National Science Bee Part 2

(9) The fork-lined method is a tactic used to solve problems presented in these diagrams. The ratio resulting from cases observing epistasis (+) are an exception to one form of these diagrams which would normally constitute a 9:3:3:1 ratio. These diagrams also outline the codominance relationship between the alleles of A and B blood types. Monohybrid and (*) dihybrid crosses are used to visualize, for the points, what diagrams that outline the allele interaction of two parents to predict the phenotypic outcomes of an offspring?

ANSWER: Punnett Squares

(3) The acid-fast type of these substances is used to identify tuberculosis in patient samples. Histologists often analyze biopsies using one of these substances containing both (+) hematoxylin and eosin. One of these substances called crystal violet binds to the bacterial cell wall in a technique named for Gram. Cells (*) can be visualized using, for the points, what substances that provide contrasting colors to a biological sample?

ANSWER: stains (or dyes; accept Gram stain; accept H&E stain; accept acid-fast stain)

(26) The centripetal [[sen-TRIH-peh-tal]] form of this quantity is always directed inward. Torque is equal to the moment of inertia multiplied by the tangential form of this quantity. In general relativity, it is (+) impossible to distinguish between forces caused by gravity and this (*) quantity. For the point, name this quantity measuring rate of change in velocity, which can have units of meters per second squared.

Acceleration (accept Centripetal acceleration; accept Tangential acceleration)

(25) This scientist co-names the second law of photochemistry with Johannes Stark. One quantity introduced by this scientist is symbolized lambda and represents the expansion of the universe, though he later deemed it his "biggest blunder." Gravitational lensing is explained by a "general" form of a theory proposed by this scientist. For the point, name this German-born physicist who originated two theories of relativity.

Albert Einstein (accept Einstein-Stark Law)

(3) This disorder is associated with rare hereditary diseases like Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome and Chediak-Higashi syndrome. This genetic disorder may be caused by mutations in the P gene or the TYR gene, the latter of which contains tyrosinase, an enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Oculocutaneous [[ah-kyoo-loh-KYOO-teh-nee-us]] and ocular are common forms of, for the point, what genetic condition where the body produces little to no melanin, causing a lack of pigment in a person's skin, hair, and eyes?

Albinism (accept Albino; accept Achromasia; accept Oculocutaneous Albinism before mentioned; accept Ocular Albinism before mentioned)

(18) Primary examples of these compounds are oxidized to aldehydes and carboxylic acids, while secondary types are oxidized to ketones. These compounds are characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl group. Methanol and ethanol are the simplest members of, for the point, what class of compounds found in beer and liquor.

Alcohols (accept Primary Alcohol or Secondary Alcohol; prompt on specific molecules like "Methanol" or "Ethanol;" prompt on "Hydroxyl")

(3) This man invented a mercury-fulminate-based blasting cap to reduce the need for fuses. This owner of the arms manufacturer Bofors developed the use of nitroglycerin as an active ingredient in explosives. For the point, name this Swedish chemist and inventor of dynamite who lends his name to annual prizes awarded for literature, peace, and science.

Alfred Bernhard Nobel

(29) Lichens consist of a fungus and one of these organisms living in a symbiotic relationship. Ocean afforestation involves growing these organisms en masse, and rapid oxygen-depletion in the population of these organisms are known as their namesake "blooms." Cyanobacteria and seaweed are types of, for the point, what often green marine protist organisms that float on water?

Algae (accept Blue-Green Algae; accept Seaweed)

(34) They're not polymers, but the "shape memory" kind of these substances can reverse their deformation at high temperatures. The Heusler type of these substances display ferromagnetism, though their components do not. Smaller atoms substitute into a large crystal lattice in the "interstitial" type of these substances, which include austenite. Mercury-containing examples of these substances are called amalgams. For the point, name these mixtures of two or more metals, which include brass and bronze.

Alloys (accept Intermetallics; prompt on "Metals")

(3) This class of animals vocalizes through the use of a syrinx which can produce especially variable sounds in mynahs and conures. Members of this class of animals have four-chambered hearts and, though warm-blooded, are descended from dinosaurs. For the point, name this general class of vertebrates whose bones are typically hollow to enable flight.

Birds (or Avians; or Aves; accept Mynah Birds; accept Conure Birds)

(16) A polymer's glass transition can be quantified using the "differential scanning" type of these devices, and constant volume is maintained in the "bomb" type of these devices, which can more accurately measure a sample's (+) enthalpy of combustion. A simple example of these devices can be constructed with a stirring rod, thermometer, (*) and two nested styrofoam coffee cups. For the points, name these devices that measure the heat given off by a chemical reaction.

Calorimeters (accept Calorimetry; accept Differential Scanning Calorimeters; accept Bomb Calorimeters; accept Coffee Cup Calorimeters)

(14) Models of this process proposed by Gleason and Clements differ in their emphasis on a climax group. The role of abiotic factors in this process distinguishes its allogenic form from its autogenic form. During this process, intermediate seral communities (+) are established in stages after the initial colonization by a pioneer species. The secondary type of this process is triggered by (*) disturbances such as floods or forest fires. For the point, name this gradual change in the species structure of a given area over time characterized by replacement within a community.

Ecological Succession (accept Primary Succession; accept Secondary Succession)

(20) A condition affecting this organ is named for physician Norman Barrett. Another condition of this organ can be prevented with H2 receptor or proton pump inhibitors and by avoiding spicy foods. Stomach acid enters this organ in acid reflux and GERD [[GURD]]. For the point, identify this tubular organ that transports food from the mouth to the stomach.

Esophagus

(5) This mathematician's "orchard" is derived from his algorithm that finds the greatest common divisor. John Playfair names a statement that extends one of this mathematician's axioms which is violated by hyperbolic space. "All right angles are congruent" and "a straight line segment can be drawn joining any two points" are two of five statements this man postulated. For the point, name this Greek mathematician who wrote the Elements and is considered the "father of geometry."

Euclid (accept Euclid's orchard; accept Euclid's parallel postulate)

(8) AFFF and CAFS are compounds used for this task that are usually manifested as foam. Portable devices used for this task most commonly contain compressed CO2 and dry ABC powder. Extinguishers and water are used in, for the point, what task commonly performed by first responders using a hose?

Fire Fighting (accept any answer regarding Putting Out or Extinguishing Fires)

Practice Question C - The pistil and stamen are found within this structure, which also include sporangia for the distribution of spores. The only plants that possess these objects are angiosperms. For the point, name these colorful reproductive structures of certain plants, also called blossoms.

Flowers (accept Blooms; accept Blossoms before mentioned)

(16) This element was first isolated by Henri Moissan through electrolysis. This element's existence was first theorized by André-Marie Ampère in 1810, and this halogen exists by itself as a diatomic element. This element is the most electromagnetic and therefore reacts strongly to all elements, except argon, neon, and xenon. Commonly found in toothpaste, this is, for the point, what element used as an additive in tap water with the atomic symbol F?

Fluorine (accept F before mentioned)

(21) Description acceptable. B. subtilis is used to test the efficacy of these processes, which include the phytosanitary irradiation of produce. Brucellosis is rare thanks to one of these methods, pasteurization, and the use of sodium benzoate for this purpose can greatly extend shelf-life. For the point, canning and refrigeration are modern techniques for this process that reduces spoilage of products like milk and vegetables.

Food preservation (accept descriptions like "preventing food from going bad", "preventing food poisoning", "preventing food contamination", or the preservation of specific types of food)

(10) This man's namesake transformation converts between coordinate systems that differ only by relative motion. This scientist was the first to formalize the concept of inertia, and he is famous for making discoveries that supported Copernicus's heliocentric theory. For the point, name this Italian polymath who improved the telescope.

Galileo Galilei (accept either; accept Galilean Invariance; accept Galilean Transformation; accept Galilean Moons)

(3) The warming effect of this natural phenomenon has increased the biodiversity of areas like Nantucket. The Antilles Current connects with this phenomenon at the intersection of the Florida Strait. For the point, name this warm ocean current that originates in the southern US and makes its way along the eastern coastline through the North Atlantic.

Gulf Stream

(29) The power of a test refers to the ability to correctly reject one of these statements and avoid a Type Two error. If the p-value is less than significance level alpha, the null type of this statement is rejected in favor of the alternative type. In the scientific method, these statements are often written in an "if/then" format. For the point, name these proposed statements that can be tested by experimentation.

Hypothesis (or Hypotheses; accept Null Hypothesis; accept Alternative Hypothesis)

(19) Kupffer cells break down red blood cells in this organ, and most of the blood supply of this organ is delivered by the portal vein. This organ is the primary site of the urea cycle and gluconeogenesis. Late-stage scarring of this organ is termed cirrhosis, while its inflammation is known as hepatitis. For the point, name this digestive organ that detoxifies blood and produces bile.

Liver

(9) This organelle is the site for the majority of the activity of cathepsins, and this organelle facilitates autophagy upon combination with a phagosome. Proteins tagged with mannose-6-phosphate are destined for transport to this organelle, and a pH of around 4 to 5, which is acidic, is necessary for the function of this organelle. Storage diseases, such as the Tay-Sachs disease, primarily affect, for the point, what organelle in animal cells that is responsible for breaking down macromolecules?

Lysosome

(4) Failure to cook this food in an alkaline solution via nixtamalization caused frequent pellagra epidemics among European settlers. This crop was first domesticated from teosinte in the Balsas River region and has been found in the Guilá Naquitz [[gwee-LAH nah-KEETS]] Cave in the Oaxaca [[wah-HAH-kah]] Valley. With squash and beans, this crop formed the Three Sisters. For the point, name this crop used in a certain high fructose syrup.

Maize (accept Corn)

(1) Duffy antigen absence and thalassemia [[thah-lah-SEE-mee-uh]] traits convey partial resistance to this disease. Drug resistant varieties of this disease are treated with artemisinins [[ar-tih-MEE-sih-nins]]. This disease is most commonly spread by members of the genus Anopheles [[uh-NAH-feh-lees]]. Carriers of sickle cell anemia possess a heterozygous [[heh-ter-oh-ZAI-gus]] genetic resistance to this disease. This disease can be treated with the drug quinine. For the point, name this mosquito-borne disease caused by the Plasmodium parasite.

