - when own rooted - is not only resistant to, but also favours, saline soils ...EX Steve Matthiasson (Napa) reports that the drought resistant St. George rootstock thrived in dry California vintages like 2012 and 2013, when it had been previously shunned due to a fear of producing green and/or tannic wines -101-14 makes low potassium wines *What are the vineyard factors that influence the choice of rootstocks?* -SOIL (water/nutrients/texture/pH/salt/lime) ...EX...Goldeneye in CA use 420A imparts low to vigour and induces low yields on high potential sites, sensitive to potassium deficiency -CLIMATE (cold/heat/drought/sunlight) ...EX...EX Olivier Merlin chooses rootstock with global warming in mind (delayed ripening, not early) -WATER (drip, flood) ...EX... Zoccardi 101-14 for drip irrigation as it limits vigor and is good for nematodes. Is not deep rooting so encourage to go deep an avoid nematodes ...EX...Steve Matthiasson (Napa) reports that the drought resistant St. George rootstock thrived in dry California vintages like 2012 and 2013, when it had been previously shunned due to a fear of producing green and/or tannic wines -PESTS (nematode, Phylloxera) ...EX...highly phylloxera resistant = Riparia Gloire, 101-14 Mgt, SO 4, 5BB ...EX...Geissenheim nematode proof rootstock 50 years to make -VIGOUR (nutrient and water uptake, extent of root growth) Jon Pollard of Gusbourne Wines (England) attributes the above average fatality of Chardonnay planted on 161-49 to the rootstock's low vigour -FRUIT QUALITY desired (volume vs value) ...EX...Yalumba has own grafting nursery. One of their 6 primary questions is grape volume/quality desired. -VITI PRACTICE ...EX...Fleury in Champagne uses SO4, biodynamic and wants fruit to ripen before threat of weather since spraying is limited (struggles to take up magnesium) -NATURAL AFFINITY between root and scion ...EX...Porto, Taylor-Fladgate planting first vineyard to test rootstock and vine affinity instead of wholesale selection -LEGAL ALLOWANCE of appellation

Ripening *

-Ripening can be affected by many plant, pest and disease, and environmental factors, it affects wine quality since it is so crucially related to the chemical and physical composition of the harvested fruit, and so to eventual wine quality -Vines collect water, stoma collect CO2, photo synth convert this to sugar, which is stored in grape -fruitset grapes are hard and green -the first flowers to open set the first berries which in turn go through veraison and engustment, and ripen first -engustment: Most aroma compounds develop in the berry in glycosylated form, and hence are secondary metabolites. These, and the free volatile forms, increase in concentration late in ripening. -sugars generated in leaves is sucrose, translocated by sap to grapes that store energy to ripen pips, when sucrose reaches grape immediately hydrolyzed by acidity and enzyme invertase to glucose and fructose. Sucrose may originate from current photosynthesis or from stored carbohydrate reserves in the woody parts of the vine such as its trunk, arms, and roots. Heavy crop loads slow the increase in concentration of sugar in grapes, as also do factors slowing photosynthesis such as low or high temperatures and cloudiness. There can also be competition for the products of photosynthesis; if shoot tips are growing actively, for example, then fruit ripening is slowed -verasion is when grapes begin to soften, usually half the grapes final size at this point. normally 40 to 60 days after fruit set, longer for cooler climates. -veraison to harvest will obviously depend on the harvest stage of ripeness required, but for grapes destined for dry table wine the period varies from about 30 days in hot regions to about 70 days in cooler regions -During the latter stages of ripening when the sugar content is above 20 °brix, the berry skin may lose some water. ery ripe grapes the increase in concentration of sugar for example in the berry is due to a loss of water rather than more movement into the berry. -The concentration of tartaric acid falls during ripening, due to dilution effects associated with berry growth. The concentration of malic acid falls more quickly than tartaric during ripening, and this is because of temperature-dependent respiration in addition to dilution. Grapes ripening in cool climates therefore tend to have higher acidity as less malic acid is respired. Juice ph rises throughout ripening due to the decreases in free acids and increases in potassium. -Anthocyanin concentration rises during ripening and the value at harvest depends on both environmental and plant factors. Temperature and light have major effects; high temperatures and low light levels reduce skin coloration in many varieties. Grape tannins are distributed between the skins, seeds, and stems. They increase during ripening at a rate comparable to anthocyanins. -The most abundant minerals in the grape are potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sodium, and they increase in concentration during ripening. Potassium is predominant and has a major effect on juice pH. Potassium is distributed between flesh and skins, and the potassium extracted from skins during fermentation is one reason why red wines have a higher pH than white wines. *EX* Acaibo, Clair Lurton, overripe and underripe grapes taste the same everywhere. True ripeness is when your grapes taste one of a kind, part or terroir.

vine nutrition (2006)*

-minerals and nutrients available to vine based on soil pH -6-7 pH ideal -macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, and chlorine (at concentrations greater than 1,000 ppm in their tissues), - -micronutrients manganese, iron, zinc, copper, molybdenum, and boron (at concentrations less than 1,000 ppm in their tissues) -new v.y. test soil, old v.y. test either the leaves or the leaf stalks (petioles) for their nutrient content, and apply fertilizers only as the need is indicated -repeated applications of nitrogen as ammonium-based or urea fertilizers leads to acidification of the soil over time -fertility can be restored by heavy applications of organic matter, lime, phosphorus, and potassium -little connection between nutrition of the vine and a wine's quality or specific character, other than through influences on vine vigour, there is a perception that soil directly affects wine character by giving wines a special chemical signature that is unique to the sit ...EX...rootstock 101-14 sensitive to low potassium, good fit for high potassium soils in Argentina Zuccardi ...EX...High calcium soil may need rootstock 5BB ...EX...Maysara cow horn preperations, Pontet-Cantet keeps 40 cows, Belle Pente keeps 2 ...EX...Croft especially loves red clover cover crop for nitrogen addition to soil ...EX...SO4 bad at uptake of magnesium, stem narcosis, issue in Auckland *Macro* - 0-50 kg/ha nitrogen, 0-25 kg/ha phosphorus, and 0 to 100 kg/ha potassium -Fertilizers supplying the macronutrients (see soil nutrients) nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are normally applied in amounts giving up to 50, 25, and 100 kg/ha per year of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, respectively -Nitrogen supplied by breakdown of canes and leaves returning to soil. excess= over vigorous, sandy soil may be low, yellow leaves (low in wine may lead to hydrogen sulfide)(Ries, Chard, Syrah, oft low) -Phosphorous: seldom in need, very low pH can lead to failing photosynth, sould be added before planting and plowed deep -Potassium most abundant, production and translocation of sugar, lack will cause leaf cupping, potash fertilizers fix, too high get high pH in wine, rootstock 101-14 grows grapes with less potassium, high vigor rootstock have high potassium (shade causes it to migrate to the fruit- reduced shading bring better balance to wine) *Micro* -Boron: sandy, acidic,high rainfall can lack. Poor fruit set by poor pollen tube growth, irregular berry size, distorted shoot growth -Calcium: protects from microbes -Copper: seldom in short supply due to spraying, excess combated with humus, lime, and green manure -Iron: pH soils oft low, spray on or injected, rootstock corrects, chlorosis -Magnesium: important for photosynth, yellowing leaves, damage of green parts, SO4 bad at uptake, fertilizer, light sandy soils more deficient than heavy clay/loam -Manganese: yellow stripes between the veins, alkali/sandy soil high in humus, high acid soils a problem -Molybdenum: Merlot low on it, poor growth and fruit set, coulure, millerandage, Moly applications, don't over raise -Zinc: low in sandy, alkaline soils with high phosphorus, yellow vein, irregular patterns, stunted growth and poor fruit set, spray helps -BSN (Bunch Stem Necrosis): poor nutrients, high vigor, drought, over-shading and cold, under stress = reduces crop, shrivel and drops off -Chlorosis: high lime locks iron and plant cannot produce chlorophyll for photosynthesis (7.5+) -Coulure: poor flowering, imbalance of nutrients in the vine, substantial crop loss, tip trimming at flowering -Millerandage: un-pollinated flower, small berries with no seeds. Ripen early and overly sweet, attract bees and birds - weak soil= large roots & small plants - rich soil = small roots & big plants - trunk takes nutrients and water from soil and returns carbs to roots

Phylloxera*

-pre phyllox yield in Bd 10-15 hl/ha, now 60-75 -highly phylloxera resistant = Riparia Gloire, 101-14 Mgt, SO 4, 5BB *Insect* -lives on leaves and roots of NE and S Amer rootstocks, may weaken but does not kill them, roots mend and seal, sap unpleasant to pest (gums up feeding apparatus, causes harm to juveniles , breed on leaves in the summer -Native to New England, vine grows corky layer beneath wound halting secondary infection of microbs -lives on roots of vinifera, sucks photosynthates (sugar and starch) allows second infection, vine wilts and slowly dies, roots deformed, produces galls from saliva injection -can change life cycle based on host and enviro -dislikes heat and wet soils -single female needs no male to fertilize, can lay 7 gen in 1 summer -galls, red/brown, form of leaf of infected plant, contain unhatched egg -hatched and spends summer on leaves, leaves fall and they go to roots, root galls form with unhatched eggs -warm climate winged seen can fly 100m, lay queen in new site -Spread by climbing, wind, machinery, irrigation, #1 spread is human activity (rootlings) - deep rooting vines may be impacted but survive *HISTORY* Europe -victorian botany gave rise to plant importing -1863 seen in Euro 1st time -within 5 years many places in Souther France attacked -1872 Douro, -1874 Spain -1875 Ger -1879 Italy -1890 Champagne (last in Fr) ...EX...Total French wine production fell from a peak of 84.5 million hl/2,200 million gal in 1875 to a mere 23.4 million hl in 1889 ...EX....Ger. Immediate grubbing policy kept at bay until WWII when distracted, Replanting with rootstock program and much Muller T -300,000 Franc reward for answer -Entomologist at Oxford identified and Botanist recognized the insect as the issue -Injection Carbon bi sulfide attempted, dangerous (mixed with water 30,000 holes per ha), bury dead frogs, water with white wine - 1873. It was found that flooding in winter for weeks on end controlled the pest -Gaston Bazille had suggested grafting in 1869 and Leo Laliman of Bordeaux drew early attention to the resistance of these species to the phylloxera. Laliman had studied the resistance of American species to powdery mildew in a collection in his vineyards since 1840 (odium appeared then). -Riley (American Entomologist) who positively identified the unknown French insect as identical to the American one, a critical step in its eventual control. His reputation gave grafting rootstock suggestion weight as opposed to chem treatment (altered the standard response for all of history). -He connected Missouri nurserymen with the French, saved vines -1870s much work done to develop rootstocks, millions sent to Europe by 1880 -issues with calcareous soils -grafting banned in Burg until 1887 for fear of 'foxy' taint of wine -Cadillac graft -deluge of productive wines sent price crashing (riots Languedoc 1907 and champ 1911) -AOC started 1920s result of disruption of glut -70% of European VY destroyed -MO for quarantine: all equip pressure washed, rigorous inspection of plant material, up to 2 year quarantine, vine imp programs ensure up to date handling and clean wood (viruses still spread) -85 per cent of all the world's vineyards were estimated in 1990 to be grafted onto rootstocks presumed to be resistant to phylloxera -multiple biotypes NZ and Germany exchanged showed different kinds og phyllox -as grafting rose so did exchange of material and new spreads of disease -'pre phyllox' vines may be more distinguished by lack of disease. -virology in viticulture was not well understood until the 1950s *California* -1873 first seen - warm climate and vigor masked issues for a while -by turn of 19th century most vines killed -earthquake, WWs, and Prohibition, Econ Crash took tolls -was 1950s that you saw expansion of vineyards ...EX...AXR1 vinifera x rupestris failed hybrid, 1980s phylloxera succumbing after a few decades of success, caused huge expense causing trouble for wineries: The cost: $750 million to $1.25 billion. ...EX...AXR1 worked in NZ but not Germany showing original Cali phyllox (sent to NZ) did not hurt AXR1 but new bio type B there does get hurt as ARX1 struggles in Ger and Cali *Other Areas* ...EX...NZ some excessive vigor grapes like Muller T allowed to be hit by Phyllox to limit vigor, 10 years grubbed and replanted, cheaper. ...EX...Geissenheim looking at soil fungus that may kill, parasite from beetle= Metarhizium anisopliae, phyllox proof Borner made at Geisenheim 50 years to make ...EX... Robust quarantines in Aussie means old vine and phylloxera free areas - historic plant genetics ...EX...Melbourne University training dogs to smell phylloxera ...EX...Zuccardi moves up hillside to grow better vines no longer flood irrigate and phylloxera whole new lesson to learn in vine care ...EX...Vin de Constance was famous in literature and with world leaders until phylloxera halted its reputation, still not recovered. *Phyllox free* ..EX...Chilie, Cyprus, Santorini, Barossa Australia, Argentina flood irrigation sites, Duoro (Quinto do Noval 2.5ha 'Nacional'), Champ (Bollinger 0.5ha 'V.V. Francaises') plots, Loosen single slate Mosel vineyard ungifted and pest free, Midi sandy soils, Hungary sandy soils ...EX... National vines at Noval far more savory and meaty when compared within and across vintages ...Ex... Belle Pente in OR on own roots

flowering and fruit set quality and yield. (2013) *

-some varieties prone to poor fruit set *The year before* -'initiation' takes place May to July the previous year. Weather conditions then will affect the formation of next years flowers as they are forming at this period. (heat, light, stress, general health) -much depends on the quality of wood from previous year -Cold winters create high degree of bud break -warm, sunny weather during flowering encourages bunch initiation in the buds that are forming for next growing season *start of season* -first activity of root hairs vital, supplies water and nutrient as plant leaves dormancy and needs to make leaves, quick leafing means early bud burst, likely successful flowering and riper grapes (cool weather limits these root hairs activities to delay bud burst, grapes will ripen later in marginal weather) *flowering* -growth hormones called gibberillins, temp, weather at time of flower initiation determine size of crop -flowers have 5 stamens w/ pollen, transmits pollen to ovary, cap lifts off by combo of time, temp, and hormones -15 to 25C flowers open (slower to faster) -+ sunlight = +florescense +flowering -Flowering takes place about 6-13 weeks after budbreak - flowering shorter for warm climates and early varieties. -inflorescence (flower cluster) 2-3 per cane, sometimes 4 -axil is site where node will produce new bud in correct conditions -long internode=smaller crop, fewer ruining buds (spur pruning avoids this) -trimming the tips of shoots when 50% of flowering completed can increase yield 25% -calyptra comes off exposing flower, stamens release pollen, land on wet stigma, fertilize ovary -most grapes are self pollinated and wind and insects are thought to have little effect -grapes do release odor to attract bugs ...EX...Jean-Pierre Usseglio says Mistral does not inhibit pollination, grenache naturally susceptible to coulure. ...EX...Frost, poor weather during flowering in early June and grape-swelling rainfall can all play a significant part in determining the size of the final crop in the northern hemisphere - so much so that the Portuguese cork industry is in a state of high alert during the vine-growing season - particularly during the flowering.-JayRo ...EX...2015 flowering and fruit set in St Estephe best since 2005, helped with quality over the entire season with so much well set fruit to play with. -Dominique Arangoits to Jay Ro ...EX...Low crop in 2016 Central Coast many factors but "Zelinski pins most of the blame for last year's small Central Coast crop on cold temperatures during a prolonged bloom in May that stunted growth of pollen tubes, reducing fertilization. Also, the cool weather prevented flowers from opening properly." *Fruit Set* -about 1 week -normally only about 30 per cent of flowers become berries -The fertilized ovaries form seeds, with up to four per berry. The flower wall enlarges to form the skin and pulp of the grape berry. -not clear whether fruit set is more influenced by organic nutrition or hormones, but the crucial role played by the weather during this period is beyond dispute. -regional vineyard yield can be correlated with the concentration of pollen in the lower atmosphere, weather effects -drought conditions can limit: high temperatures, low humidity, and attendant water stress can reduce fruit set, as can hot, dry winds. Makes smaller grapes (up to 60% smaller) can concentrate flavor and skin to pulp ratio (...EX...CA 2015) -cooler wine regions commonly reduces fruit set, and such conditions can cause widespread yield losses. ...EX...Hard 2014 frost in WA meant reduced yields in 2015, recovered in 2016 by excellent fruit set: Pellet notes that overall Amavi and Pepper Bridge yields were consistent ...EX...2015 Napa had cool wet spring had fruit set lasting over a month-uneven ripeness *ways to improve fruit set* - balanced pruning to avoids rapid shoot growth -ensuring balanced vine nutrition and water supply to even out results -topping shoots during flowering ...EX...Hedging when flowering is 30-50% improves harvest by 25% according UCD -in extreme circumstances, cincturing (removing, with a knife or special tool, a ring (3 to 8 mm (0.1-0.3 in) wide) of conducting tissue (phloem) around a trunk, cane, or shoot) vine trunks at flowering. Cincturing stops both the upwards and downwards flow of nutrients and plant hormones, until the wound heals over. High labor. *other causes of poor fruit set* -non-functional ovules which preclude the development of seeds, lead to poor fruit set -coulure, which leaves few berries per bunch, and much of the bunch stem empty. Caused by variety, vine vigour, climatic conditions - millerandage is when a high proportion of berries have no seeds and so remain small while normal-sized grapes grow on the same bunch. -Fruit set can also affect wine quality, especially when millerandage produces many small berries, offering an improved skin to juice ratio -Drought would cause poor fruit set same as water logged soil -Too much nitrogen ...EX..Comina, Canada applies cow fertilizer post fruit set limits N during flowering. ...EX..Chemical growth regulators can inhibit shoot growth and push towards flowering (similar to hedging) Coulre: Grencahe, Malbec, Cab, Merlot Millandrege: Grenche, Medonza Clone of Chardonnay