Malaria

(12) Convection in this region was thought to be active in the Hadean [[HAY-dee-un]] period. The D double prime layer is the lowermost part of this region, and S waves are absorbed after going through this region. The Mohorovicic [[moh-hoh-roh-VEE-cheek]] discontinuity lies just above this region. The asthenosphere lies within this region, and the lithosphere includes the crust and the upper part of this region. For the point, name this layer of Earth above the outer core.

Mantle

(29) Structures on this entity include the smooth Borealis basin. The largest mountain in the solar system, Olympus Mons, is on this planet. A recent expedition to this planet to search for signs of life in 2021 discovered the presence of hidden water in a canyon. The Opportunity and Curiosity rovers landed on, for the point, what planet named for the Roman god of war, the fourth planet from the sun?

Mars

(8) For an ideal block and tackle setup, this quantity is equal to the number of rope sections supporting the block. For a wedge, this quantity is inversely proportional to the wedge's (+) slope. This quantity is demonstrated by the law of the lever, which relates opposing weights and (*) arm length. For the point, name this ratio of output force to input force, used to measure the effectiveness of a simple machine.

Mechanical Advantage

(14) Electrically-powered types of these objects operate when the object's magnetic field and its electric current in a wire generate torque to be applied on the object's shaft. Mechanically, these objects typically consist of a stator, commutator, windings, and a rotor supported by bearings. For the point, name this family of machines designed to convert forms of energy into mechanical energy.

Motor (or Engine)

(15) The rate of transport of these structures is measured in sverdrup. Examples of these structures located far below the surface are driven by Thermohaline Circulation. When these structures make a complete, rotating loop they form a gyre [[GIRE]]. One of these structures off the west coast of South America is named for Humbolt while one running from North America to Europe is named the Gulf Stream. For the point, name these large directed flows of water found in the ocean.

Ocean currents

(19) The two main types of these things are surface and deep-water. A riptide is not a tide but one of these things. Thermohaline [[ther-moh-HAY-leen]] circulation drives some of these entities, and rotating systems of these things make up gyres. One of these things first mapped by Timothy Folger and Benjamin Franklin is called the Gulf Stream. For the point, name these moving systems of water in the oceans.

Ocean currents (accept Surface currents; accept Deep-water currents)

(24) The first female tourist to this region was the namesake of the Ansari X Prize. The short-lived MirCorp would have brought travelers to this area, to which Dennis Tito became the first paying tourist in 2001. 2021 may finally see customers who paid $300,000 each to Virgin Galactic fly past the ISS in this area, though most planned trips are suborbital. For the point, Jeff Bezos's Blue Origin will use vertical takeoff to bring tourists to what mostly empty region above Earth's atmosphere?

Outer Space (accept International Space Station)

(8) Reactions with this gas result in the cleavage of unsaturated bonds of alkenes, alkynes, and azo compounds. The odor of this gas is typically present following a lightning storm, since heated air splits nitrogen and oxygen bonds. An effort to protect this gas in the atmosphere was undertaken by the Montreal Protocol, which sought to decrease the production of chlorofluorocarbons. For the point, name this gas that is comprised of three oxygen atoms, whose stratospheric type acts as a protective shield against the sun's UV rays.

Ozone (accept Trioxygen or O3 before it is mentioned; accept Ozone Layer; accept Stratospheric Ozone; accept Tropospheric Ozone)

(25) This organ can possess a benign accessory duct named for Giovanni Domenico Santorini. This organ releases its namesake digestive juices into the small intestine through the Duct of Wirsung [[VEER-zoong]]. This organ's endocrine-producing cells are contained within the Islets of Langerhans. Type One diabetes is caused by the immune system attacking this organ's beta cells. For the point, name this organ that secretes insulin.

Pancreas (accept Pancreas juice(s))

(1) An early conception of this entity was called the telluric helix, and this entity was refined by Julius Lothar Meyer. The only two objects among the nearly 120 organized by this entity which were named after people who were alive at the time of their naming are oganesson and seaborgium. For the point, name this entity whose modern form is attributed to Dmitri Mendeleev, a tabular display of chemical elements.

Periodic table of the elements

(4) In standard procedures, a sterile loop is spread over one of these objects containing solid nutrient agar or another growth medium. Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming from a type of mold growing in one of these objects. Cells can be cultured on, for the point, what shallow dishes named for a German microbiologist?

Petri dishes (accept plates; accept Petri plate)

(20) If the polar angle is this quantity, the resulting point will be on the negative side of the x-axis. The Madhava-Leibniz series approaches this number, and it's not e, but this was the first number proven to be transcendental. This number times four-thirds times the radius cubed gives the volume of a sphere. For the point, give this term for the ratio between a circle's circumference and its diameter, approximately 3.14.

Pi (accept Archimedes' Constant; accept 3.14 before mentioned)

(19) In a Birch reduction, a solution of this element is dissolved in ammonia, where it forms a double bond with benzene. This element was first isolated by Sir Humphrey Davy by using electrolysis [[ee-lek-TRAH-lih-siss]] on this element's hydroxide, which is also called caustic soda, or lye. This element is exchanged with potassium in an active transport pump. For the point, name this element that reacts with chlorine to form table salt.

Sodium (accept Na; or Natrium)

(24) At this university's Cavendish Laboratory, Max Perutz used x-ray crystallography to find the structure of hemoglobin. J. J. Thomson's cathode ray experiments at this institution led to the discovery of the electron. Lucasian Professors of Mathematics at this university have included Stephen Hawking and Isaac Newton. Second only to Harvard in number of Nobel laureates, for the point, what is this British university, the longtime rival of Oxford?

University of Cambridge (accept Cambridge University)

(26) An increase in pressure can increase the value of this property. An increase in temperature can decrease the value of this property, but the variation is slight for solids and liquids. Also known as specific mass, this property is measured in kilograms per cubic meter and relates to an object's buoyancy. For the point, what is this property which is determined by dividing an object's mass by its volume?

Volumetric mass density (accept Specific mass before mentioned)

(4) Random types of these constructs are called Las Vegas or Monte Carlo depending on whether they can fail. Two of these constructs named for Kruskal and Prim are "greedy," meaning they always make the locally optimal choice. "Big O" notation describes the runtime of these methods, which can use a "divide-and-conquer" technique. Search and sort can be performed by, for the point, what step-by-step methods used by computers to solve problems?

algorithms

(14) A supercritical fluid made of this compound can be used to decaffeinate coffee. Ocean acidification is primarily a result of this compound being dissolved into water. Along with water vapor, this compound is produced as the result of a complete combustion reaction. As a solid, this compound is known as dry ice. For the point, name this greenhouse gas which is released by the burning of fossil fuels.

carbon dioxide (or CO2)

(1) When mixed with asphalt, this material can be made into "blacktop." In large buildings, this material can be reinforced with steel rebar, and unlike mortar, this material is primarily used as a building material itself and not as a binding agent. For the point, name this material composed primarily of rock pieces bound together by cement, which is used to build roads and sidewalks.

concrete (prompt on "cement" until mentioned)

(16) This structure is above the Moho discontinuity, which separates it from the layer below. The outer part of the lithosphere is made up of this layer, which comes in oceanic and continental forms. This structure is generated at mid-ocean ridges and destroyed at subduction zones and is primarily composed of silica and oxygen. Resting atop the mantle, for the point, name this outermost layer of the Earth's surface.

crust

(11) Venezuela created one of these resources based on the value of oil which was called El Petro. The most prominent of these resources was developed by the pseudonymous Satoshi Nakamoto. These resources are mined through solving hash functions and typically employ blockchain to form a distributed ledger. For the point, name these digital currencies which include Ethereum and Bitcoin.

cryptocurrency (prompt on "digital currency" before mentioned)

(27) Rock formations common to these biomes include hamadas and ergs. CAM and C4 photosynthesis evolved among plants in these biomes, which are home to the majority of the world's xerophytes. These biomes commonly form in the "rain shadow" of mountain ranges. These biomes and beaches are home to most of the world's sand dunes. For the point, name these extremely arid regions, exemplified by the Sahara.

deserts

(7) This process is described by a set of laws named for Alfred Fick. This process can be modeled as a random walk or as Brownian motion. A type of this process exhibited by water is known as osmosis. This process is driven by concentration gradients and can be visualized with the spread of dye through water. For the point, name this process by which matter moves from areas of high to low concentration.

diffusion

(14) The quotient of these entities can be expressed as a solution to a system of linear equations via Cramer's Rule. These entities, which come in Singleton and Jacobian varieties, are non-commutative when multiplied. The determinant of a two-by-two variety of these entities is ad minus bc. For the point, name these rectangular mathematical entities that can be arranged in rows and columns.

matrix (or matrices; accept Singleton Matrix; accept Jacobian Matrix)

(11) This odd number is followed by twin primes, and this perfect square is the second in a series of squares whose digits add up to 18. This first reverse divisible number is often the basis for numerical magic tricks because it can be the result of any two three-digit numbers, reversed then subtracted. For the point, what is the product of 3 and 11?

33

(5) The dynamic of salt and freshwater in these locations can be demonstrated using the Ghyben-Herzberg (+) equation. These areas come in confined and unconfined varieties, are surrounded by areas known as aquicludes, and are studied in the science of (*) hydrogeology. For the points, identify these layers of permeable rock from which water wells extract groundwater.

ANSWER: Aquifers (accept confined aquifer; or unconfined aquifer)

(26) This type of mixture forms at the Bancroft point, which falls within the valid ranges of the Antoine equation. Entrainers or a "pressure-swing" (+) technique using multiple columns can be used to "break" these systems, which deviate from Raoult's law. A binary example of these systems is a 96% solution of ethanol in water. Also called "constant (*) boiling point mixtures", these are, for the points, what solutions which cannot be separated by simple distillation?

ANSWER: Azeotropes (accept Constant Boiling Point Mixtures before mentioned; prompt on "Solutions"; prompt on "Non-ideal")

(4) The dynamic of this structure is represented by the Singer-Nicolas model, which explains how smaller (+) molecules can pass through this organelle without assistance through osmosis or diffusion. The fluid mosaic model is a representation of this organelle, which is present in both eukaryotes and (*) prokaryotes. For the points, name this organelle that surrounds the cytoplasm and protects the inner components of a cell from its environment?