Planting densities (2005) (2001) (2015) *

-space between plants and rows -useful way of controlling the division of avail resources among right # of plants -risks of losing appellation if you violate densities *High Density* -traditional vineyards 10,000 plants per ha (4,050 per acre) (and sometimes more) vines spaced typically 1 m apart both within and between the rows ...EX...English Sparking in North Canterbury planting density, modeled on Burgundy, intended 'to reduce yield per vine and encourage deep and rapid root penetration to make the most of the site's unique terroir' -high density affected by shade, high expense, without assured quality on fertile sites. high density is great for moderate to low vigour sites -higher density, more work, takes longer to grow, more flavor concentration -Burgundy has one of the highest densities on earth ....EX Pierre Vincent 50cm between plants, good in beginning, has become difficult as the vines have grown, too much competition, especially in tough vintages, may not continue, hand worked, great flavors tho -on fertile sites theory is that dense planting will cause root competition and substantial devigoration, but this has infrequently, if ever, been demonstrated. Instead high vigor, hard to manage, tangled mess. -Under most circumstances, the yield of densely planted vineyards higher, especially in the first years of the vineyard's life and with vines planted on low soil potential. --high vine density comes into full crop faster (quick return), by year six both equal. -indy vine smaller, easier to ripen crop ...EX...high density of up to 10,000 vines allows for little space between the plants even for workers to pass through, and mechanisation, except for certain hand-held ploughing devices. But for Foti (winemaker) the high density alberello vineyard on Etna it is the only eco-sustainable system imaginable, and the only correct cultivation method for areas in which mechanisation is impossible or harmful for the soils, or where intensive agriculture, such as a monoculture of vines, can damage the delicate balance. In a high-density alberello vineyard there is a much higher ratio between roots and foliage resulting in a more homogeneous growing pattern. And the freestanding alberello form allows the sun to shine on each vine (equator) from all sides and in equal measure. The very fact that this high-density system is labour intensive helps create work and prevents vineyards being abandoned, even if daily reality is still markedly different. *Low Density* -new world vineyards, on the other hand, a spacing of 2.5 m/8 ft between vines along the row and 3.7 m/12 ft between rows, or 1,080 vines per ha, is quite common -vine density use to be so much higher because pre phylloxera layering made it easy and affordable. Now cost to plant a new vine is much higher (trellis to nursery costs), tractors lead to even less density, new vines are modern and more vigorous (from effective pest and disease control, better material, and clones) ...EX...As water becomes rarer may see lower density as each vine needs more soil and water says UK wine skills ...EX...Spain and McLaren Vale very low density and high quality points out Australia's DJs Grower Services *Practical Considerations* -tractors, necessitating row spacings of about 3 m/10 ft or more -standard tractor 1.75-2.5m -Eurp persist with narrow rows and to develop either narrow tractors, or over-row tractors, known in France as tracteurs enjambeurs -Vineyard density major consideration affecting the yield, quality, cost of establishment and maintenance = profitability. Planting costs proportional to number of plants; costs for trellis and drip irrigation are higher with narrower row spacings. time to plough and spray is also greater when rows are closer together. -density less important than # of buds/ha. no matter how trained or trellised. Proper pruning for buds = density, not plant # -terroir limits capacity for vine to carry fruit, thus affects density (low vig need more plants for same# of buds) -climate is most important factor (high density in cooler- indy vine under less strain, ripens less fruit more easily, more reliable in poor season) -cold climate shading a huge issue -larger row = more capacity (less stopping to refill spryer and less stopping to empty mech harvester -netting (Lyre) and frost height considerations as training effects density ...EX....."Vigna a Alta" alt to terraces in Duero for higher density, planted up and down slopes for mech. Across from Graham's Malvedos property. Totally changes fertility and grows in patchy, has taken 15 years to get right, OK up to 30% incline. Two row terraces up to 40%, 1 row at 45%. Closeness of Vinhos ao alto causes risk of odium and other fungal disease - vines are now being grown further upward to get aeration

Agrochemicals (mine)*

-the materials used in agriculture to control pests and diseases. They include fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, bird repellents, plant growth regulators, rodenticides, and soil fumigants -Viticulture requires fewer agrochemicals than many other field crops, partly because such a high proportion of vines are grown in warm, dry summer environments in which fungal diseases are relatively rare -Vines grown in humid, warm summers may require as many as ten or more sprayings, however ...EX...Taylor-Fladgate uses 2-3 sprays of sulfur a year. More than that considered extreme. Noval sprays more. -in general becoming less reliant on agrochemicals as a result of increased environmental concerns (see sustainability), and as alternative approaches become available -withholding periods that must elapse between the last application and when the crop is harvested to allow residues of the agrochemical to diminish to suitably low concentrations -Some diseases, notably botrytis bunch rot, develop tolerance to the repeated use of some chemicals, and so their continued use is now subject to resistance-management strategies. ...EX...Chateau Coutet very careful about resistance and use open canopy to help sprays -Alternative approaches may take the form of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes, which aim to apply chemicals more rationally, or the adoption of some form of sustainable, organic or biodynamic viticulture, which aim to minimize the use of agrochemicals. ...EX... South Africa Integrated Production of Wine (IPW) covers responsible use of agrochemicals and using IPM techniques to improve pesticide input use. -The process of registering a new agrochemical with a government is lengthy, exacting, and costly. -To save money, some manufacturers do not register chemicals with all governments, with the result that small and emerging wine industries, like that of the UK, are disadvantaged by having access to only a limited range of products. -In the case of wine, the effect the agrochemical may have on fermentation is also assessed. ...EX...the fungicide Folpet, which is used in some countries to protect vines against downy mildew, may delay, or even prevent, fermentation by some wine yeasts if present at certain concentrations. -Because an official maximum residue limit (MRL) may not exist for an agrochemical in all countries, world trade may be adversely affected. ...EX...the fungicide procymidone, which has been used in parts of Europe, is not registered in the US for use on any crop. When the American authorities detected residues of procymidone in some European wines in early 1990, they banned the importation of any European wine containing residues of procymidone until a permissible residue level was established. This had a serious effect on many sectors of the European wine trade. -The Codex Alimentarius ('food code' in Latin) was established by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) to upgrade and simplify international food regulations and to avoid such incidents. Codex MRLs (maximum residue limit) have been set for some agrochemicals in a range of crops, and several countries accept Codex MRLs in the absence of their own. The US does not recognize Codex MRLs, however. -Although an agrochemical may be present in formulations bearing different proprietary names, it usually has a single common name that is recommended by standards organizations. ...EX... the fungicide Rovral® (from manufacturers Rhône Poulenc) contains the agrochemical iprodione that is also the active constituent of several other fungicides. ...EX...Spex study found mechanical harvesting increase pesticide residue in final wine 5%-35% ...EX...Contractor in NZ sprayed 1.6 million worth of grapes with wrong pesticide, cannot be exported. Murray Peterson . Equivalent to 2 years of growers income.

young vs. old vines (2014) (2002) *

-vines offer different things at different ages, age variation of your plot important (for disease and pests too) -Pierces disease worse for young vines -young vines are more prone to fungus diseases (oïdium, mildew, grey rot) than older vines are. -Eutypa Dieback and Esca worse for old vines -Appellation laws: 3 or older year vines often needed -2-3 years to form vine framework -Young vines: at age 3 first crop year has excellent vine balance. fruit and leaves have excellent exposure. Becomes more vigorous in later years. Best when young and old -Having the hopefully deep roots from the old vines means that these can access water over a larger area, meaning the vine works longer during the day. With shallow roots, especially on well-drained soils, the vines go on and off -yield stabilizes 3-6 years -vigor and yield decline at 20years -50 years often seen as uneconomic - old vines: more carbs stored in roots to encourage early growth and get season started, better coverage by extensive roots, more old wood to cope with frosts and variation. At adult age roots reduce activity slightly, soil exhaustion can occur and weakness from winter pruning and summer trimming. This lower vigor can improve fruit and leave an open canopy -Grenache is very sensitive to the age of vines. Mourvèdre as well. Syrah, though, can do very well with young vines ...EX Jason Haas, Tablas Creek Vineyard (Paso Robles, California) We saw an important jump in quality around the 10-year-old mark, particularly with the red grapes—and, of those, particularly with grenache. Vine age on our white Rhones hasn't seemed to matter as much. For the reds, we found that the wines showed better flavor development and less aggressive tannins at harvest when they got over that 10-year hurdle, again particularly notable in grenache, where young vines often produce fruit with an aggressively tannic edge. We also saw ripeness (physiological and flavor maturity) at lower sugar levels than we did/do when the vines are very young. ...EX Nigel Greening, Felton Road Vineyard (Central Otago, New Zealand). With pinot noir, we see two thresholds to date: when the vines enter their teens they start to show increased resilience to seasonal variation—in other words, greater stability, presumably coming from a more mature root structure. On the wine side structure starts to appear, more assertive tannins being the first change to manifest itself. As 20 comes along, the wines start to step back in the fruit department (or maybe the more evident structure just masks the fruit) and the wines lead more into being defined by the balance of acid and tannin rather than sheer fruit weight. Clonal variation also takes a step backwards. (Possibly as the root structure becomes more assertive, rootstock differences become more evident? Too early to say for sure). Yields don't really even out this early; we'll probably need to see the vines getting properly mature for that. ...EX Luis Barraud, Viña Cobos (Argentina) Old vines are a tool ...Zind Humbrect "mature" when it has the right vigor so that the vine stops growing at the right moment (before the change of color of the grapes) about 50 years ...EX Zind Humbrect The result is that, in old vines, there is a better ratio or production to roots, so even ripeness and proper concentration are easier to achieve with older vines. ...EX Stag's Leap Wine Cellars S.L.V. Cabernet Sauvignon 1973 Judgement of Paris from 3 year old vines ...EX Denis Durantou says roots that dig down reflect consistent pH by reflecting true terroir. If too young or close to surface roots are effected more by surface sun and rain and have less consistent pH. ...EX clos saron, CA:Crop levels do go down as vine age. This is true for all grape varieties and types of soil/terroir. The speed/degree of the quantity decline depends on other factors such as soil, farming practices, vine health, eco-system health. Generally, in CA the rule of thumb is to dig up and replant vines at 25 years. We do not do that, rather try to keep the vines alive and healthy for as long as possible. The reason is that the wine quality goes up as the vines age: more aromatic expression and nuance, texture, improved phenolic quality and density. ...EX David Bruce at Taylor-Fladgate like old vines for depth and young vines for constancy. ...EX Frost of 1956 meant young vines made the heralded 1961 vintage Pomerol and ST-Emillion vintage ...Ex old vines found in Barossa, Turkey Flat (160 yo), Zin in Mendo 100+ years, Ernest Loosen 100+ year riesling Urziger Wurzgarten vy ...Brian Bicknell, Mahi Wines (Marlborough, New Zealand) did a season in Chile convinced 100 yo vines were quality, came to find site was more important. GOOD QUOTE Tony Soter, Soter Vineyards (Oregon). A more interesting question may be: Do old winegrowers make better wine than young ones? ...EX...Hot and dry 2015 in Ribera Duero meant old vines could reach water, young could not and did not reach ripeness because the shutdown

Soil Types*

*albariza* -white, chalky-looking soil typical of parts of the jerez region in southern Spain -high limestone content, about 40%, the remainder being clay and sand. -characteristic of drying without caking, (instead cracking) slowly releasing moisture to the vines during the growing season -This soil type is also present in the penedès region of north east Spain. Cava. *alluvium* -alluvial, giving rise to soils which are often fine grained and typically fertile consisting of mud, silt, sand, and sometimes gravel or stones deposited by flowing water on flood plains, in river beds, in deltas, and in estuaries, often from many different and distant sources -variable in texture, drainage, and age, and often such changes can be seen over a few metres. -Where these soils are stony and sandy, they are highly valued for viticulture, as in the médoc region of France and Marlborough in new zealand. *basalt* -dark-coloured, fine-grained igneous rock (see geology) dominated by the two minerals feldspar and pyroxene -provide a good range of potential nutrients -Dark rocks such as basalt are often said to reradiate warmth at night, but Pogue's study in the Columbia Valley in washington and oregon states suggests that the thermal effects operate chiefly during the day. -Basalt is almost always found in association with volcanic materials such as tuff. Basalt occurs in Victoria (e.g. King Valley and Macedon Ranges) and the hunter valley in Australia, the Galilee region of israel (including the Golan Heights), and it dominates vineyards in parts of hungary such as Tapolca near Lake Balaton, and Somlo Hill. *calcareous* -'limy', i.e. composed significantly of calcium carbonate -These include marl, limestone (and its subvarieties chalk and dolomite), and their associated soils -In cool, non-arid vineyards, calcareous soils allow better water movement and access to nutrients than more acid soils. This is because calcium carbonate, unlike most geological minerals, can dissolve in the water in the soil and react with its natural carbon dioxide content to form soluble bicarbonate, which tends to buffer the ph to around its optimum for nutrient availability -calcareous soils tend to flocculate clays, improving soil texture, microbial activity, and drainage -Limestone bedrock is normally highly fissured, and this also promotes water flow. -Chlorosis struggles *chalk* -a soft and crumbly, highly porous (35 to 40%) type of pure white limestone -Chalk-derived soils are valued in viticulture for their excellent drainage, combined with a capacity of the subsoil to store substantial amounts of water -Because vine roots can usually penetrate to chalk bedrock, continuity of moisture supply is assured regardless of short-term fluctuations in rainfall -Pure chalk is of low fertility, resulting in a rather low vine vigour and naturally good canopy microclimate. -vineyards in southern england, the principal wine region with chalk is champagne ( Even here, the better vineyards are mostly on clays, with only the longer roots reaching the underlying chalk). -It is also widely believed that the sherry region around Jerez in south west Spain is on chalk, although the bedrock is not even pure limestone. *clay* -flakes so small have enormous surface area -minerals are very reactive with vine -refers to a particular type of mineral found in some rock types and in soil, and also a description of sediment or soil which is made up of particularly small particles -Soils described as 'clays' have a high content of clay minerals, but may also contain fine particles of calcium carbonate (in soils formed on limestone) and quartz (in soils that have been weathering over a long period of time) -kaolinite clays tend to support stable structures -montmorillonite clays, which show marked swelling when wet and shrinkage on drying, may cause structural instability. - Montmorillonite, weathered basalt clay from volcanic, Tokaji-Hegyalja, high CEC, heavy when wet -Mica-type clay minerals can hold significant amounts of potassium cations within their structures, which can be slowly released on exchange with other cations in the soil water. -Clay can be important in vineyard subsoils because of its water-holding capacity, as in parts of pomerol, for example. *colluvium* -sediment that has moved downslope under the influence of gravity, whereas alluvium is transported by rivers (The difference is significant for viticulture given that hillside vineyards—usually characterized by a thin veneer of fragments of the material higher up the same slope, commonly the bedrock that caps the hill—are generally considered superior to those on plains and valley floors, where alluvium dominates.) -The grand cru vineyards of chablis, for example, are sited mid-slope on the famous marly Kimmeridgian bedrock but a substantial proportion of the colluvium that coats the slopes consists of fragments of the younger Portlandian hilltop limestone -Studies by Wittendal have suggested that the majority of the grand cru vineyards in Burgundy's côte d'or are on colluvium. Colluvial sediment can comprise any geological material: for example, volcanic bedrock in Coombsville, napa Valley; schist and gneiss in Central Otago, new zealand; granite on the slopes flanking the Curicó Valley in central Chile. *galet* -châteauneuf-du-Pape and other parts of the southern rhône are composed of strikingly pure white quartzite (Although it is probably the underlying clays and sands that are more significant for vine growth) -Boutenac area of corbières, for example, the galets are formed from a brown-stained quartzite; in California's arroyo seco, galets are a mixture of rock types; and Walla Walla, washington, has old river channels filled with galets of dark basalt. *gneiss* -dense, tough, coarse-grained rock in which distinct bands have developed, distinguishing it from other metamorphic rock -These irregular bands, typically of paler feldspar and quartz alternating with darker biotite or amphibole, range in thickness over a few millimetres to centimetres with an irregularity that distinguishes the appearance of gneiss from the layers seen in some sedimentary rocks -It is resistant to weathering and usually yields thin, rather acid soils but it is surpringly common in vineyards -austria's Kamptal and Wachau regions, in muscadet, roussillon, and côte Rôtie in France, in parts of the US state of virginia, and in canada's Okanagan Valley. *granite* - a coarse-grained, pale-coloured igneous rock of plutonic origin -intrusive igneous rising to surface from molten core -Feldspars are the dominant constituent, with lesser amounts of quartz together with minerals such as mica and amphibole. -The feldspars are rich in potassium, the chief mineral nutrient for vines and an indirect influence on wine flavour, although typically only a small proportion is actually available to the vine. -Granitic soils tend to have low fertility, and because the quartz grains resist weathering, such soils are sandy and well-drained. They are widespread and are favoured for viticulture although they tend to be acid. - dão and parts of sardinia, the northern rhône (Cornas), beaujolais, as well as the Granite Belt of queensland and parts of South Africa's Western Cape (Stellenbosch), coastal chile, and California's Sierra Foothills east of the central valley. -Dão has pink feldspar from weathered granite bedrock *gravel* -pebbles are the most obvious component -Gravel is the most distinctive soil type of Bordeaux's so-called left bank wine regions -gravel is nowhere so prevalent as at Ch haut-brion, where in places it is 16-20 m/50-65 ft deep -soils offer excellent drainage, imposing on the vine the slight water stress favoured for wine quality -Gravel soils are also highly prized for quality wine production on the plateau of st-émilion, in châteauneuf-du-pape, grave del friuli, and in the Gimblett Gravels region of Hawke's Bay and Marlborough in new zealand. Such soils are also widespread in the Ningxia region of china. -difficult to work and too infertile for any other form of agriculture -Chx Haut-Brion and La Mission-Haut-Brion are now viticultural oases in the southern suburbs of Bordeaux, indicating that the land is more valuable for housing than for vines. *greywacke* -tough, dark grey sandstone, with a high clay content -formed in turbid deep-sea water, shows characteristically jumbled grain sizes, with thick accumulations of coarse material (typically of quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments) closely intermixed with fine clay. -On land it weathers slowly, giving stony, free-draining soils. -Greywacke is found in South Africa's Western Cape; in California's russian river valley; and in Germany's mosel, ahr, and mittelrhein; but perhaps most famously in new zealand, where the bedrock spine of both islands is composed largely of greywacke, and detritus derived from it dominates the gravels of regions such as Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Waipara. *limestone* -made of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate); -dolomitic limestone or dolomite is a mixture of calcium-magnesium carbonate. -hard and not readily penetrated by plant roots, except through cracks. -Some limestone soils, such as the Mediterranean terra rossa, are red-brown in colour; these are moderately alkaline and have a good clay-loam texture and structure. -Some limestone soils overlie substantial reservoirs of soil water, of high quality for irrigation -The longer roots of well-established vines may reach these reservoirs -Deep ripping to shatter the hard limestone may be carried out before planting, typically to 1 m (3 ft) depth, but any slabs of limestone brought to the surface may need to be removed -Limestone-derived soils are in general valued most highly in cool viticultural regions. -The great wines of burgundy come from vines grown on the slopes of the côte d'or escarpment, where Jurassic limestone is the predominant rock but not the only type of limestone found there. -The red limestone-derived terra rossa of Coonawarra in south australia produces some of Australia's best red wines from Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz, both vine varieties being close to the cool limit for their reliable ripening. -In warm climates, however, such as in the south of France, and the Riverland of South Australia, limestone soils are not regarded as superior, or even necessarily as suitable for viticulture *loam* -ideal soil for the growth of most plants, consisting of a balanced mixture of clay, silt, and sand -With enough organic matter, loams have a friable, crumby structure -A good loam has a high capacity to store water and plant nutrients but, unlike stiff clay, is not close textured enough to impede the free drainage of water. -Rich, loamy soils can encourage excessive vigour in vines, however, particularly in cool to mild climates with ample rainfall, so loams (which exist in almost all regions) are not always ideal for viticulture. *loess* -accumulation of clay and silt particles that have been deposited by the wind. -typically pale-coloured, unstratified, and loosely cemented by calcium carbonate -Favoured for viticulture because it is porous, permeable, readily warmed, and easily penetrated by roots, it is common in washington state and tokaj, and is found in some vineyards in austria, germany, and china. Ex. Austria, Walla Walla, Otago *marl* -crumbly combination of limestone and clay which is often added to soils lacking limestone -Many of the finest wines of the côte d'or are from grapes grown on predominantly calcareous marl with some limestone. -found naturally to some extent in the vineyards of beaune and pommard, more importance in meursault -pebbly marl in the jura region of France, and tavel in the southern rhône has soils which are predominantly Cretaceous marl. In the German region of rheinhessen, the soil is partly derived from marl. *muschelkalk* - literally 'shell limestone' -Muschelkalk consists mainly of limestones, various argillaceous and dolomitic limestones, and marls, each with distinctive fossils. -Parts of southern pfalz, rheinhessen, and central franken in Germany, and neusiedlersee-hügelland in Austria's Burgenland, are sited on Muschelkalk, as are a number of grand cru vineyards in alsace. *quartz* -It is seen as glassy, colourless grains in rocks such as granite and sandstone, producing sandy soils of low fertility. -also occurs as opaque white veins filling gashes in bedrock, which weathering loosens into fragments that become the milky white pebbles seen in many vineyard soils. -common, referred to as silica -Flint is grey opaque kind (Silex) -Neyer's Zinfandel *quartzite* -metamorphic rock that was originally a quartz-rich sandstone -pale-coloured to white, with a 'sugary' appearance -not to be confused with the mineral quartz since it is a rock composed of myriad constituent grain -quartzite refers to a compact, metamorphic fusion of the quartz grains and silica cement of the original sandstone, which makes it robust and resistant to soil erosion. -Quartzite therefore tends to form relatively higher ground with thin, poorly fertile soils, generally not well suited to viticulture, -although it does occur in Germany's nahe and rheinhessen regions, in Spain's calatayud, and in the barossa and clare valleys, South Australia. -Quartzite is much more commonly seen in vineyards as rock fragments in the soil, including the archetypal galets of châteauneuf-du-pape. *rendzina* - a dark, interzonal type of soil found in grassy or formerly grassy areas of moderate rainfall, on limestones, especially in chalklands. -It is characterized by a brown to black, friable surface and a light grey or yellow, soft underlying horizon. -Such soils are associated with terra rossa soils of Coonawarra in south australia. *sand* -relatively large particles -Sandy soils can be difficult to cultivate because of their poor ability to store water and nutrients, - they are notable in viticulture for providing a good measure of protection from the phylloxera louse. -Vineyards dominated by sand include those of colares in Portugal, the Camargue in the south of France, the Great Plain of hungary, and Maipo Valley in chile. *sandstone* -sedimentary rock composed of sand-size particles which are usually quartz held together typically by silica, but may be another material such as calcium carbonate -sandstones vary greatly in fertility and drainage -Sandstones occur in the higher alluvial ground of the River Dordogne, just below the Côtes of st-émilion, and in similar settings elsewhere. *schist* -coarser grain-size than slate, having been subjected to greater burial temperatures and pressures, and as a result splits less cleanly -The transition between slate and schist is therefore gradual, and the distinction rather subjective. -The planes in schist can have any orientation but are commonly close to vertical—ideal for vine roots to penetrate and for rainwater to percolate through -This is probably why in the douro, vineyards sited on schist perform better than those on the region's massive, relatively impenetrable granite. -Schist is also important in parts of the Languedoc, such as banyuls, faugères, and parts of st-chinian, corbières, and in new zealand's Central Otago. *shale* -Mudstone, shale splits along weak veins -a very fine-grained sedimentary rock, usually dark-coloured, which is weak and easily split because of the way the clayey sediment has settled, -shale always breaks roughly parallel to the stratification of the sedimentary rock -The splintered fragments are flaky and irrregular (unlike cleaved slate). -Shale weathers easily, to give clay-rich soils. *silt* -description of particles of intermediate size between clay and sand -Grains of silt dominate loess and are often predominant in alluvial soils. -Silt is a major component of many of the soils in California's Napa Valley. *slate* -moderately hard, very fine-grained metamorphic rock -marked propensity to cleave into thin sheets. -With increased metamorphism, slate becomes schist. -Slate is found, for example, in the Cederberg Mountains, south africa, and the clare valley, South Australia. -It is particularly celebrated in Germany's mosel and rhine regions, where it makes famously stony slopes and is thought to hold moisture and heat and radiate warmth at night. *terra rossa* -red-brown loam or clay directly over well-drained limestone found typically in regions with a mediterranean climate -Such soils are found in southern Europe (in Spain's La mancha, for example), North Africa, and parts of Australia. -The red limestone-derived terra rossa of Coonawarra in south australia produces some of Australia's best red wines from Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz, both vine varieties being close to the cool limit for their reliable ripening. -iron oxide -Croatia, Coonwarra -similar soils are found in Australia's inland irrigated districts, associated with much lower quality wines. *tuff* -Tuff is a fine-grained volcanic rock created when fine, ashy material ejected during a volcanic eruption settles, accumulates, and through time becomes progressively hardened. -Tuffs vary in composition and colour, depending on the chemistry of the parent volcano but all comprise several silicate minerals -has plenty of potential nutrients for the vine -Geologically, young tuffs can still be relatively soft and easily weathered. -Tuffaceous soils, such as those found in parts of southern Italy and sicily, can therefore be deep and fertile. -The relative softness of young tuff is exploited in places such as tokaj, eger, and Bükk in Hungary for excavating extensive wine cellars. -In Italy, tufo is sometimes used rather inexactly to refer to certain limestone soils as well as to those of volcanic *tuffeau* -common rock type in the central loire -Tuffeau blanc is calcareous but provides much better drainage than most limestones -The overlying tuffeau jaune is more sandy, and is particularly suitable for the Cabernet Franc vine, underlying some of the best vineyards in chinon and saumur-champigny. -It is distinct from both tufa and tuff. *volcanic* -The solid volcanic products include recently deposited ash and rocks such as basalt and tuff -Such materials are very variable in composition, but all involve several silicate minerals and are therefore rich in potential soil nutrients. -Volcanic rocks are often relatively easily weathered so soils formed from them tend to be particularly fertile (unusually so for vineyards) and most are well drained. -naturally high in Sulfur -Vulture, Vesuvius, Etna -Mediteranean islands such as sicily and santorini are composed of volcanic rocks, as are parts of mainland Italy such as campania, soave in the Veneto, and Monte Vulture in basilicata. -The tokaji of Hungary is produced from grapes grown on volcanic rocks, mainly andesite. -Numerous vineyards in the states of idaho, washington, and oregon are underlain by volcanic materials, as are parts of the napa and sonoma valleys, California. -In the Kaiserstuhl-Tuniberg region of baden in Germany, vines are grown in clays derived from volcanic rocks, while the Pfalz to the north is underlain by basalt, and there are numerous other examples around the world. *Serpentine* -Mag silicate, can curb Pot uptake Ex. Avoided in Sonoma and Lake County *Mica* -Poncie Fleurie, Vinho Verde -black in Alsace 'biotite' *Graphite* -carbon and dark -Priorat, Styria Aus