ANSWER: Cell Membrane (or Plasma Membrane; or Cytoplasmic Membrane; accept Plasmalemma; do not prompt or accept "Cell Wall")

(1) The accumulation of this molecule by macrophages triggers the formation of foam cells seen in atherosclerosis. The Apolipo-protein (+) B100 test measures the protein of the same name that is responsible for transporting this molecule throughout the body. HDL and LDL are considered the good (*) and bad forms of, for the points, what important lipid in the body, a waxy substance found in blood that is essential to modulating the fluidity of the cell membrane?

ANSWER: Cholesterol (prompt on "HDL" or "LDL"; prompt on "Lipids")

(21) One type of these entities can be iteratively solved using Runge-Kutta methods. Guessing solutions composed of exponential functions or using (+) Euler's [[OY-lers]] method are simple methods for explicitly solving the ordinary type of these entities. Euler and Lagrange name a system for these equations, and a first step in dealing with these equations is to employ separation of (*) variables. For the points, what type of equations contain a variable and its derivatives?

ANSWER: Differential Equations (accept Ordinary Differential Equation; or ODE; prompt on "Derivative")

(25) A value named for this scientist is the time derivative of the scale factor divided by the scale factor. An instrument named for this scientist captured highresolution images of (+) Shoemaker-Levy 9's collision with Jupiter. This man found that an object's distance and redshift are directly proportional to each other. An astronomical (*) constant is named for, for the points, what namesake of a space telescope?

ANSWER: Edwin Powell Hubble (accept Hubble Space Telescope)

(17) This many bonding pairs of electrons are found in molecules with a seesaw geometry. This (+) is the atomic number of the lightest element in emerald. One molecule of hydrogen peroxide contains this many total atoms. Methane contains this many (*) hydrogen atoms. For the points, how many bonds can carbon form, which is also its number of valence electrons?

ANSWER: Four

(29) Early signs of the Fournier's type of this disease, also called necrotizing fasciitis [[fah-shee-EYE-tiss]], include (+) pain and redness surrounding an infection point. Various treatments for this disease include maggot therapy, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, and debridement. Sepsis and (*) amputation are complications of, for the points, what disease caused by a bacterial infection or inadequate blood supply that leads to tissue death, characterized by a change in skin color?

ANSWER: Gangrene (or Gangrenous Necrosis; accept Fournier's Gangrene; accept Necrotizing Fasciitis before mentioned; prompt on answers along the lines of "tissue death" before mentioned)

(30) Thales' [[THAY-LEEZ]] theorem applies when this entity is the diameter of an excircle. It's not 1, but this entity is the numerator in the cosecant [[koh-SEE-kehnt]] (+) function. The length of this entity equals the square root of two times one of its smaller counterparts in a 45-45-90 triangle. This term is represented by the "c" in the Pythagorean (*) theorem. For the points, give this term for the longest side of a right triangle.

ANSWER: Hypotenuse

(14) A spot found in a crater on Mars was dedicated to this figure during the Mars Exploration Rover mission in 2005. It was revealed in 2002 that this explorer died from overheating due to the failure of her (+) spacecraft's central R-7 sustainer, although it was first reported that this cosmonaut's death was caused by oxygen depletion. Flying into space aboard (*) Sputnik 2, this is, for the points, what Soviet cosmonaut who became the first animal to orbit Earth, also referred to as "Muttnik"?

ANSWER: Laika (prompt on "Muttnik" before mentioned)

(28) A disorder that affects this organ includes a benign growth called the arytenoid granuloma, while another results in the swelling of this organ caused by a gelatinous fluid in a disorder called (+) Reinke's edema [[eh-DEH-mah]]. This organ, which is situated underneath the hyoid bone, becomes inflamed by a bacterial infection called croup, which also infects the bronchi and trachea. As the (*) epiglottis opens, air enters, for the points, what organ in the neck that houses vocal cords, also known as the voice box?

ANSWER: Larynx (prompt on "Voice Box" before mentioned)

(7) The greatest quantity of buildings made with this material can be found in the city of Ashgabat. This material comes in many forms, including Bianco (+) Sevic and the Etowah form. A pure white type of this rock is formed from the transformation of the dolomite protolith. Formed from the metamorphism of (*) limestone, this is, for the points, what rock often used in sculpture?

ANSWER: Marble (Editor's note: in geology, marble is specifically metamorphosed limestone, whereas this distinction is not always true in stonemasonry.)

(12) Variations of these molecules include d5SICS and dNaM, which feature aromatic rings rather than purine rings. These molecules participate in cell signaling to create cyclic (+) guanosine [[GWAH-noh-seen]] monosphate and cyclic adenosine [[ah-DEH-no-seen]] monosphate. Three subunits exist within these molecules, including a five-carbon sugar and guanine, adenine, (*) cytosine, or thymine. For the points, name these organic molecules, consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate, found in DNA and RNA.

ANSWER: Nucleotides (accept 5-Nucleotides)

(1) Members of this bacterial genus are classified based on their ability to lyse blood cells in the Lancefield grouping. Infection by a member of this genus can cause (+) rheumatic fever if left untreated. Scarlet fever is caused by the pyogenes species of this genus, which leaves a white exudate on the (*) tonsils in an infection commonly detected by throat culture. For the points, name this genus of spherical bacteria that cause a namesake sore throat.

ANSWER: Streptococcus (accept Streptococcus pyogenes; accept strep throat)

(2) These structures secrete HIF-1 and VEGF to induce angiogenesis of a "leaky vasculature", and its surrounding microenvironment is commonly acidic due to the (+) Warburg effect. "Caretaker", "gatekeeper", and "landscaper" are the three categories of genes named for "suppressing" these structures which act in opposition to oncogenes. Proliferating through (*) blood vessels during metastasis, these are, for the points, what masses of cancer cells that are classified as either benign or malignant?

ANSWER: Tumors (accept Cancer Cells; accept Neoplasms; accept Tumor Suppressor Genes)

(16) The JTWC classifies these objects as a 'super' variant if they reach the equivalent of a Category 4 for a different kind of storm on the (+) Saffir-Simpson scale. The name for these phenomena comes from Portuguese and Chinese, and these storms affect areas like Japan and (*) Hong Kong. For the points, name these types of cyclones that are different from hurricanes and occur typically in the northwest and southwest Pacific and the Indian Ocean.

ANSWER: Typhoon (prompt on "cyclone"; do not accept or prompt on "Hurricane")

(2) Milton's reagent is made by dissolving this element in nitric acid and diluting it with water. An outbreak of Minamata disease was caused by this metal, which forms alloys called (+) amalgams and is found in its +2 state in the mineral cinnabar. One atmosphere is equal to the pressure of 760mm of this element that can be found in barometers and old (*) glass thermometers. For the points, name this element with atomic number 80 and chemical symbol Hg that is liquid at room temperature.

ANSWER: mercury (accept "Hg" before mention)

(27) Alfven waves travelling within these substances are modelled using MHD theory, or magnetohydrodynamics. Magnetic fields are used to confine these substances in the shape of a torus within a (+) tokamak. Solar flares are caused by magnetic reconnection within these substances because they make up the mass of the sun, as well as the discharge in (*) lightning strikes. For the points, name these ionized gases considered the "fourth state of matter".

ANSWER: plasmas

(2) Enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of this molecule by dephosphorylation are known as its namesake "ase." This molecule must bind to a magnesium cation to be active, and this molecule's synthase is powered by a proton gradient in the electron transport chain. Glycolysis yields a net gain of 2 of, for the point, what molecule, the energy currency of the cell?

ATP (or Adenosine Triphosphate)

(8) One type of this quantity is calculated with the bolometric correction. This quantity changes regularly for Cepheid variables, and it is plotted on the y-axis of a HertzprungRussell diagram. This quantity is 4.83 for the Sun, and the large star Vega has a value of 0.582 for this quantity. An "apparent" counterpart is contrasted with, for the point, what measure of an object's luminosity?

Absolute Magnitude (accept Absolute Visual Magnitude; prompt on "Magnitude;" prompt on "Luminosity;" prompt on "Brightness")

(2) This quantity represents the distance between the ground state and saddle point on a potential energy surface. The related "delta G double dagger" often replaces this quantity, which is divided by negative RT in the formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. On a reaction coordinate, this quantity represents the distance between the reactants and transition state. Catalysts speed up reactions by decreasing, for the point, what minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place?

Activation energy

(11) A multilayer form of this process is described by BET theory, which extends the idea of fractional coverage in an isothermal model of this process proposed by Langmuir. Poisoning deactivates catalysts by impeding (+) this process, and porous materials like zeolites and activated charcoal can use this process to remove compounds from the air because of their (*) high surface area. Molecules adhere to a solid surface but do not pass through in, for the point, what process often contrasted with absorption?

Adsorption (do not accept or prompt on "Absorption")

(24) To estimate this quantity, Clair Patterson used lead-lead dating of objects named for Canyon Diablo. To determine this value, one scientist neglected convection and nuclear processes, leading Thomas Huxley to declare that value was magnitudes too small. Lord Kelvin was the first to devise this quantity, which has been calculated using meteorites and zircon deposits. For the point, name this quantity relating to our planet, which is estimated to be about 4.5 billion years.

Age of the Earth

(24) During World War Two, this scientist developed vaccines for diseases such as sleeping sickness and dengue [[DEN-geh]] fever. This man suggested that a (+) certain virus cultivated in human intestines before attacking the central nervous system, based on his observation of the bodies of polio victims. Developing a "live" vaccine that rivaled the "dead" vaccine developed by Jonas (*) Salk, this is, for the points, what Polish-American scientist who developed the oral polio vaccine, effectively eradicating the disease?

Albert Sabin (or Albert Bruce Sabin)

(1) Zosimus of Panopolis, who advanced the idea of chrysopoeia [[kry-soh-poh-EH-uh]], was an early adherent of this practice. "Internal" and "external" types of this early practice were included in Daoist texts. Despite devising his namesake law, Robert Boyle practiced this discipline, believing that salt, sulfur, and mercury are the true "principles of things." For the point, name this protoscientific practice, the goals of which included creating the philosophers' stone.

Alchemy (accept descriptive answers including turning objects into Gold)

(16) This functional group can be protected with trimethylsilyl [[trai-meh-thil-SAI-lill]] ethers [[EE-thers]]. In a process named for Emil Fischer, a carboxylic [[kar-box-ILL-ick]] acid and one of these compounds react together to form an ester. Fermentation of corn can form a compound with this functional group which is used as a biofuel. Isopropyl is also known as the rubbing type of compounds with, for the point, what functional group with oxygen and hydrogen which is found in ethanol?

Alcohols (accept Hydroxyls)

(12) Unhealthy growth of these organisms on water surfaces can be the result of eutrophication, a process often caused by human waste discharge. Cyanobacteria is often called a blue-green variant of this organism. This type of organism is used to make a gelatinous substance called agar [[AY-gar]], while other types can be eaten as nori. For the point, name these photosynthetic protists which include types like the giant kelp.

Algae (accept Blue-green algae; accept Red algae; prompt on "seaweed(s)"; prompt on "kelp")

(35) The James Webb Space Telescope contains 18 gold-layered fixtures of this element that serve as mirrors. This element forms an alloy with copper that is prominent in metalworking contexts, and two nuclei react to form an unstable version of this element before the creation of carbon in the triple-alpha process. Aquamarine and emerald are both varieties of a mineral that lends its name to this element that lies above magnesium on the periodic table. For the point, name this element with atomic number 4 and symbol Be.

Beryllium (accept Be before mentioned)

(16) This element was the metal constituent in a chemical which was involved in a 1990 explosion at a Russian military plant in Utika. Another (+) compound containing this metal has the lowest dispersive power for a solid. Isotopes of this element break into two alpha particles. The alkaline earth (*) metal with the lowest mass, for the points, what element has atomic number 4 and symbol Be?

Beryllium (accept Be before mentioned; accept Beryllium oxide or Beryllium fluoride)

(22) The Sun, and R Doradus, are the only stars other than this one that appear to have a higher diameter when viewed from Earth. The name of this star derives from an Arabic term partly referring to a word for "hand," (+) and, in 2019 and 2020, this star experienced a decrease in brightness known as the "Great Dimming." (*) Along with Procyon and Sirius, this star is one of the vertices of the Winter Triangle, and in the larger Winter Hexagon this star is northwest of Bellatrix. For the point, name this alpha star in Orion that, despite its designation, often appears dimmer than Rigel.

Betelgeuse (accept Alpha Orionis)

(6) This Period 6 pnictogen [[NIK-toh-jen]] is the main component of the alloys Cerrosafe [[SEH-roh-safe]] and Rose's metal, both of which melt below 100 degrees Celsius. This element's most common isotope, with a mass number of 209, has a half-life of about two times ten to the nineteenth years. This metal's subsalicylate [[sub-sal-ih-SY-late]] is used in many anti-diarrheal medicines but is not itself naturally pink. For the point, name this post-transition element, number 83 on the periodic table between lead and polonium.

Bismuth

(19) Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates are used in the study of the geometry of these entities, for which fuzzballs are said to be quantum explanations. A region around these objects caused by rotational dragging is known as the ergosphere, which is central to a theoretical mechanism by which energy is extracted from them that is named for Roger Penrose. Karl Schwarzschild lends his name to a measure of the event horizon surrounding these bodies that contain a singularity. For the point, name these astronomical bodies from which light cannot escape.

Black Holes

(23) Scientists studying these objects were awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics, one of whom was Roger Penrose who proposed extracting energy from the ergospheres of these objects. These objects lose mass through Hawking radiation, and a supermassive one of these objects exists at the center of the Milky Way. For the point, names these astronomical bodies which have a gravitational singularity so strong that light cannot escape past their event horizon.

Black holes

(15) Laura Ingalls Wilder wrote The Long Winter detailing her and her family's efforts to survive during one of these events. The Storm of the Century caused one of these natural events to occur in March 1993. The National Weather Service states wind speeds must be greater than or equal to 35 miles per hour in order to be, for the point, what type of severe, prolonged snowstorm?

Blizzard (accept Ground Blizzard; prompt on "Snow" or "Snowstorm")

(13) Serum is a colorless component of this substance. An inability of the body to perform that process within this substance can result in hemophilia. Clotting is a process that takes place in, for the point, what substance within the human body composed of cells and plasma that is classified in types such as O negative?

Blood (accept Blood Clot; accept Blood Type)

(8) An enzyme precursor required for this process is called Christmas factor. Collagen binding activates proteins such as kallikrein and von Willebrand factor during this process's namesake "cascade." The drug Warfarin inhibits this process by reducing Vitamin K. Thrombin triggers the formation of a fibrin network during this process, which is impaired in hemophiliacs. Platelets aggregate at the site of a wound in, for the point, what process that stops blood loss?

Blood Clotting (or Coagulation; accept Thrombosis)

(16) In 2005, the Lasco worm used Symbian OS and this technology to spread. RuBee is touted as a safer alternative to this technology which once competed against the IEEE 802.11 protocol. This technology spread rapidly after the introduction of Secure Simple Pairing, and unlike IR, this tech does not require a line of sight to connect. Developed by Ericsson, for the point, what is this technology for wirelessly networking consumer electronics, named for a 10th century Danish king?

Bluetooth

(2) John Waterston's 1845 paper expanded on this law by unearthing Daniel Bernoulli's earlier application of Newton's laws of motion to this law at a molecular level. That application to this law would prompt the future establishment of the kinetic theory of gases. Though this gas law was published in London by a namesake Anglo-Irish physicist in 1662, Edme Mariotte independently rediscovered this law. For the point, name this gas law that examines how the pressure of a gas often decreases as the volume of its container increases.

Boyle's Law (or Boyle-Mariotte Law; accept Mariotte's Law before mentioned)

(16) The shell model of this structure predicts islands of stability in isotopes with large magic numbers that have a higher average binding energy. A famous experiment discovered this structure by firing alpha particles at a sheet of gold foil. For the point, name this structure at the center of the atom.

Atomic Nucleus (or Atomic Nuclei)

(12) VSEPR [[VES-purr]] theory predicts that a water molecule will exhibit a tetrahedral arrangement of the hybrid type of these entities. The spatial orientation of the simplest type of these entities is spherical. With varieties that include the s, p, d, and f types, these are, for the point, what region in an atom that describes the location and wave-like behavior of an electron?

Atomic Orbitals (accept specific orbital types such as S, P, D, or F Orbitals before mentioned; accept Wavefunctions; accept Energy Levels)

(8) The deadliest one of these events was prompted by the 1970 Ancash earthquake, and it (+) became the second-deadliest landslide-related event in twentieth century South America. Slab types of these events occur by the collapse of a weak layer beneath a layer of tightly packed (*) graupel. For the points, name this rapid flow of snow down a steep slope, such as a mountain.

Avalanche (prompt on "Snow Slide")

(19) German shelters called schneekragens [[SHNEEK-rah-gins]] guard against these phenomena by offering safe corridors. Terrain, weather, and packing of a certain material are part of a three-part model of this phenomenon that can occur in slab and powder types. Loud noises and other disturbances can trigger, for the point, what destructive natural phenomenon also called a snow slide?

Avalanches (accept Slab Avalanche; accept Powder Snow Avalanche; accept Snow Slide before mentioned)

(1) Along with snakes, this is the largest class of animals to use the ZW chromosome sex determination system. This class includes the closest living relatives of crocodiles and alligators. Archaeopteryx was originally identified as the oldest member of this class. Animals in this class are the direct descendants of theropod dinosaurs. Comprised of warmblooded vertebrates, for the point, what is this class of feathered animals, most of which can fly.

Aves (accept [a]avian[a/]s; prompt on "birds")

(1) The first case of the current outbreak of this disease was reported by the Center for Disease Control to have been contracted by an inmate in Colorado in 2022. There are three subtypes of this disease that have been detected in the United States, one of which is a reassortment of the Eurasian H5 and the North American N2 viruses. The double crested cormorant helped spread, for the point, what virus that spreads through contact with infected animals in the same family as chickens or geese?

Avian Influenza (both underlined portions required) (or Bird Flu; accept H5N1 Virus; accept HPAI)

(21) This man listed 800 medical substances and outlined methods of "Special Pathology" in a book that summarized Galen's work titled (+) The Canon of Medicine. A book by this man, which introduced the "floating man" theory, incorporates early psychology and chemistry to cure the ignorance of the soul, titled The Book (*) of Healing. For the points, name this 11th-century Persian Islamic Golden Age polymath.

Avicenna (accept Ibn Sina)

(1) The earliest estimate of this quantity depended on indirect estimates of the number of particles of latex. Jean Perrin defined this constant, denoted capital N, as the number of atoms in 16 grams of oxygen. For the point, name this constant, approximately 6 times 10 to the 23rd power, that equals the number of particles in a mole.

Avogadro's Constant (or Avogadro's Number; prompt on "N" before mentioned)

(13) This constant multiplied by the charge of an electron equals Faraday's constant. This constant is sometimes called the Loschmidt [[LOH-shmit]] constant. Silicon is used to determine the value of this constant, and the gas constant "R" is equal to Boltzmann's constant times this constant. For the point, name this constant which is approximately equal to 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd, the number of molecules in a mole of substance.

Avogadro's number (accept "constant" in place of "number")

(8) Of the three components of this quantity's operator in quantum mechanics, only one can be measured with certainty due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This quantity is constant in precession where there is no torque. The conservation of this quantity implies Kepler's second law, and its time derivative is torque. For the point, name this rotational analogue of linear momentum.

Angular momentum (prompt on "momentum", do not accept or prompt on "linear momentum")

(18) 'Narrow-spectrum' types of these substances such as sarecycline target specific biological cells. Prontosil was the first active example of these substances. Carbapenem and cephalosporins are examples of a beta-lactam type of these substances. Bacteria that exhibit an abnormally strong resistance to these substances are called "Superbugs." For the point, name these substances widely used to treat bacterial infections.

Antibiotics (accept Narrow-spectrum antibiotics; acet Beta-lactam antibiotics)

(13) One class of these compounds is often co-administered with clavulanic acid as a method of suicide prevention. The enzyme DD-transpeptidase is inactivated by a class of these compounds that contain a four-membered amide ring. Resistance to these compounds can be conferred by gene cassettes that are transferred horizontally on plasmids. Betalactamases are often expressed by Gram-negative organisms to break down a class of these compounds that includes cephalosporin and penicillin. For the point, name these compounds that fight bacterial infections.