trellising systems - training (2012) (2009) *

...EX...Vega Sicilia involved with trials of combination of natural antimycotics that are sprayed on the wound right after pruning, this efficiently prevents infections due to fungi that could enter these wounds. Published as a great success by Journal of Viti (low mortality and low infection). -vine is not self supporting -trellis is the man made system the vines grow on -training is a result of pruning and placing vines on trellis -pruning is cutting to meet desires of training for the trellis - cost and skilled labour major consideration for installing and managing -vigor control and disease prevention are main advantages -climate, topography, vigor, legal restrictions, mechanization, vine variety -pruning in winter positions plant for training on trellis - goals are to increase yield and quality as well as ease of work with height and exposure -Low trained, cost less, low vigor sites, fruit benefits from ground warmth, work more difficult, disease prone ...EX...Simonit & Sirch, the Italian duo who are taking the art of vineyard pruning to a whole new level. From Friuli have 130 clients across globe. promised healthier, longer-living plants. Began as response to Esca ...EX...Beaujolais slowly converting to trellis as labor costs grow and hand harvesting become impractical. Bruno Matray, president of the Union Interprofessionnelle des Vins de Beaujolais, thinks the practice of using trellising systems is likely to increase in the region. *SYSTEMS* TRADITIONAL -Gobelet -cordon de royat vines of Burgundy and Champagne -double guyot of Bordeaux. -High trained, reinvigorated by Lenz Moser low density, wide rows, high to avoid frost, thicker more expensive props, cordon, guyot New World, Italian tendone -Guyot: straight or arched (arch helps budburst middle of cane where it typically struggles) -flat cane higher virus load then round -Basket training: low vigor -Fan shape: Russia, easy to bury in the cold -Taille Chablis: fan tied to wire ...EX...Lalou in burgundy does not prune her vines. She wraps and loops them over and places them between wire. MODERN -Scott Henry: canopy divided into two, both sides trained up and down, Oregon, reduces vigor, cane pruned, moderate vigor with 2 meter spacing, needs hand prune, Smart-Dyson has become more popular -Smart-Dyson: 19802 California, trained up and down, organic as it opens canopy, cordon trained version of Scott Henry, mechanical pruning and harvest -Lyre: two upward trained curtains, Bordeaux 1980s, better leaf and fruit exposure (inverted GDC), medium vigor vines -GDC: from upstate NY, tall cordon/cane, grows down, reduces shade, wide row, high vigor. The GDC system is particularly useful for wide row spacing vineyards of high vigour. ...EX..."Vigna a Alta" Closeness of Vinhos a alto causes risk of odium and other fungal disease - vines are now being grown further upward to get aeration ...EX...'Hanging Curtain' trained up 6 feet and then draped down. Crew Wine co-owner and vineyard manager Karl Giguiere said there is additional cost and labor to train the vines during the first three years, but once in production, the goal is to save money on mildew and mold control. ...EX...New Zealand VSP divided into two curtains trained both up and down (addresses shading and ripeness desires of winemakers and carries large crop while allowing all to ripen) Scott-Henry. Cloudy bay VSP with some Scott-Henry *Analyse the ways in which changing the trellising system in a vineyard can have an impact on the yields and health of the vines.* Vineyard work -machine and hand harvest ...EX...Croft getting 1.5 meter machines for terraces, training new old plot on new wires Improved ripeness ...EX...Pete Opatz in CA says VSP training makes grapes too ripe and is a waste of resources for too little fruit. Advocates heavier crop to reduce ripeness. ...EX... Acaibo Lurton Estate in CA changing Cordon to Guyot by cutting of arm - serious investment. Now large trunk with little cane off of base Better Protection ...EX... GDC keeps canopy in cool NY keeps moisture out of vines, reduced Botrytis ...EX...Ningxia may be burried for -25C winters, some experimenting with Lenz Moser to train above frost air ...EX...Fetzer use to use overhead sprinklers to break inversion now train higher to avoid frost. Changed Style ...EX...VSP trained up and down for NZ SB for ripe and underipe complexity Saturday Examine the relevance of pH in winemaking up to the completion of the malolactic conversion.

Selection Methods (Clonal vs Massal) (2004)*

ClONAL SELECTION -Clonal selection is the practice of selecting a single superior plant in the vineyard and then taking cuttings from this vine for propagation - a new clone grows to maturity than proves itself, -long process:After waiting three years for the first harvest, five to ten more years are necessary to monitor yields and fruit ripeness. These trials are often conducted in several locations and with several rootstocks. Clonal selection should also involve making trial wine to assure trueness to varietal type. -may take up to 15 years to be released in mass -should be an ongoing process due to new pests and diseases -Clonal selection for vines was first demonstrated in 1926 in Germany, where it has been most widely practised -California the emphasis had traditionally been on virus elimination, typically by heat treatment, rather than on clonal selection and evaluation in the field -Question whether vine to vine difference is genetic or result of virus -clones selected to weather, pests, pressures, vigor, and desired wine type. -One clone means ripening all at the same time. ...EX...Sauvignon blanc FPS 01 came to California in 1800 from Ch Y'quem, planted at Wente, then to UC in 1958, then sent to New Zealand. Made up nearly all commercial New Zealand Sauv Blanc plantings up until the early 1990s and caused the Marlborough Sauv Blanc boom ...EX...Institut des Vins de Consommation Courante (IVCC). This organization and its affiliates test selected clones and supply certified planting material. ..EX...In Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand there are well-established vine improvement programmes utilizing clonal selection as well as virus elimination. ...EX...In California, the programme is conducted by the Foundation Plant Services at the University of California at davis. ...EX...In South Africa, there is a Vine Improvement Association and a number of organizations specialize in heat treatment to eliminate viruses. ...EX...Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand, where all commercial plantings up until the early 1990s can be traced to a single clone imported from the United States. ...EX...UC Davis Clone 108 vigorous, ripens late with a high pH. Low acid and fat textured suits it to high volume warm sites in California. (commercial, North America) ...EX Dijon Clone 115 - Provides ripe, high pH(low acid) fruit with small and tight clusters and high anthocyanins. It produces richly textured, flavorful wine that is more round and supple. (premium) ...EX Foundation Plant Services ("FPS") in California and the Établissement National Technique pour l'Amélioration de la Viticulture ("ENTAV") in the Languedoc ...EX cool-climates with limited Growing Degree Days early ripening clones of Pinot Noir such as Dijon clone 114 and 115 may be used. ...EX... Stonecrop (Martinborough, New Zealand) uses Dijon clone 777 because it is less prone to grey rot. ...EX... Dog Point (Marlborough, New Zealand) uses the Mendoza Chardonnay clone because it is prone to millerandage, and consequently produces wines with increased concentration ...EX...some clones, like high-yielding FPS 4 and 5 (Martini clones of Chardonnay) with large berries, are better suited to bulk, commercial production. In contrast, Dijon clones 76, 95, and 96 are considered "high quality" clones with "good complexity," ...EX...Bordeaux, the argument is being made that the shift away from Cabernet Franc in the Medoc is due to difficulties sourcing "good" clones. MASS SELECTION -argue that either mass selection or a range of clones produces better, more characterful wine than a single virus-free, high-yielding clone. -Negative mass selection is also a good opportunity to mark 'rogue vines' (those of another variety) to ensure that mixed plantings do not occur in the future. ---- -Positive selection identifies the best vines, for example those with good fruit set, larger and looser bunches, good fruit maturity, and so on. - from tradition of layering - complexity from variety of clones - insurance of nuance in vintage variation - scions grafted at nursery - tested for virus - popular in non grafting sites like parts of Aussie and Chile -ongoing process can give good age variation in the vineyard -Usually the vineyard assessment is made several times over the season. For example, rogue vines and nepovirus symptoms are easier to pick out in the spring, whereas differences in grape ripening are obviously best determined just before harvest. -because less record and research the gains in yield or quality from mass selection are typically less than for clonal selection, but the resultant wine, made from vines with a mixture of different characteristics, may be more interesting than one made from a single clone. - In the winter all vines appear similar, and so mistakes of mixed plantings, off-types, and virus diseases are spread unwittingly from one vineyard to the next generation by propagation. ...EX Dominique Lafon Chardonnay in Mersault has lots of virus, mass selection transmits, he used clones until he could find proper mass selection sites, combines both ...EX Benjamin Leroux "Conservatoir Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Aligote": Massal Selection organization, 50 estate, exchange selections, healthy vines, keep all varities alive and relevant (diversity just in case of disaster) ...EX...Bill Schenck (Niagara Peninsula, Ontario) is using selection massale to improve the cold-hardiness of new Syrah plantings by taking cuttings from vines that survived potentially lethal winter temperatures. CROSS/HYBRID BREEDING -pollen from male athers taken by tweezer dusted on ovaries of female, place paper bag over to stop other pollen, flower set, remove bag, grows, plant seed (each seed has potential to be new variety) -grown indoors to push max devel in min time, put out w/i 2 years and wine is made and evaluated ...EX Muller Thurgau 1882 Geisenheim Ger Dr Herman Muller (riesling x Madeleine Royal) ...EX Dornfelder by August Herold in 1955 at Weinsberg Research Station ...EX Ruby Cabernet 1949 Carignan x Cabernet S ...EX Pinotage 1925 Pinot Noir x Cinsault crossing trials (South Africa) -uncertainty of outcome major concern -benefit is virus and disease resistance -interspecific crosses are hybrids combing genes from 2 species.

High Vigor Site

*Density* -High density would lead to messy vineayrds -Low Density with large plants can use up nutrients in large are for large canopy to spread vigor across the plants -Shading leads to mildew and vege flavors ...EX...Merlot responds well to regular hedging - Lucie Morton *Clone* ...EX...Cab Sauv 341/RG, more vigorous than Merlot 181/RG, - Lucie Morton *Rootstocks* -Riparia Gloire (slows vigor in Cab Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc) -Controlling vegetation and crop levels are keyto avoiding "vege" wines - Low vigor rootstocks, shoot thin, leaf, hedge... - Vigor may diminish with age. - Trunk diseases increase with age - Double trunking is good preparation for keeping vineyard going in spite of trunk diseases and winter cold events and hoe injury

Improving VY Inputs*

-OR LIVE certification advocates limiting raw materials used in the V.Y. (pesticide, fertilizer, fuel, water, chemicals) *Vine material* -Uproot whole VY for rootstock replacement -Recut /train vines -Field graft on better clones (global warming, changing pests) ...EX...When Claire Lurton took over established VY Acaibo she cut cordons back to guyot of good vines and planted whole new blocks with more resistant rootstock varietal and then field grafted on new Cab clones for higher quality grapes. -As drought and salinity grow vine varieties such as colombard are tolerant of salt, and there are rootstocks such as Dog Ridge and Ramsey which show some salt tolerance. Grape juice and hence wine can contain elevated sodium and chloride levels. *Training/Trellis* -In a well-constructed trellis system, the wires should be strained so tight that the wire does not sag, and this in turn facilitates mechanization. -Vineyard posts are made from wood, concrete, plastic, steel, stone, or even cane. -If made from softwood, vineyard posts must be chemically treated to stop wood-rotting fungi. -Converting from traditional tendone to VSP or guyot means less raw material (pergola) and often better fruit less worker exhaustion saving you money *Cover Crop/Wind break material* ...EX...Croft changed whole cover crop regimen for new plantings and even added olive trees to encourage natural biodiversity to attract helpful insects and hold soil together. Red clover sewn to fix nitrogen best in soil and help with Douro erosion ...EX...Estancia reports increased bunch weight with more berries per bunch and increased bunch number per vine with windbreak implementation. -Higher quality Windbreaks improve irrigation efficiency, and they improve spraying conditions by allowing a 10-hour spray day despite surrounding winds. ...EX...The Casurina tree tolerates alkali and saline soils, is drought resistant, and will withstand strong prevailing winds. Perfect for Aussie changing conditions. ...EX...Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala in the inland zone of Fitou keen on the Canadian cover technique known as BRF (bois raméal fragmenté) to create a soft, forest-like soil structure and preserve water, though he says it is hard to put it into practice on a large scale *Pesticides/Chemicals* -include fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, bird repellents, plant growth regulators, rodenticides, and soil fumigants. -Some diseases, notably botrytis bunch rot, develop tolerance to the repeated use of some chemicals, and so their continued use is now subject to resistance-management strategies. -Alternative approaches may take the form of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes, which aim to apply chemicals more rationally, or the adoption of some form of sustainable, organic or biodynamic viticulture, which aim to minimize the use of agrochemicals. ...EX... South Africa Integrated Production of Wine (IPW) covers responsible use of agrochemicals and using IPM techniques to improve pesticide input use. ...EX...UK has problem where chemical suppliers are not going to lengths/trials to get approval -Chris Cooper, the UKVA's pesticides expert said. The chems they are use to using no longer submitting for approval by products being revoked. Reacting by using green mulch to keep weeds down, disease resistant crossings. *Water/irrigation system* -quality is important -salinization a major concern with increased drought and irrigation, especially in Aussie -Salinity can be overcome by applying more irrigation water than the vines use, so as to leach the salt. ...EX...Zuccardi lost high quality flood irrigation input moving up hills, now need drip irrigation system. Put in high tech that matches soil mapping to match water needs to each vine *Fertilizers/Application* -compost made from a combination of plant materials and animal manures (mainly poultry, sheep, or pig) is used in smaller vineyards where its use is encouraged for ecological benefits (organic viticulture and biodynamic viticulture). ...EX...Pontet-Canet keep own herd of cows to make preparations of high quality fertilizers -Phosphate fertilizers are not readily available to plants grown in acid soils high in iron and aluminium oxides, so liming might increase growth because it makes more phosphorus available to the vine. -Fertigation gives good application directly to plant with little wasted -nine biodynamic preparations, including horn manure is sprayed on the soil in the afternoon, in autumn and early spring, to stimulate microbial life in the soil, helping maintain soil structure and levels of organic matter, and encouraging deeper vine roots. Horn silica is sprayed over the vines, at sunrise, either side of flowering to regulate plant metabolism and promote stronger, more upright vine growth, to lignify the wood, and to improve the nutritional and keeping qualities of the wine. One further field spray, the silica-rich common horsetail (Equisetum arvense), is sprayed as a fresh tea or fermented liquid manure to encourage fungal spores to remain in the soil rather than affecting the vine