Antibiotics (or Antibacterials; accept Beta-lactam Antibiotics; accept Penicillins; accept Cephalosporins; prompt on "Lactams;" prompt on "Antimicrobials")

(7) In the ELISA assay, the primary and secondary varieties of these molecules can be used to detect the target protein of interest. These molecules, which are made up of four polypeptide chains, are divided into two Fab fragments and one Fc fragment, and vaccines stimulate the production of these molecules in order to provide immunity against diseases. Immunoglobulin is another name for, for the point, what Y-shaped proteins that regulate the immune response by binding to an antigen?

Antibody (or Antibodies; accept Immunoglobulins before mentioned)

(11) Anthropologists at Tel-Aviv University determined humans were these types of animals based on farming data from the Stone Age. The world's largest living reptile fits into this category of animals, as do nearly all shark species. The Anomalocaris was one of the earliest known examples of these creatures, which occupy the highest trophic level in any ecosystem. No other organisms can prey upon, for the point, what biological organism at the top of the food chain?

Apex Predators

(16) The approximate distance to this location can be found by adding one to the object's orbital eccentricity and multiplying the solution by its (+) semi-major axis. The date when this location is reached by the Earth is approximately fourteen days after the June solstice when solar (*) radiation is at its lowest. For the points, name this point in a satellite's orbit where the body is furthest from the Sun.

Apogee (accept Aphelion; accept Apsis)

(3) One pathway of this process involves dimers of the protein Bax and Bak. TNFalpha receptors can initiate this process upon binding by activation of death domain proteins. (+) Cytochrome c is released into the cytosol during this process, and caspase-9 causes the final destruction of the cell in this process. Blebbing (*) is a characteristic stage of, for the points, what process of programmed cell death, contrasted with necrosis?

Apoptosis

(19) This organ is located at the end of the cecum, which is located at the beginning of the large intestine. This hollow tube is closed on one end and is believed to be vestigial in humans. For the point, name this organ which cab be easily removed to relieve its namesake inflammation due to having no currently known life-sustaining function.

Appendix

(27) This language was used to compose the medieval textbook The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna [[ah-vee-SEH-nah]]. A treatise on mechanical inventions, The Book of Ingenious Devices, was written in this language at the House of Wisdom. Terms like "alcohol" and "algebra" are derived from this language, as are Rigel [[RYE-jel]], Deneb, and most other star names. The ten digits used by the West were transmitted from India via, for the point, which language of many historical Islamic scholars?

Arabic (or al-arabiyyah)

(19) This location is the origin of toxic dust storms that spread tuberculosis and cause cancer in former fishing towns such as Mo'ynoq [[MOY-nok]]. (+) Desertification of this location was driven by agricultural diversion of the Syr Darya and (*) Amu Darya rivers. For the point, name this now mostly dried up Central Asian lake, formerly located on the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.

Aral Seabed (or Aral Sea; accept Aralkum Desert)

(6) The cell walls of these organisms contain pseudomurein, which cannot be degraded by lysozyme. Methanogens are a class of these organisms found in the digestive tracts of ruminants. The proposed kingdom of Monera included both bacteria and these organisms, which can be further classified as acidophiles, halophiles, and thermophiles. For the point, name this domain of prokaryotes that often inhabit extreme environments.

Archaea (accept Archaebacteria; prompt on "extremophiles"; do not accept or prompt on "bacteria")

(13) This man discussed the area of a parabola and the volume of a sphere in a letter to Eratosthenes called The Method of Mechanical Theorems. This man tried to calculate the number of sand grains that could fit in the universe in The Sand Reckoner. His namesake principle states that the weight displaced by an object in a fluid equals the buoyant force on it. For the point, name this Greek mathematician from Syracuse notable for shouting "Eureka!"

Archimedes of Syracuse

(14) Lucian Smith disputed the patent for this product, for which Henry Rose helped inspire "the Winner" version. John "Bet-a-Million" Gates popularized the use of this material while William Ednborn made a humane version. This material was contested in the Range and Fence Cutting Wars, and Joseph Glidden, who donated land for NIU, helped create this material. Forming obstacles in trench warfare, for the point, what is this type of steel wire with sharp points?

Barbed wire (accept Bobbed wire)

(25) This unit of measurement was named after the inventor of the five-bit teletype code. In digital systems with binary (+) code, this unit of measurement is equivalent to one bit per second. Conversely, in non-digital systems, the informational (*) size of this unit of measurement varies. For the points, name this unit of measurement for the symbol rate that determines the speed of communication over a particular channel.

Baud (prompt on "symbols per second" or "pulses per second")

(27) A statistically determinate type of these objects will bend uniformly when a uniform weight is applied. The cantilevered type of these objects are supported only from one end. One common type of these objects has two (+) horizontal flanges [[FLAN-jeez]] connected by a vertical web, known as the "I" type (*) of these objects. For the point, name these fundamental structural components, which have much greater lengths than widths.

Beam (accept Cantilevered beam; accept I-beam)

(4) This botanist earned his doctorate from the University of Harderwijk [[har-dehrWEEK]], where he wrote a dissertation hypothesizing that malaria only appeared in areas with clay-rich soils. This scientist established a botanical garden while serving as the Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University in Sweden. For the point, name this "father of modern taxonomy" who formalized binomial nomenclature.

Carolus Linnaeus (or Carl von Linné)

(17) The middle layer of this structure houses Purkinje [[per-KIN-jee]] cells, and the first model to explicitly state this structure's anatomy and function was based on a "teaching (+) signal" sent by a climbing fiber. Impairments to this region of the central nervous system can cause Huntington's disease, as well as several forms of ataxia. Located underneath the (*) occipital and temporal lobes, this is, for the points, what region of the brain that is responsible for one's motor learning and maintenance of balance?

Cerebellum (accept Cerebellar Cortex; prompt on "Brain"; prompt on "Little Brain")

(17) Pandy's test can detect elevated protein levels in this substance to help diagnose Guillain-Barré syndrome, and oligoclonal bands are detected in this substance in patients with multiple sclerosis. Ependymal cells within the choroid plexus secrete the majority of this substance before it flows into the (+) subarachnoid space between the meninges. Intracranial pressure is mediated by this liquid, which is extracted during a (*) lumbar puncture, which is also known as a spinal tap. For the point, name this clear fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord in the central nervous system.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (or CSF)

(3) An effect involving atomic nuclei within a solid that are subject to this phenomenon without recoil is known as the Mössbauer effect. That effect is named after the scientist who created a spectroscopy technique in which this phenomenon is generated when Cobalt-57 decays to Iron-57. This phenomenon is a byproduct of the alpha decay of Americium-241 to Neptunium-237, and the most intense for of this phenomenon in the universe is released in "bursts" that are formed when a supernova or superluminous supernova implodes. For the point, name this massless, high-energy radiation with the shortest wavelength.

Gamma Radiation (accept Gamma Rays; accept Gamma Ray Bursts; prompt on "Radiation" before mentioned)

(14) This type of electromagnetic radiation is utilized in Mossbauer spectroscopy, and bursts of this type of radiation last briefly before emitting radiation of a longer wavelength, such as X-rays. For the point, name this type of radiation that has the shortest wavelength on the electromagnetic spectrum and can be produced by nuclear fission.

Gamma Rays (accept Gamma Ray Burst; accept Terrestrial Gamma Ray Flash)

(32) A 1928 paper published by Kiyoo Wadati inspired this one-time research assistant of Robert Millikan to develop his most famous innovation. Beno Gutenberg helped this man develop that innovation, which aimed to eliminate the subjectivity of a similar system named for Giuseppe Mercalli. The system developed by this man is notably logarithmic and measures phenomena that begin below the epicenter. For the point, identify this seismologist best known for his namesake scale for measuring the intensity of an earthquake.

Charles Francis Richter

(16) A branch of medicine named for this scientist explains the spread of antibiotic resistance among bacteria. This scientist proved seeds could survive long journeys in saltwater, and he noted the anatomical similarities between giant South American fossils and living sloths. Thick beaks for cracking seeds but pointed beaks for catching insects are adaptations this man observed in his namesake Galapagos finches. For the point, name this man who posited the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Charles Robert Darwin

(1) Edsger Dijkstra's [[DEEK-struhs]] backtracking algorithm involves the arrangement of agents on one of these objects. A program called Stockfish has been applied to analyze agents on one of these objects. This object, which can be traversed using only L-shaped jumps, is the subject of a discrete mathematics problem about arranging eight of a certain piece such that they do not attack each other. For the point, name this eight-by-eight board, the subject of the eight queens puzzle.

Chessboard (accept Checkerboard)

(9) Catalysts with this property such as BINOL can be produced using asymmetric synthesis. Molecules with this property are analyzed using circular dichroism spectroscopy. Molecules with this property can be labeled L or D (+) depending on the way they rotate plane-polarized light. Isomers with this property that form the two parts of a (*) racemic mixture are enantiomers. For the point, name this property of molecules that cannot be superimposed on their mirror images, a property named for the Greek for "handedness."

Chirality (accept Enantiomers before mentioned; accept Optically Active)

(20) This field was founded and developed by the father-son pair D.D. and B.J. Palmer. This field was founded on pseudo-scientific claims of the existence of (+) lesions not visible on X-rays, termed vertebral subluxations [[sub-luk-SAY-shuns]]. (*) For the point, name this field of alternative medicine based around performing spinal "alignments."

Chiropractic (accept word forms like Chiropractor)

(12) These molecules interfere with the Chapman cycle by forming halogen radicals under UV light, which has caused (+) Antarctic levels of Dobson units to drop below 220. The Montreal Protocol phased out types of these molecules like Freon, which is found in (*) aerosols and refrigerants. For the points, name these compounds which were banned for depleting ozone in the stratosphere, named for the two halogens they contain.

Chlorofluorocarbons (accept CFCs; or HCFCs; accept Halons; accept Freon before mentioned; prompt on "Greenhouse Gases")

(14) A technique named for this substance uses formaldehyde to crosslink proteins, which are then immunoprecipitated with antibodies. HDAC enzymes remove acetyl groups from this substance to form its more tightly-packed "hetero-" form. The 30 nanometer fiber of this substance resembles coiled "beads on a string," with each consisting of a nucleosome containing eight histone proteins and wound-up nucleic acid. For the point, name this macromolecular complex of DNA and proteins that condenses into chromosomes.

Chromatin (or Heterochromatin; or Euchromatin; accept Chromatin Immunoprecipitation; prompt on "DNA" or "Histones")

(6) Peak resolution and band broadening are the main concerns of this technique's general elution problem. Proteins and polymers are purified using the size-exclusion type of this technique. The retention factor in this technique measures the relative amount of time a solute spends in the mobile and stationary phases. Thin-layer and column are variants of, for the point, what technique used to separate mixtures, such as the pigments in pen ink?

Chromatography (accept specific types, including Size-exclusion Chromatography; or Thin-layer Chromatography; or Column Chromatography)

(22) These structures are visualized using G-banding, which uses Giemsa stain to produce a karyotype. Synapsis is the physical pairing of these structures with two arms labeled "p" and "q." Spindle fibers attach to these structures at the kinetochore, which assembles onto the centromere during mitosis. Human diploid cells have 23 pairs of, for the point, what structures containing densely packed DNA?

Chromosomes (accept Chromatids; prompt on "Centromere" before mentioned)

(9) This region's existence was first documented by Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer, and the density of this region renders it invisible to the naked eye, except in times of a solar eclipse. This region features dynamic jets of plasma called spicules, which emerge from its homogenous layer. For the point, name this middle layer of the Sun's atmosphere, sitting between the solar transition region and the photosphere.

Chromosphere

(22) The length of this quantity over two is the minimum distance between antipodal points. Arc length can be calculated by multiplying this quantity by theta over 360. The constant tau is equal to the ratio between this quantity and the radius, and this quantity can be estimated by multiplying the diameter by 22 over 7. For the point, give this term for the distance around a circle.

Circumference

(9) Devices used for this technique sometimes utilize cooling tubes called condensers to re-liquify the product of this technique. The fractional form of this technique is used to refine petroleum products. This technique, which cannot separate azeotropes [[AY-zee-oh-tropes]] without an additional component, is used to produce spirits from fermented products. For the point, name this technique of separating mixtures based on boiling point.

Classical Distillation (accept Fractional distillation)

(2) One system that classifies this concept was developed by Charles Warren Thornthwaite in 1931. The earth's movements are described by Milankovitch cycles, which describe the effects its eccentricity and tilt have on this concept. This concept is classified based on five characteristic vegetations, including rainforest, grassland, and desert. For the point, name this concept that describes long-term weather patterns in a particular area.

Climate (accept Thornwaite Climate Classification system; prompt on "Weather" before mentioned)

(12) Justinus Kerner discovered this group of microorganisms, but his findings were not scientifically published until Emile van Emengem classified this group as a type of Bacillus. The Schaeffer-Fulton stain is used by microbiologists to differentiate endospores produced by these groups of (+) Gram-variable bacteria, and that quality earns these groups the classification of obligate anaerobes, which produce (*) bottleshaped endospores. For the point, name this genus that includes the bacteria that cause botulism and tetanus.

Clostridium

(1) A substance referred to as "virga" can be released from these objects that can be divided into roll and shelf types. Human activity can form instances of these entities known as contrails, while nacreous varieties of these entities form above the stratosphere. The appearance of halos from these objects form via the passage of sun light through crystals of ice in the cirrus varieties of these objects. Cumulonimbus is one variety of, for the point, what fluffy white objects in the sky?

Clouds (accept Roll Clouds; accept Shelf Clouds; accept Nacreous Clouds; accept Cirrus Clouds; accept Anvil Clouds; accept Cumulonimbus Clouds)

(20) In the most widely accepted hypothesis, this phylum is considered the sister taxon to bilateria [["by"-lah-TEE-ree-ah]]. One sessile [[SESS-ile]] clade [[KLAYD]] in this phylum has a symbiotic relationship with clownfish, providing (+) shelter in exchange for cleaning. This phylum is characterized by a specialized type of cell that releases stinging (*) toxins on contact. For the point, name this animal phylum that includes sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish.

Cnidarians [["nigh"-"DARE"-ee-uns]] (prompt on "Jellies"; be lenient on pronunciation)

(16) Use of this material must be halved by 2030 to meet the criteria of the Paris Agreement. Satellites like Sentinel-5P monitor this material's sulfur dioxide output, and varieties of this material include lignite and anthracite. For the point, name this fuel source composed mostly of solid carbon.

Coal (accept Lignite or Anthracite before mentioned; prompt on "Fossil Fuels")

(2) This dimensionless value is plotted against the Hersey number on the y-axis of a Stribeck curve. One form of this value is calculated as the arctangent of the angle of repose, and this value can be empirically measured as the ratio between a hanging and a resting mass in a tribometer. Lubricants lower this value for a surface, which is multiplied by the normal force to give the magnitude of a force with both static and kinetic types. For the point, name this scalar value that describes the force between two objects rubbing together, symbolized as "mu."

Coefficient of Friction (accept Mu before mentioned; accept Coefficient of Static Friction; accept Coefficient of Kinetic Friction; prompt on "Friction" or "Static Friction" or "Kinetic Friction")

(19) A type of scattering found in these substances can give a blue appearance to motorcycle smoke or flour mixed into water. These substances, which exhibit the Tyndall effect, include (+) emulsions and aerosols. Common examples of these substances include milk, fog, and (*) foam. For the point, identify this type of substance, in which small particles of one substance are suspended within another.

Colloid (accept Colloidal Suspension; prompt on "suspension")

(29) These mixtures, one of the three primary types, have particles ranging between one and one thousand nanometers in diameter. Crystals (+) formed according to the principles of these type of mixtures are capable of self-assembly, and categories of these types of mixtures include emulsions and (*) foams. For the points, name this type of discrete or continuous mixture that can be created by mixing, for example, Jell-O powder and water.

Colloids (accept Hydrocolloids)

(2) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe [[GUR-tuh]] published a comprehensive book describing this property, wherein he stated this property is formed from the interplay of darkness and light. Thomas Young proposed a trichromatic theory postulating that this property can be replicated by a combination of three lights. For the point, name this visual property derived from the spectrum of light's interaction with the eye.

Color

(1) Short-period types of these objects originate from the Kuiper [[kye-PER]] belt, whereas long period varieties come from the Oort Cloud. In 1994, one of these objects named (+) Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashed into the surface of Jupiter. Solar wind causes the tails (*) of these objects to always point away from the star which they orbit. For the point, name these icy bodies that orbit the Sun and include examples named Halley's and Hale-Bopp.

Comets (accept Short-period comets; accept Long-period comets; accept Periodic comets)

(17) This country's inland deserts are home to the thorny devil, a small lizard covered in large spikes. One animal from this county possesses a venomous barb on its hind feet. That animal from this country is the only mammal known to have electroreception. This country is home to the vast majority of the world's eucalyptus tree species. For the point, name this country, whose native wildlife includes the platypus, koala, and kangaroo.

Commonwealth of Australia

(20) Numbers that have this property but satisfy Fermat's little theorem are known as Carmichael numbers. It's not pronic, but "rectangular numbers" are (+) numbers with this property. The Sieve of Eratosthenes crosses these numbers out in its algorithm. Numbers with this property have at least one other (*) divisor between one and itself. For the points, give this property of a number which can be factored into the product of two smaller numbers, the opposite of prime.

Composite Number

(12) The North Sea is an epeiric sea on one of these entities. This entity ends at the point of an increasing slope called a 'break', before which lie the regions called the slope and rise. The pelagic environment of these entities comprise the neritic zone, while the benthic zone is its seafloor region. For the point, name these portions of a continent submerged under an area of shallow water that can be exposed when sea levels drop.

Continental shelf

(4) The Richardson number is used to determine if this process is natural or forced, and neither type of this process is negligible if the value lies between 0.1 and 10. This process creates hexagonal patterns known as Rayleigh-Bénard cells, and the ratio of this process to conductive heat transfer is known as the Nusselt number. Heating water demonstrates this process because less dense, hotter molecules rise as the more dense, cooler water molecules sink. For the point, name this mode of heat transfer that occurs by the movement of a liquid or gas.

Convection (accept Natural Convection or Forced Convection before mentioned)

(4) The namesake "rag" of these ecosystems is a type of limestone used for construction in East Africa. The Department of the Interior operated a program which uses Defunct oil rigs that are used to create this type of ecosystem through a process called "toppling" that uses a team of divers. In Darwin's Structure and Distribution of [these ecosystems], he posits a paradox that wonders how these ecosystems can thrive in nutrient poor tropical waters. An increase in global water temperatures has led to the collapse of, for the point, what type of ocean ecosystem made of a colony of polyps?

Coral Reefs (accept Artificial Reefs; accept "Rigs-to-Reefs; accept Coral Reef Rag)

(35) The distortion of this phenomenon, through inverse Compton scattering byelectrons, underlies the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect. The WMAP [["W"-map]] and COBE[[CO-bee]] spacecrafts measured anisotropies of this phenomenon, which consists of(+) photons that have propagated since the epoch of recombination. Thisphenomenon exhibits the most perfect black-body spectrum observed in nature (*),with a temperature of about 2.7 Kelvin. For the point, name this radiation left over from theBig Bang that has a frequency between radio and infrared.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (or CMB or CMBR; accept RelicRadiation; prompt on partial answers)

(1) When photons from this specific phenomenon enter galactic clusters, they undergo inverse Compton scattering. The WMAP (+) and COBE probes studied the anisotropies of this phenomenon, which was discovered at Bell Labs and has a temperature of about 2.7 Kelvin. Evidence for the Big (*) Bang is given by, for the points, what black-body radiation that permeates the whole universe and has a frequency between radio and infrared?

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (or CMB; or CMBR; accept Relic Radiation; prompt on partial answers)

(14) According to Andrei Linde, this process in part occurs due to a "slow roll" (+) parameter. This process, which was proposed by Alan Guth, explains the horizon, flatness, and magnetic monopole problems. This process took place 10-to-thenegative-36 seconds after the Big (*) Bang. For the points, name this theory that proposes a brief period of rapid expansion of the early universe.

Cosmic inflation (accept cosmological inflation)

(24) Gauss's law can be proven from this equation if the superposition principle is fulfilled. A constant in this inverse-square law is equal to one over four pi times the permittivity of (+) free space. That constant used in this law is approximately equal to 8.988 x 10^9. The electrostatic interaction between two point (*) charges can be described by, for the points, what law that relates force to the product of k, q1, and q2 all over r-squared, named after a French physicist?