diseases (2013) (2008) (2001) *

-Plant passport systems (traceability) and quarantines have helped. Mandatory ELISA testing in EU -trunk diseases, kill grapevines, spread from vine to vine -Harvest interval, time between last spray and harvest - 3 most used chems are sulfur powder, copper sulfate and copper hydroxide -TRUNK DISEASE- GENERAL sodium arsenite to treat fungi, banned for health reason so trunk disease on the rise. carcinogenic. These are spread mainly by airborne spores in winter - especially in rainy weather - from infected pruning wounds. Ugni Blanc/Trebbiano Toscano and Sauvignon Blanc among the most susceptible, and Cabernet Sauvignon moderately susceptible, international group of trunk-disease scientists was formed in 1998 -Many studies have shown that pruning wounds can be protected by fungicides, both natural and synthetic -leaving select suckers to train up a precaution (like in cold weather vineyards) common in Aussie and NZ, more resistance in EU -Hennessy announced it was dedicating €600,000 to related research -International Wine Office (OIV) is taking an interest in the trunk-disease BOTRYTIS -if white grapes infected additional SO2 in picking bins, better pre ferm settling, prompt ferm, high dose active yeast may show no taint -lost fruit aroma and flavor ...EX Leopold at Dufort-vivens adds tannin powder to fix color in infected reds. -spraying begins at first few leaves, every 10-15 days, until harvest interval -BT may infect flower in wet cond, bunch rot results -can become resistant to chems -Scala reliable tool -bio fungicide Sentinel from NZ -Stem rot ESCA -In Bordeaux Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc are particularly affected, while in Burgundy Chardonnay is taking a bigger hit than Pinot Noir. -caused by fungi -trunk disease -initial light color in between veins on leaves, brown edges begin to die and curl, speckling on grapes, shrivel and die -no cures -keep vy clear of old wood, protect pruning wounds- enters in wounds -black goo and discoloration of stripes or spots on leaves and wood, grapes fall to ground and vine dies suddenly -can keel over dead in a number of days -disease of the wood -affects 10 year + vines -believed to be issue arriving from grafting, nursery's grow samples very fast to make money -looking at old systems for pruning to avoid, electric cutting may be cause (bigger cuts) -Sauvignon Blanc very sensitive, Sanceere vineyard can lose 10% of vineyard per year -Some estimate that vineyards are losing between 10% and 20% of their stock annually to the disease. Even 5% would be devastating ...EX Graham's Duero when esca found pull up vine immediately, as of 2015 less than 1% of vines infected. ...EX... Italian pruning Duo Simonit & Sirch began as a response to Esca BOTRYOSPHYAERIA DIEBACK -train a sucker up to be a new trunk -caused by fungi FLAVESENCE DOREE -organism get in through sap, spread by insects that feed on sap or infected material -curling leaves, yellow, ripening and yield damaged -keep insects down and plants the insect feeds on -new vines immersed in hot water 50C for 30 min before planting -spotted in Saone et Loire, not yet in Cote d'or, put in regulations to spray 3 time w/i one week in July in Soane et Loire, once in Cote d'or (one organic- apparently more toxic, one not organic- smells horrible), schools closed for safety, Producer Emanuel Giboulot refused (was supported and was overturned) -looking to find specific infected vine and stop there, (sap from infected vine carried to new plant by flying bug) - in south of France, Spain, Bordeaux for 15 years contained by spraying (Burgundy pushing for investigation of natural alternative) -Leaf hoppers spread...EX Charlie Symington Duero showed up in Duero in 1990s, traps used DOWNY MILDEW -impossible to eradicate once present -like warm damp conditions -attacks green parts -can lead to total loss -mold taint -leaf wall increases more risk -reduces Photosynth Bordeaux mixture ...EX Charlie Symington at Graham's will spray 2-3 times a year. First spray in April, 1 more around mid June (using bell to protect) POWDERY MILDEW -fungal disease -sulfur -1854 smallest harvest -worse in dry years -humid air spreads (Duero) ...EX Charlie Symington at Graham's will spray 2-3 times a year. First spray in April, 1 more around mid June (using bell to protect) -splits young berries -damages grapes early in the season -may taint juice if still on the vine -light mineral oil natural alternative (botrytis and spider/mites too) ...EX..."Vigna a Alta" Closeness of Vinhos ao alto causes risk of odium and other fungal disease - vines are now being grown further upward to get aeration ...EX... Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala in the inland zone of Fitou For powdery mildew spray incorporate an emulsion of the essential oil of sweet orange peel, since this intensifies the anti-fungal properties and also acts as an insecticide. BLACK ROT -keep vy clean -destroy all material -open canopy fights -chem control necessary -starts early in season -same chem as mildew GROWN GALL -bacteria -spread through grafting -vine damage like frost or cuts from mech -swells where infect damaging grafts -NY state will train multi trunks up in case one dies EUTYPA DIEBACK -caused by fungi -train new trunk to fix -oft introduced through grafting -10+ year old vines -spring shoots fail to thrive, remain short and stunted, yellow leaves -often one arm -if cross section is cut often will see wedge of dead tissue -vine will die -paint cuts with fungicide -later pruning makes cuts heal faster -retrain new shoot from trunk PHOMOPSIS- DEAD ARM -reg summer rainfall -controlled by downy mildew chems -new plantings may require spraying PIERCE's DISEASE ...EX......EX...Steve Matthiasson He had 40% Pierce's disease and ripped out whole VY to replant. -fungal disease that lives in xylem of plant -spread by leaf hoppers and sharpshooter -unusual staining on leaves -less vigor -stunted growth -young more susceptible than old -Chard and Pinot N especially CORKY BARK -one of the most widespread -red and yellow leave curl down -grooves in cane -corky appearance on wood -hybrids more damaged -removal and destruction ...EX...Researchers at UCD have discovered critical enzyme that allows illness to spread through vine ' 'LesA'. It moves through the plant cells, enabling the Xyllela fastidiosa bacteria that causes Pierce's disease to invade the grapevine. The bacteria then lives in the grapevine's xylem tissues, where it feeds on fatlike compounds called lipids. FANLEAF -fan shape and deformed nodes and canes, leaf veins yellow, yields fall, eventual death, total removal and fallowing -nematodes vector -80% loss in yield LEAFROLL - GLD-affected grapes had significantly lower alcohol, polymeric pigments and anthocyanins (both are coloring agents in wine) compared to corresponding wines from grapes of non-symptomatic vines. The impacts wound up being more pronounced during cooler growing seasons than in warmer seasons. -may lose 50% yield, delayed ripening -most economic damage -may be asymptomatic -rolling of leafs, color change -mealy bugs spread -SA due to bad material in apartheid years NEPOVIRUSES -viruses spread by nematodes -difficult to control -can live in material for 10 years -heat treatments of cuttings can control *Red Blotch* ...EX...Brian Bahder, UC Davis Entomology post-doc, and Frank Zalom, UC Davis Entomology Professor, made an exciting revelation during the Feb. 26 Red Blotch Pest Alert webinar: they have confirmed the three-cornered alfalfa treehopper (Spissistilus festinus) as able to transmit Red Blotch Associated Virus (RBaV) to grapevines in greenhouse tests. Their discovery is the first confirmation of a vector for RBaV. -The grapevine Pinot Gris virus (GPGV) recently was identified in a number of Napa Valley vineyards after being discovered in vineyards from Korea to Canada, and widely in the Mediterranean region. The symptoms of the grapevine Pinot Gris virus—chlorotic mottling, leaf deformation and stunting—were first noticed in vineyards in Trentino (northeastern Italy) in 2003. It was identified in 2012. A survey of different cultivars from the Trentino region in Italy showed widespread distribution of GPGV, and about 80% of the vines that tested positive for GPPV showed symptoms, but the other 20% didn't. Preliminary results obtained from transmission trials suggest that the Colomerus vitis mite can acquire GPGV and transfer it to healthy grapevines, making the mite a potential candidate vector for natural GPGV transmission. This vector infests grapevines wherever they are grown, including California. Early research showed that GPGV could be eliminated easily by in vitro meristem tip culture and/or thermotherapy. Thermotherapy-treated vines were maintained for two to four months at 38° C or for 40 days at 34° C before meristem excision.

vineyard health improvements (2000)*

...EX....Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala in the inland zone of Fitou. Bought VY and it was sick, soil dead. Tightened size (reduced the domain from 21 ha to just 8 ha) to treatable to start health and grow, improved soil, eradicated disease *Soil Health* -Boost the life and nutrition of the soil that complement the conditions for growing excellent fruit ...EX... Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala beginning by spraying the soils with bacteriological and fungal cultures ...EX...Croft cover crop regime change to bring soil vitality. Red clover to fix nitrogen. SOIL BIOTA: these organisms can be divided into the 'reducers', such as earthworms, slugs and snails, beetles and their larvae, mites and springtails, Protozoa, and nematodes, which feed on leaf litter and animal excreta to break it down into smaller fragments (without achieving much chemical decomposition), and the 'decomposers', which are much smaller organisms that colonize these organic fragments and gradually convert them into humus - decomposers, comprising Archaea, bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi, are commonly called microorganisms and the microbial biomass is measured by their collective weight. An active and diverse microbial biomass, interacting with the reducers, is important for organic matter decomposition and nutrient turnover in soil, which is a prerequisite for good soil health ...EX...Bruce Coulthard of Genesis-Soils sells a blend of five cultured natural mycorrhizae and complementary ingredients especially selected to aid grapevines. He says inoculating vines with these spores can significantly reduce vine stress, reduce water requirements and fight some plant diseases. Cost is 0.20USD a vine (similar to fertilizer application) *Disease Eradication* -Recently vine health programmes around the world have been challenged by the discovery of fungi associated with trunk diseases in mother vines, meaning that once again nurseries the world over are distributing diseased plants. This situation is yet to be resolved. -In Germany there has been a high regard for the health of buds and rootstock for grafting, and rigorous clonal selection programmes and registration of clones has ensured high-quality planting material. Similar schemes operate in other European countries. -The first attempt at controlling the quality of planting material in France was made in 1944, when the Section de Contrôle des Bois et Plantes de Vigne was formed. charged with avoiding the spread of virus diseases, and also with ensuring that all rootstocks used had sufficient resistance to phylloxera. -Foundation Plant Services, CA grew out of program after WWII model system for improving the quality of planting material. Research at the University of California at davis had demonstrated the importance of virus diseases, and had shown how they might be detected. A so-called 'clean rootstock program' was developed which aimed to distribute only virus-free cuttings to nurseries, using thermotherapy and indexing in particular to produce virus-free plants. -Thermotherapy, growing infected plants at high temperatures (about 38 °C or 100 °F), and then propagating from shoot tips. These shoot tips can produce plants free of virus diseases, but diseases such as fanleaf degeneration virus are eliminated much more easily than others—leafroll, for example. Each tip produced must be checked to see whether it is virus-free, and can become registered as a new clone. Not as effective as Tissue Culture. -Tissue Culture, the culturing of excised cells, tissues, and organs using artificial media of salts and nutrients, used especially in propagation and genetic modification. Used to develop vines with particularly useful properties much faster than by conventional propagation. The formation of roots or buds is achieved by subtle changes in the ingredients of the culture solution, especially in the relative amounts of the hormones auxin and cytokinin. Production of large numbers of plantlets in tubes that are free of some viruses and crown gall disease. Large numbers of vine plantlets can be 'micro-propagated' by these methods, which can rapidly build up populations of scarce vine varieties. -Hot Water Treatment, used by quarantine authorities and vine nurseries to sterilize dormant grapevine cuttings or nursery plants. Immersed in hot water at around 50 °C/122 °F, or slightly warmer, for a few minutes to destroy surface contaminants and for up to 30 minutes for internal diseases such as fungi and phytoplasma. Hot-water treatment is also used to control crown gall bacteria, nematodes, and phylloxera and other insects. The process is currently receiving much attention because it may be a way to control trunk diseases. There should be no damage to the plants if the temperature is accurately regulated and storage protocols followed. *Plant Material* -Beneficial Mutation: Mutations commonly seen in grapevines include leaf, berry, and pulp colour, berry size, seedlessness, compactness of bunches, productivity, flavours, date of ripening, deeply lobed leaves, very large inflorescences, and absence of inflorescences. -Genetic Modification: There are hopes of introducing resistance to fungal diseases and virus diseases as well as to insect pests by the use of this technique, as well as improving berry ripening and quality. Market acceptance is a barrier -Vine breeding: ...EX...Geisenheim trials, yet to produce very high quality grapes. Better at yield and disease resistance. -Replacing diseased material ...EX...Steve Mattiasson 5$ a plant for 20/20 nursery program guaranteed to be disease free. *Changes in Planting* ...EX...Zuccardi moving up hillsides for high quality fruit means different rootstocks/irrigation/clones and training. ...EX...Clair Lurton cut off codon arms and trained guyot off for Acaibo new vineyard site to get better development for less ripe bunches (harvests early - green pips- for retained acid)

soil influence on wine (2012) (2003)*

Difference of opinion may be OW/NW Science vs Art -Scientific consensus agrees Seguin's conclusion that soil physical characteristics predominate as the main influence over grape and wine qualities other than climate OW: grapes on poor sites NW: Grapes in the presence of food excess, better sites less concerned with soil to make site viable, less terroir -size of plot can correlate to importance given soil (smaller in OW than NW) -soil management procedures are seldom equally appropriate across an entire vineyard, let alone between different vineyards. *Water* -vine water stress/ holding capacity/ drainage -Prime quality: very well drained, and furnish a steady, but only moderate, water supply to the vines -with proper nutrition restrains growth -The leaf area, especially the secondary leaf area on the lateral shoots, remains relatively small, and nearly all leaves and bunches are well exposed to sunlight -Smaller berries are also usually less liable to congestion and compression within the bunch, and are therefore less likely to split or suffer spoilage as a result of fungal diseases or bacteria -water stress must not induce excessive water stress and reduce photosynthesis -Chalk soils quality grapes considered to be related to their free drainage and the ability of the subsoil to store water *Soil Color* -Dark-coloured soils absorb and convert nearly all of the light falling on them into heat, radiate warmth in cloud cover and overnight -Light soils stay cool ...EX...Champagne coal dust on chalky soil to aid ripening ...EX... bituminous soils of the Neckar valley in Württemberg *Texture* -presence of stones and rocks in the soil or on its surface influences both water and temperature relations -stones throughout creates drainage and allows deep rooting and root growth increasing capacity to reach water and nutrients, carb stores. -covering soil with mulch can slow evaporation and stops erosion (MAJOR concern in CA) -stone soils have moderate fertility -stone soils are warm because they are dry and hold heat -moderately wet soil beneath stones are warm do to waters ability to conduct the stone's warmth and lacks evaporative cooling -Very sandy soils need organic matter to give them sufficient capacity to store water and nutrients. -All soils, and especially clayey soils, benefit from having some organic matter, to give them friability, and to encourage the activity of earthworms, which help to keep them well aerated and freely draining. -One universally positive role of chalk and limestone (or deliberately adding lime) is that the resulting high level of calcium absorption to the soil clay particles helps to maintain crumbly texture in the soil, thus encouraging aeration, even at very high clay contents ...EX...best sites in Bd stand out in great vintages and make do in poor vintages, difference is soil quality ...EX...Gimblett Gravels set apart in quality do to stoney soil *Chemical Contributions* -Soils deficient in potassium, or potash, may result in grapes of high acid concentration and low ph because low potassium levels allow greater concentrations of acid tartrate ion to stay in solution. -minerals, though needed in small amounts affect organic reactions, enzyme metabolism and yeast activation -Optimal N supply should only be moderate -The optimum supply for red wine production is lower because nitrogen deficiency increases berry skin phenolics -N deficiency limits the build up of aroma precursors in white grapes -Excessive N can cause vigor and excessive shading and poor fruit quality -NW excessive N fertilization -low N leading to stuck fermentations and the presence of hydrogen sulfide and its malodorous mercaptan (N yeast nutrient needed) -Potassium deficiencies are common in cool and humid climates, potassium and some other elements are diluted in the plant. -Potassium-deficient vines are more than usually susceptible to drought and vine diseases, and the fruit lacks sugar as well as colour and flavour. -Conversely, vines in hot, atmospherically arid climates readily accumulate excess potassium in the leaves, stems, and fruit. High potassium levels in grapes can lead to high wine ph, with all its attendant quality defects -Potassium problems most often caused by fertilizer -High Potassium: excessive leaf shading in a poor canopy microclimate contributes importantly in many cases, and improved canopy management can help greatly in assuring more appropriate fruit potassium levels. -Very little evidence concerning the possible role of elements such as magnesium, phosphorus, or iron. -Exciting research in trace minerals: copper, zinc, manganese, iron, boron, and molybdenum -pH: Besides vine health pH thought to play little role. While the potential trace element deficiencies that are often encountered at high pH levels can in most cases be readily overcome by spraying leaves or by judicious choice of rootstocks ...EX... Denis Durantou says roots that dig down reflect consistent pH by reflecting true terroir. If too young or close to surface roots are effected more by surface sun and rain and have less consistent pH. *Are we making soil obsolete?* -Can now do drip irrigation to allow appropriate water to soil to each vine ...EX...Zuccardi soil mapping determine grapes and plantings for each plot. Each drip for irrigation to optimize vine. Right water to right soil creates fine wine -leaf or petiole analysis are making possible a more controlled optimum vine nutritional regime, so that differences in nutrient supply by the soil are moderated, or even, potentially, eliminated -Characteristics influencing the vine's temperature and light microenvironments, assume greater prominence as being more difficult to manipulate -Rootstocks can now compensate for soil extremes *New World* -NW (CA and Chile) now plant on less fertile slopes for better vine soil - perform detailed soil mapping before planting, and as a prerequisite to vineyard design. -More recently, zonal viticulture concepts arising out of global positioning system and geographical information system technologies allow differential management, including harvesting of separate zones of a vineyard block to maximize quality. These effects, identified by remote sensing, are by and large due to soil differences. -In NW soil mapping as part of vineyard design, precision viticulture clearly shows importance -NW stresses climate, soil and climate work hand in hand *Conclusion* -However, in most situations the effects of soil are subsidiary to those of climate, vine variety, and vine management *Best Soil* -generally shallow (with the exception of gravelly soils) because deep soils too fertile -fairly light textured, often with gravel through much of the profile and at the surface -almost any texture, from heavy clay to coarse gravel, though intermediate soil textures such as silt or loam tend to hold a significant amount of water and are therefore less suited to wine quality -free draining -sufficiently in organic matter to give soil friability, a healthy worm population, and adequate nutrient-holding capacity, but not, as a rule, (not high in organic matter) -overall, relatively infertile, supplying enough mineral elements for healthy vine growth, but only enough nitrogen early in the season to promote moderate vegetative vigor. -Topography due to underlying geology

Soil amendments and mgmt* (2007) (2010) Soil Structure

SOIL MGMT -soil prefer 6.5ph -less than 5 unsuitable (treated with lime or chalk -up to 8.5, chlorosis, easier to live with than correct, long struggle, work on year to year by adding material (rootstocks-berlandieri) ...EX... Steve Matthiasson prefers very even soil to make crop even ...EX....Zuccardi works with natural soil for encouraged variation *Top Soil* -topsoil health easy to judge by worms, contains humus, holds water, contains organisms, cover crop, work surface -quicker soil heats to 10c quicker budburst occures and lower the season -cool soils will not promote cytokinin hormones (produced in tips of roots and affect cell multi and growth/devel of shoots and flowers -shallow top soil needs friable soil beneath it to thrive -root pruning or plowing can send roots downward -covering soil with mulch can slow evaporation and stops erosion (MAJOR concern in CA and Duero) ..EX...Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala in the inland zone of Fitou keen on the Canadian cover technique known as BRF (bois raméal fragmenté) to create a soft, forest-like soil structure and preserve water, though he says it is hard to put it into practice on a large scale *Sub Soil* -vine puts majority of roots -less friable, less humus, OM (organic matter), but still has life -must be friable and be open to allow root hairs to grow in early summer -roots common 3 meters down -ploughing, cover crops, earthworms, other insects, and organic matter can open up texture ...EX...Pontet Canet horse less compaction *Subsolum* -roots may reach -water needs to drain and not log -plough pan may need breaking -water table depth imp ...Ex water table in Medoc 5-6m under ground leaving room for vines *Cover Crops* ...EX...Croft Duero: legumes at top to fix nitrogen, red clover, nutrients run down hill. Aggressive grass at bottom to soak up excess nutrients -grow and throw mulch -Cover crop increases natural mycorrhizae in the soils from (10-15%) to (20-25%). ...EX...Excessive drought in CA meant little cover crop growth, impending el nino means high erosion risks. ...EX...Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala in the inland zone of Fitou keen on the Canadian cover technique known as BRF (bois raméal fragmenté) to create a soft, forest-like soil structure and preserve water, though he says it is hard to put it into practice on a large scale SOIL AMMENDMENTS *Fertilizers* -for low nutrient -The mineral elements most likely to be deficient in vineyards are nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, zinc, boron, iron, manganese, and magnesium - common fertilizers: urea, potassium or ammonium nitrate, potassium chloride or potassium sulfate, superphosphate; zinc sulfate; boric acid or borate; and magnesium sulfate. - phosphate fertilizers are not readily available to plants grown in acid soils, so liming might increase growth because it makes more phosphorus available to the vine. -With high rainfall or irrigation, the nitrate form of nitrogen is leached so easily that it is lost to the vine roots unless they are very deep. The nitrate may end up contaminating groundwater, as has been the case in some parts of Germany -Fertilizer use can affect wine quality. Too much nitrogen can stimulate vine growth and the resultant wines are thin, pale, and herbaceous. Excessive use of potassium may also detrimentally increase wine ph. -cost is issue -compost is expensive (though encouraged for ecological reasons) -manure expensive if not readily available ...EX... Ponte Canet/Belle Pente keeps their own cows -Chem fertilizers: Super phospohorus. -excessive fertilizer, especially nitrogen and potassium, can damage the mycorrhizae. *Lime* -overcomes soil acidity -may be ground fine and applied in irrigation -large bulldozers may be used to get it deep -best if applied upon establishment -The calcium in lime or limestone also helps to give the soil greater crumb structure and friability -Where soils are moist lime-induced chlorosis in a common problem ...EX...David Bruce says neighbors in Santa Cruz applied up to 2 tonnes to balance soil acidity *gypsum* -improve structure -may be ground fine for application via irrigation -good option where soil acidity is not an issue and lime is not used to give structure -Can limit absorption of Calcium in CA strong soils ...EX...Jean-Pierre Wolff, owner of Wolff Vineyards in Edna Valley on the Central Coast, successfully converted a 45-acre Chardonnay vineyard from drip to dry farming in 2000. Wolff said he used the technique of deep ripping the ground up to 10 feet deep with a pre-shank hook to help wean the vines from drip. "The idea is to give a haircut to the shallow roots so the taproots go deeper," he said. He also added 1.5 tons per acre of gypsum soil amendment, as gypsum helps improve water percolation. *organic matter* -improve structure -Humus is necessary for good structure in most soils, especially where the clay is kaolinitic ...EX...The costs of green manure crops need to be assessed carefully, especially in terms of water use, since there is no direct financial return -NSWDPI *Cover Crops* ...EX...Croft Duero: legumes at top to fix nitrogen, red clover, nutrients run down hill. Aggressive grass at bottom to soak up excess nutrients -Cover crop increases natural mycorrhizae in the soils from (10-15%) to (20-25%). ...EX...Excessive drought in CA meant little cover crop growth, impending el nino means high erosion risks. - use to sprinkle soil with coal and soot to make dark to absorb solar heat in Champagne

climate change (2008)*

Short term weather events - hail, winter freezes, frost, and heavy rain Climate variability -measured on seasonal to decadal time-scales and typically regionalized (e.g. drought or wet periods, warm or cold periods) climate change -long term and regional to global in scale (e.g. warming, cooling, changes in moisture regimes). -In addition, one factor often influences and/or changes another—climate variability can change the frequency of individual weather events, or climate change can alter the nature of climate variability. *Situation* -Population growth will alter the Earth's surface and atmosphere and the way they hold and distribute heat -records of dates of harvest and yield for European viticulture have been kept for nearly a thousand years, revealing large swings in growing season temperatures and productivity. (warmth 12th and 13th centuries and mini ice age 14th to late 19th centuries reflected) -greenhouse gases and alterations in Earth surface characteristics bring about changes in the Earth's radiation budget, atmospheric circulation, and hydrologic cycle. -the extremely warm summer of 2003 appears to have been higher than in any other year since 1370 *Complication* -Warming trends have been found to be asymmetric with respect to seasonal and diurnal cycles, with greatest warming occurring during the winter and spring and at night (resulting in a smaller diurnal temperature range). -greater pest and disease pressure due to milder winters and changes in sea level potentially altering the coastal zone influences on viticultural climates. -increases in CO2 will cause more vegetative growth in grapevines and increased water use efficiency; however the increased growth is likely to come at the expense of grape quality. -Increased CO2 for the wine industry has also been identified: changes in the texture of oak wood may alter their suitability for wine barrel production. -globally averaged surface temperature will increase 2.0-4.5 °C over the period 1990-2100. 2.0 °C by 2050. Northern hemisphere are expected to warm more than those in the southern hemisphere. closer to the equator or inland are expected to warm more -Aussie and CA, this projected warming is likely to lead to a decrease in rainfall in most viticultural locations -Pests moving to new areas (Glassy Wing Sharp Shooter) -vigour reducing (global warming)- Riparia Gloire de Montpelier, 420A, 41B, 161-49 101-14 *Conclusion* -disruption of balanced composition and flavour in grapes and wine -clearly force changes in the varieties grown and wine styles produced in particular regions ...EX... "Drip irrigation and VSP trellising have been the two worst things that happened to viticulture over the last 30 years," longtime grower Pete Opatz ...EX Olivier Merlin chooses rootstock with global warming in mind (delayed ripening, not early) -Premier crus may become Grand crus ...EX...Krug feel Champagne picking dates are too late when framed by climate change ...EX...Bob Betz blown away by 16 day June 2014 heat wave in Washington (100+ F and 2 days over 111F) ...EX...Paul Symington feels Douro regs will allow vineyards to move to higher elevations in the valley until they run out of hillside

slopes (2014)*

- have shallow soils, reducing vigor -less frost prone (free draining) - face the equator more sun, not less controlling ripeness - cooler temp at high alt in warm regions - soil erosion is a concern -productivity and exhaustion of workers -little mechanized -terraced in duero, hermitage -run up and down in mosel, switz, cote rotie -'insolation' = incoming solar radiation measurement (increases with slant up to 45 degrees. More significant at end of season when the sun is weaker ...EX level site vs 30 degree site facing south only 8% different mid summer, 70% mid Oct -SE aspect best in Europe, protected from prevailing winds and warm in early morning ...EX Corton hill or Kaiser-stuhl in Baden both inversion layer ...EX Croft, up every 100m is -0.6C temp drop Tinta Francesca at bottom for warmth, Tinta Roriz mildew prone in middle for air movement, Riesling up top ...EX Croft avoids erosion on slopes by making terraces at 3% slope so water runs off sideways, Benzinger in CA does the same, built by Chinese rice terrace builders ...EX Croft growing tubes needed to protect baby vines from wind and falling rocks on slope ...EX Zuccardi finding most finesse up on slopes, can't flood irrigate, drip causes pest problems (nematodes) ...EX..."Vigna a Alta" alt to terraces in Duero, planted up and down slopes for mech. Across from Graham's Malvedos property. Totally changes fertility and grows in patchy, has taken 15 years to get right, OK up to 30% incline. Two row terraces up to 40%, 1 row at 45%. Closeness of Vinhos ao alto causes risk of odium and other fungal disease - vines are now being grown further upward to get aeration ...EX...Croft Patamares in Duero at risk for erosion because of no walls, 3% grade towards drains to allow run off of rain (rice patties, Benzinger in CA does the same). To further help with erosion grasses are grown in winter and mowed under in spring as mulch

Timing decisions (2000)*

Percision Viti: -Large amounts of Data Trimback way: The first 7 days of the year represent each month. *Grafting* -Nursery budding (part of bench grafting) allows large time flexibility -Green grafting offers less flexibility in timing than chip budding and t-budding because the rootstock shoots must be green, and so it must take place in late spring or early summer *Pruning* -Double Pruning: time-consuming, vines are pruned twice, which alters the timing of vine development. Double pruning may be carried out for one of two reasons: to delay budbreak and hence reduce frost hazard in cool climates; or to delay harvest and hence potentially increase wine quality in hot regions. Pruning lightly in the beginning of the winter delays budbreak of basal buds; a second or double pruning can be done after the danger of frost is passed. Double winter pruning or the vines are pruned normally in winter and then again in early summer just after flowering. Yields are reduced by this process but wine quality is much improved. -Early winter pruning encourages earlier budbreak, frost injury risks are increased. ...EX...2016 Earliest budbreak in Napa's history 1st week of March (warm weather no rain, potential for heavy rain poses risk, el nino) *Harvest* -balance between its natural accumulation of sugars and its decreasing tally of natural plant acids is optimal -hotter climates where warm, dry weather can rapidly accelerate ripening, causing different varieties to ripen at the same time -cooler climates, the threat of humid weather and possible rot, heavy rainfall making vineyard access difficult, hail damage, or even frost can also put unwelcome pressure on picking schedules -fruit in different parts of a single vineyard may vary in ripeness, and the picking of a single plot may take several days. -German eiswein is not picked until the January following the official year of harvest - In very cool southern-hemisphere vineyards such as Central Otago in new zealand, grapes may remain on the vine until early June. *Irrigation* -Aspersion for frost -Flood irrigation at snow melt -Overhead sprinklers to stir air in spring to avoid forsts ...EX...Fetzer say some frost damage in 2015 spring because of water restrictions, no overhead sprinklers to break up inversion layer holding cold air down. -Partial rootzone drying / Regulated deficit leading during ripening

Pruning (2007) (2001)*

Before the first snip of the pruning shears, the winegrower must assess the following factors: -The general vigour of the vine. -Its balance (number and distribution of buds, vertical or lateral growth habit, overlapping branches, etc). -Potential growth rate over the coming year: length of canes and likelihood of overlap with adjacent vines at the tying-up stage, choice of cane to tie-up, etc. -The potential need for rejuvenation pruning; evidence, if any, of vigorous new growth; location of primary bud from which new growth arises. -hydraulic pruners may spray fungicide paint -pruning later may cause it to heal faster -density can dictate cane size -pruning does not get extra help, no temps -cordon lowers vigour in fertile sites -can see both systems within one vineyard -pruning and training go hand in hand *Winter Pruning* -pruning late can delay bud burst -pre pruning on cordon often carried out by tractor -all pruning complete by onset of sap flow, then it is trimming -regulates the next season's yield by controlling the number of buds which can burst and produce bunches of grapes -timing, in general, is not critical. Usually after the first frost when leaves have fallen exposing leaves. Completed by budbreak -developed to grow fewer, larger, riper grapes -more than 85% of the years shoot growth may be removed -spur pruning pass of pre pruning -leave some cane on so if disease enters you can cut off in early spring -when pruned to a few buds shoots grow easily and successfully -vine's food reserves in the trunk and roots being spread around only a few shoots -leaving many buds means a heavier crop that takes longer to ripen. high input site, not for cool sites. Canopy mgmt helps cope with heavy vegitation -Yield cannot be limited by pruning high-vigour vineyards to just a few buds. The yield will still be considerable, as will berry size (undesirable for wine quality). Bunches will be tight, increasing the risk of bunch rot and there will be considerable shoot and leaf growth, which is likely to result in shade rather than vine balance. ...EX...In Germany, for example, the common rule is to leave about ten buds at winter pruning for each square metre of vineyard land surface ...EX...In New York state, Professor Nelson shaulis has developed balanced pruning guidelines for pruning which rely on the vine's growth as assessed by pruning weight (the weight of annual growth as canes removed at pruning); about 35 buds should be retained per kg of pruning weight. Having weighed a few vines, the grower can assess the pruning weight by eye as part of his pruning decision. For more vigorous vines with higher pruning weights, more buds are retained. *Spur Pruning* -cut to retain 2 buds -During winter pruning the cane growing from the uppermost bud on the spur is removed, and the cane from the bottom bud is cut back to two buds, creating the new spur. -Vine physiology dictates that the two buds furthest out from a cane will produce a shoot (why cut to 2 not 3, 3 would mean dead bud between new shoots and wood, so spur position would move further and further from wood) -spur pruning is commonly used with free-standing vines, goblet training, cordon training ...EX...PORT We only leave 4 brunches per vine, with two buds each. This way the vines can better handle the ripening process and can live longer. For making good wines, we need good grapes, and the quality of the grapes is highly correlated with pruning philosophy. If you do not push the vines to hard, they will give you a good wine! - Oscar Quevedo *Cane Pruning* -vine is typically pruned to one cane with six to eight buds and one spur with two buds -During winter pruning the cane from the previous year is cut off and a new one laid down, using one of the canes arising from the spur ...EX...App laws eight buds may be left on Syrah canes in the Côtes du Rhône; eight on all major varieties in Burgundy; in Bordeaux seven buds is the maximum for Sémillon in Sauternes, six for Muscadelle, but eight for Merlot Blanc. vigorous irrigated vineyards in Australia it is not uncommon to see up to ten canes, each with up to 15 buds, left on a single vine after winter pruning. -buds in the middle of the cane often do not burst. -Where the cane was growing in shade the previous year the budburst is invariably poor ...EX... Champagne regulations in place for pruning 1938: Long-pruned canes restrict the flow of sap, making for a better distribution of sap along the length of the cane, so boosting the vine's vigour, but preventing excessive flow to the buds, so boosting productivity. Long pruning encourages this process by creating knots that further regulate sap flow. *Spring Pruning / Shoot thinning* -beak off unwanted shoots from head or cordon -Sometimes these shoots have no bunches and are called water shoots. -operation can be done most quickly when the shoots are 20-40 cm/8-15 in long and the bunches are quite visible, which allows discrimination between fruitful and non-fruitful shoots -goal is to reduce the density of the canopy and to avoid leaf congestion later in the season -bent canes become more supple, bending may be delayed until sap moves -pruning wounds painted with anti fungal paint to avoid disease like Eutypa Dieback -some extra cane from winter pruning may been left to be cut back in case of frost -current mechanization research *Summer Pruning / Trimming* -removing unwanted shoot growth which can cause shading and hinder spraying -helps to maintain shape and ease of work in the vineyard. -trimming machine mounted on a tractor or hand machete -The operation normally removes the shoot tip and a few leaves below it, or about 30 cm/12 in of growth, thus leaving the shoots trimmed to about 10-20 nodes, or 70-150 cm/27-58 in. -Trimming is essential in vineyards with high vine density to stop shoots from adjacent rows from growing together. -Regrowth may be such as to demand up to six trimmings a year ...EX...Fetzer says this is highly water dependent in CA as soil allows as much vigour as water will allow. -If shoots are trimmed too short then there may be insufficient leaf area to ripen the crop properly. low alch, body, color -side shoots will shade canopy and must be removed -Goal is to open up leaf wall (light, heat, air) (allows pest and disease treatments to reach bunches) ...EX Benjamin Leroux Burgundy, FR no extra help or temp staff, 2 months to prune Jan/Feb, vines under 15 years prune late in March ...EX Piere Vincent cane that is long, but every other rubbed out to maintain 6 on a cane, aration allowed to fight botrytis in Pinot Noir

Calcareous soil (mine)*

-'limy', i.e. composed significantly of calcium carbonate. -include marl, limestone (and its subvarieties chalk and dolomite), and their associated soils. -Calcaire is the French for limestone. -In cool, non-arid vineyards, calcareous soils allow better water movement and access to nutrients than more acid soils. -This is because calcium carbonate, unlike most geological minerals, can dissolve in the water in the soil and react with its natural carbon dioxide content to form soluble bicarbonate, which tends to buffer the ph (see soil acidity and soil alkalinity) to around its optimum for nutrient availability -calcareous soils tend to flocculate clays, improving soil texture, microbial activity, and drainage -Limestone bedrock is normally highly fissured, and this also promotes water flow -Adding calcareous matter to overly acid soils (lime additions) helps achieve the same results, although it can be overdone, causing the problems associated with vines growing on highly calcareous rocks or pure limestone (chlorosis, for example). *Chlorosis* -vine disorder in which parts or all of the foliage turn yellow due to lack of chlorophyll. The most common and extreme chlorosis is that which is visible in spring and early summer and is caused by iron deficiency, which is common on soils high in limestone -american vine species sourced initially in the eastern US and used as phylloxera-resistant rootstocks were more prone to iron deficiency than were the original vinifera root systems. -Chlorosis is a common symptom of deficiencies of other nutrients such as nitrogen, sulfur, and magnesium *Rootstocks* -41 B or the newer Fercal -In Burgundy and Champagne, where soils tend to be high in limestone, it has been difficult to find rootstocks with sufficient lime tolerance for healthy vine growth. This sensitivity of early post-phylloxera rootstocks to lime-induced chlorosis may provide part of the explanation for an apparent drop in quality in post-phylloxera wines, according to some historical authorities.