Coulomb's Law (or Coulomb's Inverse-Square Law)

(22) This entity "floats" on top of a lower layer when subject to isostasy [[EYE-soss-tuhsee]]. This layer's most abundant elements by weight are oxygen and silicon. The boundary between this layer of the Earth and the mantle is known as the Moho discontinuity. For the point, name this outermost layer of the Earth.

Crust (accept Oceanic crust or Continental crust before mentioned; prompt on "Lithosphere" by asking "What part?")

(26) Fourteen configurations in these substances named for Bravais are described by Miller indices. Proteins are turned into this form so they can be studied with X-ray diffraction. These substances, contrasted with amorphous solids, are orderly and have a lattice structure. Smectic is a phase of the "liquid" type of these substances, used in TVs. For the point, name these substances with repeated arrangements of atoms such as diamond.

Crystals (accept Crystalline solid(s); accept Liquid Crystal Diode(s); prompt on "LCD")

(13) Two scientists with this surname learned that compressing quartz leads to an electric potential, discovering piezoelectricity. Work from those studies was used by a physicist with this surname to study the properties of uranium in pitchblende. Henri Becquerel and two people with this surname shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. For the point, give the last name of a physicist who won two Nobel Prizes for researching radioactivity and discovering Radium and Polonium.

Curie (accept Marie Curie, Pierre Curie, Jacques Curie)

(12) A "meso" type of these entities range in size from mesoscale beta to microscale. Polar lows and nor'easters are examples of these entities, which can also be found on other planets, such as the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. Depending on their location, these entities can be known as hurricanes and typhoons. For the point, name these air masses that rotate around a center of low atmospheric pressure called the eye.

Cyclones (accept Mesocyclone; prompt on "hurricane" or "typhoon")

(2) This molecule is rapidly copied in the lab technique PCR, and the enzyme helicase splits this molecule before it is replicated by a polymerase. This molecule contains adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. For the point, name this double-helix structure that contains genetic information.

DNA (accept Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

(7) This molecule was first discovered by Frederich Miescher [[MEE-shuh]] in 1869 while studying the composition of white blood cells. Photo 51 (+) reveals information about the structure of this molecule that was first photographed by a student of Rosalind Franklin. Typically abbreviated using a threeletter (*) term, this is, for the points, what genetic material for which James Watson and Francis Crick won the 1962 Nobel Prize after discovering its double-helix structure?

DNA (or Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

(7) Friedrich Miescher [[MEE-shuh]] first isolated this material while its components were studied by Albrecht Kossel. Frederick Griffith's experiments suggested this molecule carries genetic information. Photo 51 of this material shows its structure and was taken by Rosalind Franklin. Composed of the nucleotides cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine, for the point, what is this biological molecule with a double-helix structure discovered by Watson and Crick?

DNA (or Deoxyribonucleic acid)

(19) In this process, Okazaki fragments are joined by ligase to synthesize the lagging strand, and this process occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle. The Meselson-Stahl experiment proved that this process was semi-conservative, and PCR is an example of this process occurring on a massive scale. For the point, name this process in which DNA is copied onto a new strand.

DNA Replication

(14) The efficiency of this process is increased by a trimeric sliding clamp protein, and the rolling-circle type of this process begins at sites labeled "ori." Obstacles to this process can cause fork reversal and restart, which requires enzymes like topoisomerases that relieve supercoiling and helicases that separate the hybridized strands. Okazaki fragments are synthesized on the lagging strand during this process, which occurs during S phase. For the point, name this process that creates a copy of the cell's genome.

DNA Replication (accept DNA Synthesis; prompt on "Replication")

(10) Centipede Serum contains Extremis virus and this type of energy, emitted by all inmates of The Cube on Earth-8096. In one film, the Tesseract can be tracked because it generates this form of energy, to which all Agents of S.M.A.S.H. were exposed. Samuel Sterns and Emil Blonsky became the Leader and the Abomination, respectively, after absorbing, for the point, what type of radiation from the radioactive decay of the atomic nucleus which transformed Bruce Banner into the Incredible Hulk?

Gamma radiation (accept Gamma rays; accept Gamma energy)

(23) Two lines that are central to these items intersect at the pitch point. The herringbone variety of these items consist of a duo of side-by-side helical types of these items. Depicted on the logo of Citroën, these components comprise sets whose mechanical advantage can be defined by a namesake ratio, and ,when two of these items are meshed, they can form a transmission. Often containing teeth, these items create speed from torque and and are alternatively known as cogs. For the point, name these circular components that one can shift when driving a car.

Gears (accept Gearbox; accept Herringbone Gear; accept Double Helical Gear; accept Gear Transmission; accept Cogs before mentioned)

(5) Scientists believe that one organism's ability to live in these environments is due to the thermal insulation provided by bacteria living on its back. Those bacteria are among the various microbes that take up methane and sulfides found on the ground in these environments, which in turn, supports other organisms such as limpets and giant tube worms. Chemosynthesis drives, for the point, what mineral-rich environments that include the "white smoker" types and is found on the seafloor?

Hydrothermal Vents (accept Black Smokers; accept White Smokers before mentioned; prompt on "Vents"; prompt on "Seafloor"; prompt on "Extreme" or "Extremophile")

(20) The originator of this theory used a point-coincidence argument to answer his own paradox of theoretical "hole transformations." Arthur Eddington led expeditions to observe a solar eclipse to test this theory, and the central equation of this theory sets an expression involving the stress-energy tensor equal to a curvature term plus the metric tensor times the cosmological constant. A thought experiment describing a man dropping a ball in an elevator illustrates this theory's equivalence principle. For the point, name this theory that equates the curvature of space-time with gravity, which was formulated by Albert Einstein after a "Special" counterpart.

General Relativity (or GR; prompt on "Relativity;" do not accept or prompt on "Special Relativity")

(18) These objects are known as "potato stones" when recovered from England's Mendip Hills. These objects can form when an empty cavity, such as a gas bubble, is filled with groundwater that deposits (+) crystalline minerals. These objects are smaller analogs to vugs and (*) crystal caves. For the point, name these hollow rocks containing crystals, whose name comes from the Greek for "Earth-like."

Geode

(11) Morris Ketchum Jesup provided funding for this man's mobile classrooms, called Jesup Wagons. When the U.S. was undercut by imports from China, this man testified to the Ways and Means Committee in 1921. This man studied restoration of nitrogen via crop rotation to improve cotton planting and was called the "Black Leonardo." Teaching at Tuskegee Institute, for the point, who was this African-American agricultural scientist who studied the use of peanuts.

George Washington Carver

(5) The phenomenon of "marine snow" or "ocean dandruff" is caused by the falling this material from the water column to the seafloor. In aquatic ecosystems, this material is a source of nutrients for microbes living in the (+) benthic zone, and a standard example of a food chain named after this material on terrestrial ecosystems begins with dead leaves being eaten by a woodlouse, which is then eaten by a (*) blackbird. For the points, name this biological debris that is primarily made of decomposing plant and animal parts, including feces.

Detritus (prompt on answers synonymous to "dead matter" or "debris")

(21) Bony projections in these organs are used to filter food from them and are known as the "rakers" of these organs. In some animals, fluid flow in these organs induces countercurrent gas exchange. Human fetuses possess folds that were once mistaken for this organ but actually become the jaws and ears. In an example of neoteny [[nee-AH-ten-ee]], the axolotl salamander retains these organs into adulthood. For the point, name these organs used by fish to extract oxygen from water.

Gills (or Branchiae)

(10) This structure can be classified into Piedmont and Tidewater types and cuts a Ushaped valley of surrounding bedrock to form a fjord [[FYORD]]. The retraction of these structures can result in the formation of drumlins or moraines. When these structures generally found in polar regions break apart, they form crevasses or large icebergs. Antarctica is made up of, for the point, what large moving body of dense ice?

Glaciers

(30) One type of these structures, spread out into large bulb-like lobes on plains, is known as "piedmont." Asymmetric hills that look like half-buried eggs are left behind by these features, as are long, winding ridges called eskers. Lateral and medial moraines are formed from rock transported by these features which can also create fjords, and calving of these structures forms icebergs. For the point, name these slowly moving bodies of ice.

Glaciers (accept Piedmont glaciers)

(14) It's not luminosity, but this quantity is commonly calculated using the Faber-Jackson relation. Type 1a supernovae lie near the top of a namesake "ladder" that contains methods for determining this quantity. Standard candles are used to compute this quantity. Large values for this quantity are often expressed in parsecs. For the point, name this quantity, which for the Sun equals one astronomical unit.

Distance (from Earth)

(22) One of these animals orbited the Earth aboard Sputnik 2, becoming the first animal in space. These animals were the subject of an experiment in which they developed an association between meat powder and a ringing bell that resulted in their salivation. Ivan Pavlov studied, for the point, what domestic animals that belong to the canine family?

Dogs (accept Canines or Canids before mentioned; accept Laika; accept Pavlov's Dogs)

(23) This substance is the primary prolactin inhibitory factor, and this substance is broken down by monoamine oxidase. Most production of this substance occurs in the substantia nigra, and this neurotransmitter is under-produced in Parkinson's disease. For the point, name this neurotransmitter that is central to the brain's pleasure and reward systems.

Dopamine

(1) This phenomenon was first published in a treatise titled On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens. Joseph Petzval challenged this effect because he thought the equations were too basic to explain any natural phenomena. Buys Ballots tested this phenomenon by having a group of musicians play the same note while on a moving train. Developed by a 19th century Austrian physicist, this is, for the point, what phenomenon that explains why a sound is heard louder as its source approaches an observer?

Doppler Effect (or Doppler Shift)

(23) This phenomenon can be applied to current meters to measure water current velocities. In medicine, this effect can help assess the direction of blood flow and the velocity of blood and cardiac tissue in an (+) echo-cardiogram, and when applied to astronomy, the relativistic form of this effect can utilize electromagnetic waves to detect the rotational speed of stars and (*) galaxies. For the points, name this effect, the change in the frequency of waves in relation to an observer.

Doppler Effect (or Doppler Shift)

(14) Neurobiological models of these phenomena include the activation-synthesis, and control is maintained in the lucid type of these phenomena. Sigmund Freud divided these occurrences into manifest and latent content in a book titled for their interpretation. Associated with REM sleep, these are, for the point, what nighttime occurrences, terrifying varieties of which are called nightmares?