IPM (2002)*

-4 steps: Set action thresholds, monitor and identify pests, prevention, control -Controls: Biological controls (natural enemies), Cultural controls (practices that reduce pest establishments), mechanical and physical controls (traps, mulching, steam), chemical controls -control of diseases, weeds, and physiological vine disorders and has the potential to increase economic returns for the grower and improve environmental and human safety by reducing, limiting or even eliminating the use of agrochemicals. -Sustainable -It requires a knowledge of the biology of the pest, monitoring the occurrences of the pest and any natural predators, recording environmental conditions, and then integrating all this information into a decision-making process. -monitoring vines, grass and clover to reduce herbicide needs and increase soil competition and quality, sexual confusion for pests, natural predators. -Risk that endocrine disrupters are more dangerous in small doses. -Terra Vitis organization FR (records and traceability required) -Some mites killed off by predator mites, use of agrochemicals has created an imbalance, IPM would bring balance back ...EX.Endocrine disrupters: bifenthrin, iprodione, 'azoles' like cyproconazole ...EX...European grape berry moths Lobesia botrana and Eupoecilia ambiguella can cause extensive damage, and studies have shown that their population levels can be limited naturally by virus diseases and protozoan diseases. ...EX... South Africa Integrated Production of Wine (IPW) covers responsible use of agrochemicals and using IPM techniques to improve pesticide input use. ...EX...Eyrie Vineyards in OR puts up large bird of prey houses to attract them to kill small birds and rodents. ...EX...Beurer in Germany uses pheromone traps to trap phylloxera (though had signs of them) and has a bug hotel to bring good bugs around ...EX...Taylor Fladgate's Croft property has interspersed herbs to be used to keep bugs away Rosemary in particular for flies ...EX...2008/2009 NZ govt funded IPM studies to research including seaweed compost teas instead of fertilizers

Sustainable (2002)*

-Environmentally non degrading, financial sustainability -The Sustainable Winegrowing New Zealand (SWNZ) initiative est 1995 to provide a 'best practice' environmental model for both vineyard & winery. Reliant on voluntary audits and stops short of prohibiting man-made inputs such as pesticides -Reduction in spraying better economically and for enviro -SIP certification in CA -Energy and water consumption, habitat conservation, or air-quality standards, as well as business sustainability -External inputs use fossil fuel and $ -Small tractors, lighter and more fuel efficient -Mycorrhizal fungi are critically important in becoming sustainable. Use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers suppress the growth of these water and labor saving beneficial fungi. ...EX Ampelos Cellars winemaker Peter Work sees as augmenting his organic and biodynamic strategies to be sustainable. "They are complementary programs," ...EX David Bruce at Croft says a lot of 'answers' offer only trade offs or unexpected knock on effects ...EX Fetzer in California moving towards renewable energy, partly based on recycling carbon dioxide gas produced during alcoholic fermentation. ...EX...The wine institute has an International Wine Carbon Calculator Protocol available free online. ...EX...Comité Champagne supports without mandating or certifying. An environmental impact assessment (EIA) undertaken by the Champagne industry in the early 2000s identified four key areas for action: The reduction of environmental risks to human health, particularly those arising from the use of agricultural in puts. The preservation and enhancement of terroir, bio-diversity and landscapes. The accountable management of water, wastewater, by-products and waste. Confronting the energy/climate challenge. ...EX...Yealands in NZ turns cuttings into LPG to power machinery ...Nyetimber brings sheep in over the wineter at age 2-3 (away from mother but small enough not to damage vines) to weed and fertilize ...EX...Mariscal in Levante Spain uses food grade filters to recycle and reuse water May make the most since since the answer is unique to the style and climate. -Related to: integrated pest management, LISA or LEISA, acronyms which stand for Low (External) Input Sustainable Agriculture, terms often used for programmes in North America and Australia. ...EX...Since CSWA was founded in 2002, 2,091 California vineyard and winery organizations have participated in the SWP Self-Assessment Program. These organizations represent over 421,000 acres, 69% of California's winegrape acreage, and more than 212 million cases, 79% of cases produced in the state. ...EX...Monopoly countries all have sustainability/environments missions ...EX...Amorin cork,-green shipping and pushing safe cork

veraison*

-marks the beginning of ripening, when the grapes change from the hard, green state to their softened and coloured form -At the beginning of veraison, the berries are hard and green, and about half their final size -sugars and volume increase, and acidity decreases -The colour of the grape before veraison is due to green chlorophyll, and at veraison berry skin changes colour to red-black (see anthocyanins) or yellow-green (see carotenoids), depending on the variety. -The berries soften and begin to accumulate glucose and fructose, and begin to grow about six days later -veraison sets in on warmest micro climates first, and with good exposure -The date is recorded when 50% of the crop begins to change -cane ripening occurs at about the same time -Exposed grapes on vines which have a high leaf to fruit ratio and which are experiencing mild water stress (and hence no active shoot growth) undergo veraison first -veraison is delayed in vines with large crops, with many actively growing shoot tips and shaded fruit. Veraison is observably early in vineyards producing high-quality fruit, with both veraison and cane ripening developing quickly. -Environmental factors associated with the early onset of veraison are warm, sunny, and dry weather. - will ripen in 1 month in hot climates, two in cooler climates

"terroir" (2005) (1999)*

...EX...At Château Pichon Baron, a renewed micro-focus on terroir has influenced gradual changes in style of the wine, says Jean-René Matignon, Pichon Baron's technical director and winemaker. Same with Rauzan Segla and investment in many tiny fermentors for indy plots 100-300 gallon. ...EX.... Acaibo, Clair Lurton, overripe and underripe grapes taste the same everywhere. True ripeness is when your grapes taste one of a kind, part or terroir. -Climate, as measured by temperature and rainfall. Sunlight energy, or insolation, received per unit of land surface area (see sunlight). Relief (or topography, or geomorphology), comprising altitude, slope, and aspect. Geology and pedology, determining the soil's basic physical and chemical characteristics (see geology). Hydrology, or soil-water relations. (-Laville) Maggie says: human know how creates house style/terroir -soil, topography, macro, meso, microclimate interactions create a site that uniquely has a signature to it's grapes that is relatively consistent year to year (beyond winemaking technique). -Euro vineyards place special emphasis on climate, not just soil -NW producers do not have storied terroir and are motivated to dismiss it -As winemaking and style change and modernize some things ascribed to terroir have been shown to be not terroir based. -But things that have stayed true through modernization show in fact there is a terroir base. By eliminating faults and sloppy winemaking truer sense of the grape can be exposed in winemaking, showing off terroir -Single lot vinification in Burgundy shows off terroir ...EX...Guigal's single vineyard bottling of Cote Rotie also show off terroir ...EX... Smart (Aussie/NZ) found soil conditions regulating water and nitrogen supply to the vine affect vine vigour, which in turn affects fruit and leaf exposure to sunlight, which in turn affects wine quality. Balanced unshaded canopy most imp for quality. Does soil at best play an indirect role? -Soil penetration is important, parent material shapes topography to degree it will erode, water holding capacity affects canopy climate, ability to house bugs and bacteria -The effect of terroir on wine quality is now quite well understood: it is mainly mediated through vine water supply by the soil and the climate, although mineral supply (and especially nitrogen supply) can also play a role. This effect of terroir can partly be obtained by good canopy and irrigation management in dry climates. -Another aspect of terroir is that its greatest expression occurs when grape ripening is relatively slow and therefore late in the season. -erroir can only be understood when soil, climate, and vine are taken into account simultaneously -poor understanding of terroir leads NW makers to plant whatever, where ever -terroir is proven that in German meso climates some places riesling ripens, others, it will not. -NW use soil mapping and plant on lots by soil, an recognition of terroir? -can only hope unique and special expressions of terroir prove true for the sake of quality, varied wine. ...Zoccardi in Mendoza gets soil mapping and plants different rootstocks, different clones/varieties and irrigates differently based on each single area of soil. Make the most of terroir. Terroir Aroma in Grapes ...EX...Julia Harding MW IMW tasting of volcanic wines in London came away believing that you could taste volcanic soil in fine velevt tannin and subdued fruit and marked acid ...EX...Ernst Loosen, owner of Weingut Dr Loosen, illustrated some research done recently by Professor Ulrich Fischer at the German Viticulture Institute that the bedrock soil of a vineyard is one of the most important factors in distinguishing terroir which causes specific, identifiable flavour and aroma compounds to develop in the grapes. Hence the interesting difference in taste obtained along the same river: pronounced apple and white peach aromas, and a very assertive acid structure from the blue slate of Bernkasteler Lay vineyard; most delicate and fine, with an elegant citrus and floral character in the aroma from the lighter blue slate and a thick layer of pulverised slate between the bedrock and topsoil in Wehlener Sonnenuhr; more stone fruits in the aroma and a bigger, more muscular structure from softer, red slate due to a high iron content oxidised by ancient volcanic flow in Ürzig and Erden. ...EX......EX Denis Durantou, Pomerol says roots that dig down reflect consistent pH by reflecting true terroir. If too young or close to surface roots are effected more by surface sun and rain and have less consistent pH. ...EX...Tim Wildman MW says it is said irrigation has the potential to limit terroir expression

Drought (mine) *

...EX...Eben Sadie of Swartland SA said 2016 drought lead to grapes like hard peas- all skins and pips. Yield down 50% if you were lucky. (dry farming area) ...EX...Ribero Del Duero 2015 hot season old vines had better water access and ripened where other grapes did not ripen -Drought may be praised in high veg, wet regions like Maritime/Continental Europe and New Zealand -Severe water stress reduces yield and is almost always detrimental to wine quality, especially if it occurs during ripening. -California suffered a periodic drought for three years 2012 to 2014, causing stresses on underground water reserves. -Eastern Australia also suffered a severe drought in the first decade of the 21st century. Drought in such climates drastically reduces growth and yield, and if very severe can disrupt the ripening process more or less completely. -In desert regions, drought is the norm, and commercial viticulture may only survive if sufficient irrigation is available. -Excessive water stress causes loss of photosynthesis and eventually of the leaves themselves, and can seriously prejudice normal ripening. -More irrigating means higher water salinity ...EX...Doug Frost MW Diversion of rivers that regularly flooded in Aussie to irrigate Big River Zone caused major damage as those rivers were suppose to flood and not ecology is interrupted and water is gone ...EX...Hubert Germain-Robin reported harvests in Mendocino as early as July 2014 ...EX...Dry grass and dead plants meant fire risk. Fires in CA wine country in 2015, some smoke taint of grapes, not as bad as 2008 BBQ wines (was grapes before winemaking- requires water) ...EX...Texas A&M extension service in 2011, experienced a severe drought that resulted in smaller canopy size and smaller average cluster weights around the state. Took 2 years for vines to recover. ...EX...Wine in central coast on low vigor rootstocks hit hard ...EX...Excessive drought in CA meant little cover crop growth, impending el nino means high erosion risks. ...EX...Fetzer used overhead sprinklers to break up inversion layer to move cold air in spring to avoid frosts - not happening and losing grapes to frost damage. ...EX... Paso Robles relies on water table for irrigation. Halt put on new plantings in 2014 ...EX...Jeff Pomo, vineyard manager for Constellation Wines in California's Monterey County, commented, "100% of our vineyards rely on drip irrigation. The source of our irrigation water is groundwater." Production of more than 16 million cases annually, "On average we irrigate about 1.1 acre feet of water per ac re per year (about 360,000 gallons per acre per year), ...EX...Jeff Pomo We rely on our winter rainfall to flush the root zone of those salts that built up from the prior year's irrigations. Last year's winter was below average as well, and we saw stunted growth in some of our less-tolerant rootstock blocks. A second year in a row of low rainfall is going to cause an even greater concentration of salts in the soil, and even poorer growth than last year. ...EX...Mary Lindsey, who handles marketing and sales for 300-case Muns Vineyard in Los Gatos, Ca says The Santa Cruz Mountains normally get much more rain than other Central Coast regions but in 2013/2014 was dry and dusty -Warm temps that accompany drought often cause lack of dormancy compounding water stress. *Types of measuring water stress* -...EX...Acaibo winery new site establishment during CA drought used sensor in vine that reported water level to computer for watering -Pressure bomb: put leaf in box with petiole sticking out. bars of pressure applied in box until water comes out of petiole (observed with magnifying glass). The amount of pressure required to force water out of the cut end of the petiole equals the leaf's "water potential." This is equivalent to the amount of tension the leaf is holding on to the water it contains. Leaf water potential (LWP) is measured in units of negative bars. The more negative the number, the greater the water tension inside the leaf, thus the more stressed the vine is. Less than -10 bar no stress-12--14 moderate stress, above 16 sever stress. Measurments should be taken midday -Plant water stress is a sum of four environmental influences; soil moisture, humidity, wind and direct sunlight or heat load. ...EX..While most monitoring systems only monitor one of these influences, the Pressure Chamber takes all four into consideration when taking a direct plant based measurement. -In soil sensors *Treatments* -Mulch can help keep moisture in soil -Irrigation, but limits root growth to wet soils, only possible if water stores -Adjust crop level down with winter pruning ...EX... phD study at CSU soil department says Genesis-soil Mycorrhizal inoculation is showing clearly that using a mycorrhizal inoculum... at the rates they recommend... reduces water use and water stress in winegrapes. ...EX...Genesis-soil extensive trials at 10,000-case Spring Mountain Vineyard, St. Helena, under the direction of vineyard manager Ron Rosenbrand. Used water pressure bomb to measure water stress. Where Genesis was applied, readings were consistently 1-2 bars lower than the control rows. This equates to a 25-50% reduction in stress levels, as evidenced by the PMS readings. Water savings were estimated at an early stage to be 20-40%. -Run water sets at night to maximize efficiency, 100% drip emitter irrigation....Minimize all sprinkler activity -water storage; retention of soil moisture; selection of drought resistant rootstocks and cover crop; runoff recovery, -maximise winter rain for flushing soil of salts with extra push of water *Salinity* -Salt in the rootzone affects grapevines in two ways: firstly, it is harder for the vines to extract water from the soil, and they may suffer from drought. Secondly, salt can be toxic in high levels in the vines' tissues. -When vines are irrigated by sprinklers with water containing excessive salt, or grown on excessively saline soils, leaves may be burnt, and in severe cases this leads to defoliation. - merlot vines are particularly susceptible. -salinity is seen as a potential problem for the inland irrigated vineyards of Australia, along the Murray-Darling river systems. and also in padthaway. -also found in southern France, where there are 10,000 ha/24,700 acres or more of vineyards planted on ancient marine deposits. -Salinity can be overcome by applying more irrigation water than the vines use, so as to leach the salt. -Some vine varieties such as colombard are tolerant of salt, and there are rootstocks such as Dog Ridge and Ramsey which show some salt tolerance. Grape juice and hence wine can contain elevated sodium and chloride levels. ...EX...Stanford release a paper spring of 2016 stating CA drought is the new normal.

organic viticulture (2011) (2008) (2002) (1999)*

...EX...English wine expert and consultant, Stephen Skelton MW, a minor investor in the Taittinger-controlled Domaine Evremond in Kent, has ruled out organic production for their site. ...EX...Vineyard worker in NZ sprayed 1.6 millions dollars worth of grapes with fertilizer that breaks down into chem that can't be exported. April 2016 ...EX...France recognizes wine as organic (Agriculture Biologique, Nature&Progrès) and biodynamic (Demeter-two levels, and Biodyvin). While here in the U.S. we have our own organic (USDA Organic, Made With Organic Grapes, Organic Vineyards) and biodynamic (Biodynamic Wines, Biodynamic Vineyard) wine tags. -no synthetic fertilizers, fungicides, and pesticides -no GMO material ...EX...Between 2002 and 2011, (Eurostat figures) Spain's area of vineyards under organic cultivation ballooned from 16,000 ha to almost 80,000 ha, while France's share went from 15,000 ha to 61,000 ha and Italy's from 37,000 ha to 53,000 ha over the same period (these three countries account for 73 per cent of world organic production). Since 2011, though, the growth in organic vineyards has been slower, and in some areas the number of organic grape growers has dropped. ...EX...Sebastien Vincenti, of Domaine de Fondrèche in Mazan, AOC Côtes de Ventoux is dropping his organic certification 'I believe now that certain synthesized products applied at the right moment may offer better environmental protection than some organic alternatives, but these are all banned by Ecocert.' 'I will reduce the use of copper build-up in the soils by changing my treatment programme to one that is more balanced between organic and synthesized products,' said Vinceni. 'The amount of oil used for tractors will also be halved, as I will not need to apply the treatments so regularly, so I will be lowering my carbon footprint'. ...EX...Benoit Braujou, of Domaine Fons Sanatis in the Hérault area of Languedoc, left Ecocert after six years, telling French magazine Réussir Vigne, 'using 5kg of copper a year per hectare just seemed crazy'. ...EX...Monty Waldin, a Decanter contributor and organics expert, said this argument could be misleading. 'Many organic vineyards use no copper at all, and limits are lower anyway for organic than conventional vineyards. Residue can be further reduced by working hard to bring life to your soil by use of compost and cover cropping.' Read more at http://www.decanter.com/wine-news/french-winemaker-drops-organic-status-for-better-treatments-289349/#TsKP8fPeifCw9gm2.99 *Soil* - soil health is primary concern. (Physical, chemical, and biological state) -start or 3 year conversion, on second year may label in conversion. -Organic growers regard the soil as having three essential properties: its physical structure and thus its capacity to hold nutrients and water, its chemical state (soil pH, for example, affects how well plants can take up nutrients), and crucially its biology or the prevalence of microbial life. -chemical fertilizers provide nutrients but do not promote the intrinsic life in the soil. -The principle of feeding the soil and not the plant also means that foliar feed fertilizers—those applied to the leaves of the vine—are prohibited under organic norms. - minimal cultivation protects topsoil, creates carbon sink, reduced dust reduces vine mites -humus formation, important since no plant rotation, may also increase terroir or mineral complex by encouraging deep rooting by promoting the growth of mycorrhizae which also helps with trace element uptake -animal manure must be composted of followed by min 2 green manure - poultry manure is most pop, pelletized and odorless required, N is stabilized by microbial immobilization, breaks down in soil - animal manure has high NPK, S, micro nutr, trace elements, and salt, caution needed. -pomace can be high in K - compost can be spread up to 10t/ha and worked into soil in winter -compost under vines at depth of least 5cm as mulch -blood, bone, hoof, horn compost -seaweed= foliage spray common, plant growth hormones and amino acids *Cover* -weeds controlled by mulch or mech, not herbicides -mid row cover crop = mulch, green manure, slows release of N, and NO3- will be leached before vine absorbs. - mustard cover protects from nematodes as they find it noxious - reduced irrigation -weeds are less of a concern. tidy appearance does not affects quality of final wine. -Some organic growers are experimenting with spraying natural plant resins as a means of discouraging weed growth. -EU to make law that cover crop seeds must be organic ...EX...Viñedos Organicos Emiliana (VOE) vineyard in Chile's Colchagua valley manually collect seeds from selected native plants growing around the vineyard. In CA they plow in cover crop after it has gone to seed. -Minimal cultivation makes organic VY a carbon sink instead of releasing carbon dust that attracts vine mites. -Cover crop increases natural mycorrhizae in the soils from (10-15%) to (20-25%). ...EX...Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala in the inland zone of Fitou keen on the Canadian cover technique known as BRF (bois raméal fragmenté) to create a soft, forest-like soil structure and preserve water, though he says it is hard to put it into practice on a large scale *Sprays* -Sprays are often barrier sprays which, unlike chem produced systemic sprays, do not enter either the vine's sap or the grape pulp and so are less likely to produce residues in the wine. -bordeaux mixture: mildews -barrier spray: bentonite clay, soap, plant oils, - prevent rather than cure: canopy mgmt for grey rot -Manual labor = jobs and less work later needed to clean up toxicity - results= vine shoot need less trimming (reduced chance of fugal attack), vigor reduced, yields less erratic, -fungal diseases, which are most attracted to nitrogen- or potassium-rich vegetative growth. -Copper: up to 6 kilos per hectare per year used in EU ...EX Dominique Lafon uses 4 kilos of copper for mildew per year in Burgundy ...EX... Alain Voorons and Wiebke Seubert of Château Wiala in the inland zone of Fitou For powdery mildew spray incorporate an emulsion of the essential oil of sweet orange peel, since this intensifies the anti-fungal properties and also acts as an insecticide. *Winemaking* Wine-making restrictions on the use of additives such as sulfur dioxide, processing aids such as fining agents, and other agents such as yeast and enzymes -mechanical processes such as centrifugation and filtration, are essentially left to individual certification bodies. -Permitted levels of sulfur dioxide are generally at least 30 per cent lower than those tolerated for wines from conventionally grown grapes. *History* -Organic started in 1920s Europe -Post WWII massive industrialization due to austerity and population boom -1972 International Fed of Org Ag Movement (IFOAM) - first vineyards post war, first real wines 1980s -Industrialized food scandals increased interest in Org -Thought to be cheaper in the long run -Europe subsidies -Chile worker safety concern increased Org wine in 2000s *Certification* -certifying bodies: Ecocert(EU), National Organic Program (USDA), Organic Federation of Australia, 2002 USA Natl Org Program (NOP) no longer varies state to state, NZ has Cert Org Winmakers (COWNZ) -Most European certification bodies overseeing vineyards operate at the EU's baseline standards -vineyard-specific bodies in Germany such as Eco-Vin are stricter -Aussie, NZ, and US have Organic Wine cert -USDA National Organic Progam (NOP) in 2002 to streamline -Alsace may reach 50% organic *Concerns* -Champ rewarded for quant over qual so organic not common -Only 2% of VY in 2007 -copper build up in soil, -variable crop, -labor costs -Wine required to have less SO2, but in reality all wine is under 100ppm SO2. May need more than conventional due to infected grapes from less spraying - may resurrect dead vineyard sites (because of phylloxera) with organic fertilizer -saves money long term, marketing -EU only cover organic practice in field, not winery -natural vegetation barrier between non organic vineyards -Worlds largest producer of organic wine is Fetzer ...EX elemental sulfur and the salt copper sulfate (Bd mixture) are used to control powdery mildew & downy mildew respectively ...EX...organic rules significantly restrict the amount of copper used compared with the amount allowed in conventional vineyards (to one-third in France, for example ...Ex. flax (grown to tie down pruned vines) cover crop hosts mealy bugs in Chile ...EX Solminer Wine's 3-acre Los Olivos produces syrah, grüner veltliner and blaufränkisch ...EX...AWGA funded study by Adelaide in Mclaren Vale. Planned 3 years but extended to 6 as major soil changes occurred in year 3. Testes of bio, next to organic, next to low input conventional, and high input conventional. Yields were 100% high input, 90% low input, 79% Organic 70% biodynamic. Their biggest measure was that weed competed for moisture (regional concern). Flat cost meant Bio was more expensive to make, but sis not account for the premium that Biodynamic grapes fetch. Blind sensory panel found Bio and Organic to be much higher quality. First year little difference between plots, but became more marked with each year.

Grape clones (mine)*

Clone: in a viticultural context is a single vine or a population of vines all derived by propagation from cuttings or buds from a single 'mother vine' by deliberate clonal selection. -Vine nurseries may sell a range of different clones of each vine variety, each with different attributes and characteristics and individually identified by numbers and/or names. ...EX....In Germany, for example, there is a formal process of clonal evaluation and a systematic numbering system. -Normally government agencies are involved in selection, evaluation, and distribution to nurserymen, and often the availability of clones and their acceptance varies regionally -Some clones are so outstanding that they become internationally distributed. ...EX...Clones of Riesling from geisenheim in Germany are examples of this. ...EX...In the 1990s, there was considerable interest in Burgundian (sometimes called Dijon) clones; see particularly chardonnay and pinot noir. Willakenzie estate pinot noir dijon clone 113 and clone 115 separate bottlings with clone on label ...EX...Merryvale produces it's much sought after Beckstoffer Clone 6 Cabernet, while Morgan produces their 12 clone Pinot Noir referring to the number of different Pinot clones planted in their vineyards. -By the late 1980s, many quality-conscious wine producers were wary of being dependent on a single clone of a particular variety—particularly Pinot Noir—deliberately seeking instead a mixture of clones or, less likely, vines from mass selection, for both viticultural and wine quality reasons. -Variety of clones in the vineyard can give complexity and disease resistance, singluarity can encourage coordinated ripening time and consistent virus resistance. -While most Old World countries have a wide range of clones available, sometimes, because of limited importations, a New World country might have only a few for any one variety. ...EX... An extreme example is Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand, where all commercial plantings up until the early 1990s can be traced to a single clone imported from the United States. -No clone can overcome a winemakers/grower's inappropriate site selection or poor management decisions. *Clonal Selection* -Process of marking best clones/vines in a vineyard and using them for propagation -Increasingly important with esca and rise in new pests and disease pressures ...EX...Clonal selection for vines was first demonstrated in 1926 in Germany, where it has been most widely practised. Other European countries have also developed clonal selection initiatives, but the practice is less well developed in some countries of the New World. -What makes clones different in the vineyard is genetics or virus transmission ...EX...Professor Helmut becker, an acknowledged authority on clonal selection based at geisenheim in Germany, argued for the genetic difference principle, while the virologists led by Austin Goheen of the University of California at davis believed that virus infection was the more important. -requires in depth and long kept records and tests on grapes ...EX...Institut des Vins de Consommation Courante (IVCC). This organization and its affiliates tested selected clones and supplied certified planting material. France AgriMer now oversees the certification process, although the research is generally carried out by the Institut Français de la Vigne et du Vin (IFV) *Chimeras* -natural mutation 'sport' ...EX teinturier Alicante Bouschet *Cross Breeding* -pollen from male athers taken by tweezer dusted on ovaries of female, place paper bag over to stop other pollen, flower set, remove bag, grows, plant seed (each seed has potential to be new variety) -grown indoors to push max devel in min time, put out w/i 2 years and wine is made and evaluated ...EX Muller Thurgau 1882 Geisenheim Ger Dr Herman Muller (riesling x Madeleine Royal) ...EX Dornfelder by August Herold in 1955 at Weinsberg Research Station ...EX Ruby Cabernet 1949 Carignan x Cabernet S -uncertainty of outcome major concern -benefit is virus and disease resistance -interspecific crosses are hybrids combing genes from 2 species. ...EX...Staatsweingut Weinsburg long multi year process building batches of wine in size as vines age and weeding out along the way *Historical Clones* -NW term for cuttings from historical sites -Australia are those from century-old ungrafted vines which may be traced back to early imports into the colony from pre-phylloxera Europe -They are typically virus-free, having been exported from Europe before the introduction of the grafting that is known to spread virus disease ...EX...In California such selections as Calera, Mt. Eden, Swan Pinot Noir, and Rudd and Wente Chardonnay clones are regarded as part of the state's viticultural heritage *Hybrids* -hybrids excluded from quality wine in 1930s - take decades and generations to produce oft -late 19th century to combat Phyllox - DNA from many varieties involved sometimes (up to 50) - cheap to grow, resistant and high yielding in warm climates -not allowed for EU quality wine -German authorities looked and tested closely and renamed some of these viniferous after no discernible difference circumventing the ban ....EX ONIVINS lists 43 PN 28 Chard clones allowed in FR ...EX 11 Chard clones allowed in Champ -Clonal trials: several sites, situations, research, then approved (most often universities or institutes) ...EX Sauvignon blanc FPS 01 came to California in 1800 from Ch Y'quem, planted at Wente, then to UC in 1958, then sent to New Zealand. Made up nearly all commercial New Zealand Sauv Blanc plantings up until the early 1990s and caused the Marlborough Sauv Blanc boom *Clonal Variation* -Spontaneous Mutation: this is where the vine's genetic material changes within a season. Although there are a variety of theories of why and how this happens, certain grape varieties are more prone to spontaneous mutation than others. The Pinot family is basically a family of mutations. Matthew Citriglia of wine geeks was walking through a young vineyard of Pinot Noir and stopped at a vine where half the vine had grayish-pink grapes and the other half had black grapes. The vineyard owner told him that of the 9 acre plot at least one vine a year suddenly changes into a different clone of Pinot. -Vine Evolution or Adaptation: most vines are very stable but adaptable creatures. Over time they begin to adjust to the climate and soil conditions of a specific area. This slow evolution creates what some will call a second generation clone. As a vineyard owner walks through a section of older vines it becomes obvious that certain vines seem to grow better and live longer than others. The vigneron will then take cuttings of the best vines which can be used to propagate new vineyards or replant the current vineyard when the vines get too old. -Viral Disease: The phylloxera out break in the late 1880's in Europe has had a dramatic world wide impact on vine health. Phylloxera is a louse that feeds on vine roots, but certain root stocks are resistant to it, so today all vines are grafted onto phylloxera-resistant root stock. Although grafting saved the vine from the deadly pest, the grafting union provides access for less lethal viral diseases. It may take years for a vine to show a viral infection and during that time it will genetically alter itself trying to fight off the organism. This genetic modification makes the vine slightly different than the mother vine. If a cutting is taken and cleaned, the new clone will be stronger and more resistant to the specific viral organism that attacked it. *Cabernet Clones* -California Clone 24 - Naturally low yielding vine with small clusters and small berries that produces hard and tannic wines in their youth with higher natural acidity. This clone is found in many old mountain vineyards such as Laurel Glen. Although difficult to tame, in the right hands it produces a wine that will age gracefully. -Beckstoffer Clone 6 - This clone produces very intense, small, thick-skinned berries which are high in anthocyanins. -California Clone 22 - Moderate yielding vine with moderate size berries and higher pH (This term refers to grape ripeness expressed as an acidic solution). A grape with high pH results in a less tart and more fruit driven style of cabernet. This is a popular clone where volume and immediate drinkability is important. *Chardonnay Clones* California Clone 4 - This vine produces fewer clusters but with larger berries and a heavier cluster weight. The grapes are naturally higher in acidity and have highly soluble solids which provide very flavorful berries. J. Lohr grows this clone throughout Monterey. -UC Davis Clone 108 - A vigorous clone that ripens late with a high pH. The result is a wine lower in acid with a fat, ripe and round texture. This clone favors the warmer growing regions of California where volume is important. -Dijon Clone Family - The late bud break but early ripening times of this family of clones make them ideal for the cooler Oregon climate. Naturally low yielding with moderate berry weight, these vines produce wines with naturally higher acidity. D75, D76, D78, D95 are some of the more popular Dijon Clones you will find listed. *Pinot Noir Clones* Clone 828 - Touted by Archery Summit, Morgan and Merry Edwards, this clone produces naturally low yields with small berries and a lower pH with more dense color pigmentation in the grape skin. This low pH results in a very tart wine while the dense pigmentation in the skin produces deeper colored Pinots. -Dijon Clone 115 - Provides ripe, high pH(low acid) fruit with small and tight clusters and high anthocyanins. It produces richly textured, flavorful wine that is more round and supple. -Pommard - This clone produces well-structured Pinot that is high in tannin and dark fruits and has a somewhat meaty, syrah-like character. This is Old School Pinot that is fading in favor of newer clones.

Water needs and management (2009) (2005) *

FACTS: -Hydric Stress: need for water -field capacity is how much water soil can hold after 24 hours of total saturation -growers who sell fruit are always tempted to over irrigate -Man made lagoons can capture water in winter and hold through summer -bore-hole and pumps (water rights) -when fertilizer in system 'fertigation' -gypsum moisture block measures electrical resistance of the soil, - neutron probes indicates water in soil -dendrometer measures circumference of vine as it fills and empties with water ...EX Acaibo has sap meters to read water needs. 2 vines per block, solar powered, report wirelessly, only watered 2x in 2014 drought year ...EX Pontet-Cantet Jean-Michel Commes walks the field and brushes leaves against hand to feel water needs, takes 3 hours (?) to evaluate whole estate -pan evaporimeter measure water evap rate in area. -vines w/o water show less vigor, less upright shoots, smaller internode lengths, leaves cup and curl, less green leaf color, stoma shut down and photsynth halted ...EX...Wash state Uni found red grapes restricted water got quality skins, in white lead to bitterness (worked with Ch Ste Michelle) ...EX...South Aussie driest place for grapes ...EX...Tim Wildman MW says it is said irrigation has the potential to limit terroir expression -Primary irrigation: too dry to have grapes without it -Supplementary: needed case by case *WATER QUALITY* -total dissolved solids, salinity, salts -Tested for pH, calcium, magnesium, iron, carbonate, and bi carbonate, sulphide, sulfates, manganese (blocks sprinklers and systems) (high salts make water hard to take up by vines) (salt water deteriorates leaves) ->flood irrigation and overwatering can help overcome challenges of saline water. ->Israeli rootstock good for salt as they have high saline *WATER CRISIS* -Chile has room to plant but lacks water Elqui and Limarí have struggled 2012-2015 with low water due to lack of melt, choosing which plots to let die, 80% depletion of reservoirs and a 60% decline in mountain snow cover in Elqui 2014. (DB) -Mycorrhizal inoculation is showing clearly that using a mycorrhizal inoculum... at the rates they recommend... reduces water use and water stress in wine grapes. -bud burst to flowering= reduced cluster number - fruit set to verasion= decreased berry size Ex. Bio Bio Chile and Yakima WA little water for irrigation ...EX...Tests at Washington State University found deficit water was bad for white grape quality and white grapes, in general, need between healthy water and deficit water when water resources are low. (tested on riesling and chardonnay). (worked with Ch Ste Michelle) ...EX...Ratcliffe in South Australia says he is sometimes called a vandal for using irrigation but when people visit they leave seeing them as water savvy 'Central Irrigation Trust has most tech advance system in world. ...EX...Ratecliff in South Africa using drip and mulch to help. Can control whole system from his phone to use only when need be. *PARTIAL ROOT ZONE DRYING* -control vigor, increase ripeness, maintain yield, saves water -divided rootzones, stress half, shoot growth slows, alternate drip irrigation lines, mimics roots drying towards surface while lower vines access water from below -Dry and Loveys from the University of adelaide and csir0 *REGULATED DEFICIT* -one side of roots wet and one dry, swap every 10-15 days -vine sends off protective ABA hormone to close stoma and stops water loss out of leaves (reduces transpiration) -cuts water needs by 30-50%, reduced shoot growth, more open canopy -Wash State Univ found moderate regulated deficit irrigation strategies and more severe deficit irrigation both positively impact the fruity aroma components of red wine -limiting irrigation means less dense canopy and more exposed fruit -encouranges root expansion *FLOOD IRRIGATION* -drowns pests, flooded up to 6 times a year -fine to use low quality water *CHANNEL IRRIGATION* -feeder canals flood carved channels along vines -erosion and issue, can be overcome by riser tube use -fill up with local debris -damaged by machinery -fine for poor quality water *OVERHEAD SPRINKLERS* -good for frost in California breaks up inversion layer (Fetzer- 2015 drough meant more frost) -large amount of water -portable ones can move onto successive vineyards with one piece of equipment -fixed rely on permanent systems (less than drip) and need high pressured pumps -uneven results -can promote disease *UNDERVINE* -Mini sprinklers: cover 2-3 rows, low quality water ok, low pressure pumps, good coverage, rodent damage -Micro-jets: in every row, poor quality water ok, rodent damage Leaky hose: every row, cheap, low maintenance Dripper: each row, 2 drippers per vine, shallow and small rooting issues, low water use, high control, low labor, relatively saline water ok, high cost, very clean to avoid blockages, rodent damage http://www.yakimaherald.com/news/local/system-could-change-the-way-grapes-for-white-wines-are/article_ad90335e-ca47-11e5-bac7-fff6690f83e0.html

mechanization in vineyards? (2009)*

MACHINES: -Move trellis wire and tuck in growing vines -Pre pruning -mowing -terra forming -planting -application of sprays -hydraulic pruners -pruners that spray fungicide paint (Eutypa) -hedging -cutting draining (mole drain) -ripping the plough pan -ploughing -harvesting -leaf removal -Bell sprayer (finer spray now) *Cons for Mech* -cultivated rows that become wet can be issue, machine slipping, cultivate every other row and option - Steep terraces in Germany, Duoro, mountains in Piedmont and cliffs in Liguria, Madeira and Ribeira Sacra make it difficult and sometimes impossible to maneuver machinery through the vineyards -Fruit growing on the interior of a bush vine may be lost in mechanical harvesting. -Sprawl trellising may not allow for effective thinning or training as there is no uniformity to the trellis, meaning berries or unintended material may get cut in the process. -The skin contact involved in transporting mechanically harvested white grapes to a winery can also cause a significant increase in the concentration of proteins in the wine, necessitating higher rates of bentonite fining -at onset of phylloxera, powdery mildew, spraying and need for rootstocks vines began being replanted in orderly fashion allowing draught animals to be used. ...EX...Asian immigrants were providing some solutions to aussie and NZ labour shortages in the mid 2000s ...EX...Riverina, Australia, Winemaker Andrew La Nauze chooses to hand-pick all of his Pinot Gris, despite producing over 100,000 cases annually. His belief is that machine harvesters will allow the skin of the grape to tint the color of the juice, resulting in a wine that is slightly pink rather than completely clear. ...EX...Eden Valley, the original Pewsey Vale vineyard was planted in 1961 to follow the natural curves of the valley slope. As they replant blocks today, vines are no longer planted in curved or contoured rows as it becomes too difficult to mechanize ...EX...Chateaux Coutet in Bordeau will hand harvest in many tries to get proper ripeness of grapes. *Pros for Mech* -harvest a vineyard by hand requires between one and ten man-days per hectare, as opposed to less than five man-hours per hectare by machine. -berries break can be protected by sulfur dioxide addition -can harvest quickly at rain, can harvest at night in heat as hotter wine regions where grapes harvested by day can arrive at the winery at over 40 °C/104 °F ...EX...Aussie nearly 100% machine harvest, France 80%, Italy is below 10% ...EX...mechanized pruning requires 10 hours per hectare versus 100-150 hours per hectare for hand pruning ...EX...Europe using more narrow tractors (Croft) for high density and US using wider tractors due to lower density ...EX... Grapes can be hand harvested at the rate of approximately ¾ tonne per day. A mechanical harvester, however, can harvest 12 tonnes per hour or 130 tonnes per day ...EX...mechanical shoot thinner can thin up to one hectare per 1.5 hour ...EX...Dan Kraemer, a grower near Mount Angel in Oregon, admits that he can save between $150 and $300 per acre using mechanical cane pruning, but believes that what is more important is the improved safety to his vineyard workers, who were previously getting whipped in the face when pruning vines ...EX...Stefani Poni at the University of the Sacred Heart in Milan finds that leaf removal pre-bloom helps reduce bunch compactness in varieties such as Trebbiano and Barbera, allowing for higher brix and anthocyanin. Mech makes this affordable

acidic soil (2000)*

-Acidity is found mainly where the alkaline mineral elements have been leached down or out of the soil profile under heavy rainfall over long ages, and their places in the so-called 'exchange complex' on the soil particles have been taken by hydrogen ions. -Problems of soil acidity are to be expected in most viticultural regions with high rainfall, and affect parts of Europe and the east coast of Australia. -Soils of pH below about 6 are described as acid; below 5 as highly acid; and below 4 as extremely acid -Grapevine root growth is inhibited below pH 5 because aluminium, which is toxic to vine roots, is soluble when pH is less than 5 -Lime can be applied to raise pH -The soil acidity of the médoc in Bordeaux, for example, also promotes copper toxicity where there has been a build-up of copper in the topsoil from spraying vines with bordeaux mixture -Acidity also has an effect on the supply of nitrogen to the vine. Organic matter contains 5-10% nitrogen, and 1-2% of the organic matter in the soil is mineralized per year, thus releasing nitrogen. Acidity influences the speed at which organic matter is mineralized so that a soil pH of 5.5-6 can limit excessive nitrogen supply to the vines in soils rich in organic matter (over 1.5%). -Soil acidity should be contrasted with soil alkalinity, which is more common in arid areas. ...EX...In the early 1980s, soil scientist Larry Perrine researcher at Cornell University's Geneva station, began investigating. He was finally able to identify it as Sauerschaden (literally, 'acid damage'), a condition caused by very acidic soils. Sauerschaden, while common in parts of Germany, was until then unknown in the United States. Perrine's work essentially made wine-growing in Long Island possible by recognising what soil corrections were necessary to grow more balanced wines. ...EX...David Hirsch, who planted in 1980s. 'The soils are acidic - I know some people who had to put 20 tonnes of lime on their vineyards in order to get them semi-fertile. We get 60 to 80 inches of rain per year that goes percolating through these acidic soils. High stone content is key for getting quality vines. Sonoma Coast. ...EX...Acidic soils most prevalent on earth. 55% of soil in France is calcareous

yields and quality (2004)*

-Highest yields seen in Ger, Brz, USA, Aussie *Low Yields High Quality* -prevailing belief that low-yielding hillside vineyards produced the best wine. -Green harvesting around time of version, fruit to leaf ratio, mostly done by hand, grapes enlarge potential for botrytis, late impacts yield, earlier impacts ripeness, too soon shuts plant down, too late lost energy, impact is small, balance growth better option. Used to eliminate grapes that are behind in ripening. 3rd and 4th bunch on the cane removed (typically smaller). The plant will compensate and ripen rest of crop more, so may not actually have intended outcome unless super reduction is made. Gets rid of less ripe bunches or last to ripen bunches -Very low yields may be the deliberate result of careful pruning, shoot thinning, or even crop thinning, ...EX...Perkins-Harter WIne *Low Yield Low Quality* -may be due to vine stress caused by disease, pest, shallow soils that limit vines resources, (water in Spain) ...Suzuki beatle in Southern Germany limited yields but tainted wine with VA -over concentration, too high alcohol -Yield of high potential site cannot be limited by pruning high-vigour vineyards to just a few buds. The yield will still be considerable, as will berry size (undesirable for wine quality). Bunches will be tight, increasing the risk of bunch rot and there will be considerable shoot and leaf growth, which is likely to result in shade rather than vine balance. -A high leaf to fruit ratio will certainly ripen grapes, but the shaded canopy microclimate will produce grapes high in potassium and ph and low in phenolics and flavour. *High Yields High Quality* -High yield may reflect high quality in a marginal climate. Some of the finest red bordeaux vintage years of the 1980s, for example, were also those in which yields were relatively high; while the lowest crop levels of the decade were recorded in lesser vintages such as 1984 and 1980. ...EX... excessive alcohol: "Drip irrigation and VSP trellising have been the two worst things that happened to viticulture over the last 30 years," longtime grower Pete Opatz -High yields may offset the vigor of a site, NW problem *High Yield Low Quality* -There is little doubt that heavily cropped vines with a low leaf to fruit ratio ripen more slowly, so that in cooler climates the fruit may not reach full ripeness and wine quality suffers. ...EX...Grenache explicitly sensitive to yields D'Arenberg uses yield as one predictor of plots and final wine quality sorting

Weather at harvest (2007) (2004)*

-If other nearby fruit is ripe birds will seek those out (apple pears) as opposed to ripe grapes *Good weather* SUN --Healthy fruit is very fragile, ideal conditions for health -ease of vineyard workers -in marginal climates can mean the vintage ...EX... The Mosel 2012 wet but saved by Sept and Oct warmth DRY -lack of dilution -lack of fungal infection -minimal stress at this period can be a positive, focus on ripening not canopy ...EX...Concentration of juice in 2015 CA, bad for Noble Rot areas HUMIDITY -Sauternes, Tokaji cool humid morning and warm dry afternoon to restain BTY development ..EX... Ch Coutet as Semillion ripens skin gets thinner to accept Bty. infection once fully ripe. -can be cooling in hot climates ...EX... Mendocino Pinot Noir at Fetzer avoids over ripe raisin notes *Bad Weather* SUN -Sunburn -Such sunburn is due to a combination of bright sunshine, high air temperatures, and low winds, and the so-called 'hot spot' can be up to 12 °C/54 °F above air temperature. -Berries which were previously shaded from the sun are most sensitive, as their skins have not been conditioned by exposure to sunlight. Sunburn sensitivity is higher for vineyards suffering water stress. ...EX...Chile sun exposure can be intense due to altitude Miguel Torres winery had sunburn 2012 -damage to color of white wine -Sun brings out grape predators RAIN & HUMIDITY -fungal disease -dilution -equipment risks and rutting ...EX... Muscadet 2015 dry season and rain at harvest means mediocre vintage HAIL -cuts grapes leaving openings for infections to take hold -VA, botrytis, mold, attracts pests -Severely damage yields ...EX... Hail on eve of harvest in Chablis in 2015, luckily did not hit large area ...EX... 2002 Barolo LA Morra hit hard, few did not even harvest. "As a result of the storm, I won't be harvesting the Cannubi vineyard this year," said vintner Luciano Sandrone.

control of acidity * (2011) (2007)

-Important for color, style, freshness and yeast life -acidity is the extent to which a solution is acid, caused by protons (hydrogen ions or H+), which may be present in either free or bound forms. -Highest acid content at start of ripening - total acidity is the sum of the fixed acids and the volatile acids. -Generally the higher the total acidity of a wine, the lower is its pH. -grapes 90% malic and tartaric acid -Malic: younger more malic, malic consumed by grape for energy, glucogenesis (malic converts to glucose, lowering TA) -Tarteric: by product of sugar synth, rises as sugars rise, Tartaric acid is converted to K+ salt forms (Extent of Exchange) which causes pH to increase -TA falls as grape ripens, diluted by sugar (malic falls faster as it is destroyed, tartaric though gaining in quantity is diluted by sugar slower than malic) -In extreme cases wait for TA to drop, flavors are lost, fruit shrivels *Water in the vineyard* -Acid Rain, When acid rain reaches the ground in the vineyards, which lowers the pH, altering the soil balance. Some of these acids are very corrosive and toxic and harmful to the vine. ...EX...The TA of irrigated vines at harvest was 9.8% to 28.3% higher than the TA for non-irrigated vines. Esteban study on Tempranillo (Spain) ...EX...Deficit irrigation in semi arid areas induced higher titrable acidity, higher malic acid and potassium contents and a lower pH, but had no significant effects on berry sugar accumulation or tartaric acid content. (Aussie) *Soil Acidity* -alkali compound (lime/chalk) to raise soil ph -Chlorosis from high ph soil, lime tolerant rootstock, humus additions (difficult) -vines like soil at ph 6.5 Grape Control Points *Variety Selected* -Naturally high and low acid grapes like Syrah and PN ...EX... Touriga National high acid giving port freshness in hot climate with base spirit addition (6.8ph) making up 20% of blend and extended aging (raises pH) (Fortified) *Temp of site* -As vineyard temperature increases, the vines and grapes will rely on alcoholic respiration more than glycolysis (the breakdown of sugar). This is an evolutionary adaptation to save sugar for the seeds. -hotter lower acid, cooler higher acid ...EX... Most souther site in Alsace is one of the last vineyards to be harvested; by picking late, the wines have higher pH (lower acidity) but that acidity includes a higher proportion of tartaric, which is more stable since it is not lost during malolactic fermentation. *Shade/exposure* -exposed clusters low TA -Shaded canopy low TA -Shaded clusters high TA -Shaded canopy (3+ leaf layers) leads to high pH -Well exposed canopy (1-2 layers) leads to low pH -DSP downward shoot position reduces cordon shading ...EX...Sadie in Swartland South Africa allows much higher crop by taking less suckers. This tames ripening but also allows shading to preserve fresh acid. *Crop level/ Balance* -High crop load leads to high TA -Low crop load leads to low TA -High crop loads (>5) leads to low pH -Low crop loads (<5) leads to high pH *Plant Nutrition/ soil fert/ soil mgmt* Soil pH can be important -K is less available at low soil pH -High K and high pH can lead to excess K and Mg deficiency. -Soil moisture is important... K+ must be in solution for uptake -Soils deficient in K+ lead to plant health problems (poor growth, reduced cold hardiness, increased disease susceptibility, etc) -large rootstock can have an effect *picking date* -TA falls as grape ripens ...EX...Clair Lurton very sensitive to acidification with Tartaric. Hates taste, picks wine before pips are ripe to retain acid. (N Amer)

Quarantines (mine)*

-Is a necessary block to innovation and speed of developing viti -downy mildew, powdery mildew, and phylloxera all inavsive -may be national or regions barriers -current widespread blocks to control pierce's disease, and flavescence dorée, FD not proving effective - Quarantine also works to reduce the spread of other fungal, virus, and bacterial diseases as well as insect and nematode pests which might not be lethal but may cause significant commercial damage *regimes* -Licences issued for importation are typically restricted to a few cuttings which are subjected to disease testing -The quarantine delays can be up to two years, but new diagnostic tests such as ELISA developed in the 1980s have reduced this period -South Australia in an attempt to avoid the further spread of phylloxera ...EX..."We intend to test one in four mother blocks every year using ELISA (enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay) and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) tests. No other state tests 25% of the vines in the mother block each year -Margaret Kelly, assistant director in NYDAM's Division of Plant Industry. The new grapevine certification program will require nurseries to screen vines for viruses that currently cause growers to lose money, with specific focus on tomato ringspot (see photo above), tobacco ringspot, fanleaf virus, leafroll-associated viruses and red blotch virus. The New York State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, N.Y., will be involved with the testing procedures, and state horticultural inspectors will be doing third-party inspections. *Complications* -"Samsonite" vines: Smuggling of vines is not unknown, especially when producers believe that they are disadvantaged by not having access to better varieties or clones. -Increasing international competition in the wine market makes the possibility of sabotage from another region or nation by introduction of a pest or disease less fanciful. *ELISA* -enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay -erological test which can also be used to detect vine pathogens -First used in plant pathology in the mid 1970s -the technique is now used routinely to determine the presence of a wide range of vine pathogens, and test kits are available commercially.

roots general*

-Major organ of plant -Roots' main functions are anchorage of the plant, storage of reserves of carbohydrates, absorption of water and minerals from the soil, and synthesis of specific compounds, such as reduced nitrogen compounds and such hormones as cytokinins and abscisic acid. -Because wine is done on cuttings roots are more divided than the tap-root style of a seedling's root system. -Typically penetrate 1 meter but may go up to 6 meters deep ...EX...Deep rooting can be seen in the dry soils of Douro -feeder roots aka root hairs absorb nutrients and moisture -store moisture buffer -1st and 2nd year vital and vigorous root growth, will grow until limited -The position and number of the main framework roots, the 'spreaders' which extend out and down, are determined during the first three years -roots begin growth at 10C, produce sap upwards (reserves of carbs in roots and cytokinins hormones in root tips needed for this) -first activity of root hairs vital, supplies water and nutrient as plant leaves dormancy and needs to make leaves, quick leafing means early bud burst, likely successful flowering and riper grapes (cool weather limits these root hairs activities to delay bud burst, grapes will ripen later in marginal weather) -root hairs need o2 at bud burst, they release CO2 before leaves are out. waterlogged soils cause issue. -Root density is highest in friable soil with continuing supplies of minerals, water, and oxygen. -mycorrhizal fungi play an important role in increasing the surface area of the roots. -Vine roots are much less dense than those of many other crop plants. Different species of vitis have different root distribution and habits, a difference that is deliberately used in the breeding of rootstocks.

Mycorrhizae Fungus*

-Mycorrhizae are fungi that naturally exist in symbiotic relationships with most plants. They colonize the roots, producing tiny tendrils that help the plant extract moisture and minerals from the soil. In turn, they get nutrients from the plant's photosynthesis. -Soil inoculation: ...EX...Bruce Coulthard of Genesis-Soils sells a blend of five cultured natural mycorrhizae and complementary ingredients especially selected to aid grapevines. He says inoculating vines with these spores can significantly reduce vine stress, reduce water requirements and fight some plant diseases. Cost is 0.20USD a vine (similar to fertilizer application) -The level of natural mycorrhizae in the soils is extremely low (10-15%), even with mycorrhizae colonization using cover crops (20-25%). -Mycorrhizal fungi are critically important in becoming sustainable. Use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers suppress the growth of these water and labor saving beneficial fungi. ...EX... University of Colorado phD in soil fungus research show High levels of Mycorrhizae fungus shows a need for less water resulting in less water stress ...EX...Genesis-soil extensive trials at 10,000-case Spring Mountain Vineyard, St. Helena, under the direction of vineyard manager Ron Rosenbrand. Used water pressure bomb to measure water stress. Where Genesis was applied, readings were consistently 1-2 bars lower than the control rows. This equates to a 25-50% reduction in stress levels, as evidenced by the PMS readings. Water savings were estimated at an early stage to be 20-40%.

Climate Classification (2008)*

-The first influential scientific study of viticultural climates was that of the French researcher A. P. de Candolle in the mid 19th century, a time when reliable climatic data were just starting to become available. *Degree Days* -Amerine and Winkler 1944 -durring growing season took avg daily temp and deducted it from 10C and added the results up -i.e, April avg temp of 12C equals 2 degree days -then evolved into CA heat summation *CA Heat Summation* -Amerine and Winkler 1944 - 5 regions based on thier heat summation over 10C -summation from growing season defined as April 1st to Oct 31st -Temp calculated from monthly averages then multiplied over the # of days in the month -Region I (the coolest) having less than 2,500 ° days F; -Region II, 2,500-3,000 ° days F; -Region III, 3,000-3,500 ° days F; -Region IV, 3,500-4,000 ° days F; -Region V, over 4,000 ° days F. -Regions 1&2 are best dry table wines, light to medium body and good natural balance -Region 3 makes full body dry and sweet wines -Region 4 has potential to be further developed for fortified wines and makes low quality table grapes. -Irrigated inland valleys, low quality wine and table grapes -Unique to CA specific climatic correlations, does not work well elsewhere *LTI* -lat temp index, NZ 1994 -length of day accounted for -important for marginal or maritime climates (not continental) -mean temp of the warmest month multiplied by 60 minus the latitude -To make LTI and Degree Days more applicable in other regions you may deduct the mean temp of the coldest month (MTCM) from the mean temp of the warmest (MTCM). Especially helpful in Australia *Smart and Dry* -Australia -five separate climate elements of temp, sunlight, rainfall, evaporation, & humidity -Avg mean temp for January (July in N Hemi) as measure of usable heat -Combined with continentality index calculated by the mean difference between mean summer and mean winter temps -5 categories of mean temp in Jan -5 categories continentality -4 categories total seasonal sunlight hours -4 categories of aridity measure by difference in rainfall and 0.5 of measure evap -4 categories of relative humidity measured at 9am -becomes an index of 5 categories that can predict suitable styles of wines *EU WIne Zones* -affects must adjustment and chap laws -Zone A (coldest) -Zone B -Zone C I -Zone C II -Zone C III a -Zone C III b

Conventional viti (2008)*

-There is high input and low input conventional viti *Negatives* -Mycorrhizal fungi: Use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers suppress the growth of these water and labor saving beneficial fungi. -Herb/pest/insecticides may not be well targeted causing collateral damage -Roots may not dig deep because they have no need to search for nutrients -Can make a vine sickly as it may not develop it's natural resistance (you keep anything from attacking vine as oppose to building up plant) -Soil will not have a strong microbial life, returning to organic becomes a bigger proposition with each passing year -Short life cycle of vine disease and pests mean a very quick ability to adapt to inputs -Chem companies are profit driven companies and they are expensive inputs that can not be produced by the grower -Potential for chemicals to end up in wine ...EX...Bayer Pharmaceuticals to voluntarily pay grape growers in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and Switzerland after 2015 crop damage from fungicide Moon Privilege. Grape growers reported deformed leaves and lower yields after using the chemical, with losses in Switzerland estimated to stand at 80 million Swiss francs ($83.73 million), according to marketing group Swiss Wine. *Positives* -Less copper applied -Have more tools to pull from -Major financial benefit of potentially saving a crop and highest potential yields -Social pressure to be seen as 'conventional' and not relegated to organic section of wine section ...EX... Paul Pontallier from Ch Margaux began trials of organics and Biodynamics but 5 years later in 2013 said he found no objective sensory or quality differences in the wines or grapes and stated that conventional viti plot had more diversity across the plot. ...EX...AWGA funded study by Adelaide in Mclaren Vale. Planned 3 years but extended to 6 as major soil changes occurred in year 3. Testes of bio, next to organic, next to low input conventional, and high input conventional. Yields were 100% high input, 90% low input, 79% Organic 70% biodynamic. Their biggest measure was that weed competed for moisture (regional concern). Flat cost meant Bio was more expensive to make, but sis not account for the premium that Biodynamic grapes fetch. Blind sensory panel found Bio and Organic to be much higher quality. First year little difference between plots, but became more marked with each year.

Sulfur in vineyard (2011) (2003)*

-Too much can create hydrogen sulfide in the winery -Must be halted 20-30 days before harvest -Sprayed in cooler regions, dusted in warmer -Cheap and effective -Increases yields (due to less loss) -Brings harvest forward by 7-10 days because of leaf health -controls mites -Should not be sprayed just before or during flowering, scorching of flowers -Odium is worse in dryer years, does not require water to spread, humid air is enough, prefers warmth (20-27C) and still, dry, shaded canopies, overwinters in old wood, spores spread by wind, covers leaves and causes yound berries to split, most damage when young -All sulfur spraying is resolved far before harvest (21-56 days before), otherwise H2S risk -Organic alternative is light mineral oil, destroys odium and fungus cells including botrytis, kills spiders and mites -Strobilurins sprays alternative -controls leaf hoppers -retards mites, acaricide needs in big cases -applied to control powdery mildew which devastated vineyards. -Some growers though French American hybrids were the answer as they resisted powdery mildew until Sulfur discovered, lead to phyllox discovery. -Bio dynamics has a reliance on Sulfur as it is a natural element -excess soil acidity can result ...EX Noval has heavy spraying though claimes to be lutte raisnee ...EX Biodynamic producer Ponte-Canet says biod spraying less because of healthier plants and combination herbal boosters ...EX Croft has glowers through vinyard to cover aroma of sulfur applications ...EX Applied 3x in Duero (Croft, Graham's both) a fourth application is sign of a bad season.