Dreams (accept Nightmares before read)

(16) The collection of sand in one part of these entities can give rise to a knob. Ogives result in what appear to be alternating bands in these regions whose base can form chatter marks. The valley variety of these entities can undergo a form of bedrock abrasion known as plucking. Pressure from sediment underlying these entities can contribute to basal sliding. These entities are created when one form of precipitation surpasses its ablation, and the Alpine variety of these entities can form at mountaintops. For the point, name these large bodies of slow-moving ice.

Glaciers (accept Valley Glaciers; accept Alpine Glaciers)

(16) Large circular holes in these objects are called moulins [[MOO-lins]], which can drain lakes named for these objects. Deposits created by these objects include eskers and (+) drumlins. Fjords, cirques [[SIRKS]], and moraines were created by the retreat of these objects which break down at the coast via calving [[KAV-ing]], forming (*) icebergs. For the point, name these massive ice flows that cover Greenland and Antarctica.

Glaciers (prompt on "glacial lake")

(3) This system was developed at the same time as GLONASS, which suffered from incomplete coverage. Lockheed Martin designed objects as part of Block Three, which enable this system to work. The time of transmission and time of arrival are broadcast by this system's satellites. The United States Space Force operates, for the point, what system that allows users to navigate the globe?

Global Positioning System (or GPS)

(16) This molecule is phosphorylated by hexokinase in the first step of its conversion to pyruvate. Formation of this molecule requires six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules, and cellulose is composed of units of this most abundant monosaccharide. For the point, name this six-carbon molecule, the main component of blood sugar.

Glucose

(13) Both males and females of this species are born with ankle spurs, but only the males are able to use these structures to distribute venom. Another biological strength these prototherian mammals possess is a sense of electroreception that allows members of this species to find their prey by detecting electric fields. Along with the echidna, this animal is one of the five remaining species of monotreme, which are a type of mammal that lays eggs. For the point, name this semiaquatic, duck-billed mammal native to Australia.

Duck-billed Platypus

(29) One phenomena associated with these events is subject to Omori's law, which describes how the frequency of those events decreases reciprocal to the amount of time elapsing from its cause. These events are concentrated at their hypocenter, or focus, and these events can be followed by aftershocks. For the point, identify this type of seismic event whose magnitude is measured on the Richter scale.

Earthquakes (accept Tremors; prompt on "Aftershock" before mentioned; prompt on "Seismic Event" or synonymous answers before mentioned)

(21) Muscled appendages in these organisms include pedicellaria [[peh-deh-ceh-LAHree-uh]]. Ophiuroidea [[oh-fee-yoo-ROY-dee-ah]] is a class in this phylum named for being "brittle." Tube feet allow organisms in this phylum to attach to surfaces, and one organism in this phylum uses Aristotle's lantern to feed. Sand dollars belong to this phylum, some of whose organisms have five-fold radial symmetry. For the point, name this marine phylum which includes sea cucumbers, sea urchins, and starfish.

Echinodermata (or Echinoderms)

(28) This element's color is explained by relativistic effects of its 5d orbitals. It's not platinum, but a combination of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid is used to dissolve this metal. A foil of this element allowed Ernest Rutherford to discover the nucleus in a namesake experiment. Electrum is the alloy of silver and, for the point, what precious elemental metal whose purity is measured in karats?

Gold (accept Au)

(13) A body part that allows some animals to perform this ability is the called the melon, which is an area of the head made of adipose tissue. Although this ability is primarily produced through the mouth, the (+) horseshoe variety of one species perform this ability through their nostrils. Porpoises can evade orcas due to this ability, which is produced at around 130 kilohertz. Produced at the same (*) frequencies as an ultrasound, this is, for the points, what sensory ability used by bats and whales to help them navigate by sound?

Echolocation (prompt on "Sound Waves"; prompt on "Sonar")

(8) This rock, the intrusive counterpart of rhyolite, is the most common material found in Bornhardts. This rock forms its namesake domes at landmarks such as (+) Sugarloaf Mountain and Yosemite's Half Dome. This rock contains crystals of feldspar and quartz and predominantly makes up the continental crust. (*) For the point, name this coarse grained igneous rock commonly used to make high end countertops.

Granite

(26) Some animals with this property have cryoprotectants that increase the concentration of solutes inside its cells, as well as antifreeze proteins that prevents the growth of ice crystals. Animals with adaptations for this property include the African lungfish, which buries itself in the ground in preparation for hibernation. For the point, name this property in animals, such as amphibians and reptiles, that require regulation of body temperature based on its external environment.

Ectotherms (accept Cold-blooded; accept Poikilotherms)

(19) The Heawood [[HAY-wood]] conjecture outlines the optimal way of doing this process on different surfaces. A theorem about this process was proven in 1976 by Kenneth (+) Appel and Wolfgang Haken, making it the first proof to use a computer. In graph theory, the minimum number required to perform this process is the (*) chromatic number. For the points, name this process of labeling a graph requiring only four of the namesake properties.

Graph coloring (accept Graph labeling; accept four color theorem)

(14) Each atom in this material shares three sp2 hybridized orbitals, making it the strongest of all currently known materials. Andre Geim [[GIME]] employed micromechanical (+) exfoliation and a silicon wafer to isolate layers of this material using Scotch tape and the primary component of (*) pencil lead. For the point, name this 2D carbon allotrope arranged in a single-layered hexagonal lattice.

Graphene (do not accept or prompt on "graphite")

(24) This process and its terminology is still commonly used despite our advances in the understanding of the quantum-mechanical (+) nature of the atom. This process, developed under the Bohr model of the atom, has to do with the arrangement of certain particles into their (*) energy sublevels. For the points, name this process of summarizing and arranging electrons into their orbitals, governed by concepts such as the Aufbau principle.

Electron Configuration (accept Electronic Structure; prompt on descriptive answers)

(12) Predecessors of these entities included Wingdings. A set of these entities would later be introduced and constantly added using the Unicode standard, and a face with tears of joy is the most popular one of these entities. For the point, name these pictograms often used in text messages that include a host of facial expressions and objects.

Emojis

(28) These types of organisms are classified by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which is also responsible for their protection. The IUCN's Red List lists the status of these creatures, and they're broken down into categories with abbreviations such as VU or CR. The gray wolf and the humpback whale are examples of, for the point, what type of animals that are classified as vulnerable, threatened, and near-extinct?

Endangered Species (accept clear knowledge equivalents; accept statuses such as Vulnerable or Threatened before mentioned)

(11) He's not Newton, but this man postulated that visual rays proceed from the eyes onto objects in his book Optics. A "space" named after this man is the fundamental space of geometry. This man proved that there are infinitely many primes by constructing their product plus one. The parallel postulate is found in one set of writings by this man. For the point, name this mathematician from Alexandria who wrote the landmark math treatise Elements.

Euclid of Alexandria (accept Euclidean Space)

(30) The most common methods for detecting these objects include the radial velocity method and the transit method. When found in the habitable (+) zone, these objects are said to be in the "goldilocks" zone. Examples of these objects include super-Earths and (*) hot Jupiters. For the point, name these rocky or gaseous bodies that orbit stars other than our Sun.

Exoplanets (accept any answer indicating extrasolar planets; accept answers such as planets outside our solar system; prompt on "planet"s)

(1) The first of these objects discovered by the Keck Observatory was the Gliese 876b, and Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2019 for discovering one of these objects named 51 (+) Pegasi b. These objects can be detected with the radial-velocity method, while other methods for detecting these objects include Doppler spectroscopy and transit photometry. Gas (*) Giants, Neptunian, and Super-Earth are types of, for the points, what planetary bodies that orbit a star outside of the solar system?

Exoplanets (or Extrasolar Planets; prompt on "planet"; prompt on "Neptunian" or "Super-Earth" before mentioned)

(18) Archimedes explained this natural phenomenon using the center of mass of a triangle. Vitruvius explained this naturally occurring phenomenon by publishing De Architectura, and Galileo Galilei apocryphally demonstrated this natural phenomenon by dropping two balls from the same height. For the point, name this natural force that explains why objects fall.

Gravity (or Gravitation; or G)

(27) One type of military technology named for this civilization was introduced in a "Double piston pump" variety. That early flamethrower was a type of "Fire" named for this civilization that invented the clepsydra, a type of automated water clock. For the point, identify this civilization that made advancements in medicine thanks to Hipppocrates.

Greece (accept Greek or Greeks; accept Hellenic Republic; accept Elliniki Dimokratia; accept Ellas or Ellada)

(17) Algeria has constructed a dam named for this color to halt overgrazing, and engineers in several African countries are constructing a Great Wall of this color to contain the Sahara Desert. Along with red, this color names a type of colorblindness that is more prevalent in males. For the point, name this color that identifies a type of beryl known as emerald.

Green

(10) This scientist's paper "Experiments on Plant Hybridization" led to the introduction of the laws of segregation and (+) independent assortment. This scientist's studies of Pisum sativum [[PEE-sum sah-TEE-vum]] led him to coin the terms "dominant" and "recessive." (*) For the point, name this 19th-century friar who studied inheritance among pea plants.

Gregor Johann Mendel

(16) Napoleonic-era surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey mandated that ships use this substance to sterilize when they did not have access to alcohol. The first known ingredients list for this substance can be found in the Wujing Zongyao [[WOO-JING ZONG-YOW]] of the Song Dynasty, and this substance was used to light fireworks prior to its military application. For the point, name this substance used to propel bullets in early firearms.

Gunpowder (accept Black Powder)

(9) A monotypic example of these organisms is a genus endemic to the Namib desert called Welwitschia. Picea abies was the first of these ogranisms to have its genome sequenced, and these organisms include cycads. The counterparts of these organisms notably enclose one of their central products, and the maidenhair tree, or Gingko biloba, is one of these organisms that include gnetophytes and conifers. For the point, identify these plants whose method of seed production contrasts with angiosperms.

Gymnosperms (prompt on "Plants" or "Trees" before mentioned)

(18) Individuals with the Delta-32 mutation are resistant to infection by this pathogen due to the inactivation of the protein C-C chemokine receptor 5. This pathogen can be treated by antiretroviral drugs such as Abacavir and AZT. Helper T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, are attacked by, for the point, what sexually-transmitted retrovirus that leads to a weakened immune response and can cause AIDS?

HIV (or Human Immunodeficiency Virus; accept HIV-AIDS; do not accept or prompt on "AIDS" alone)

(22) Drugs that treat a disease caused by this virus include enfuvirtide [[en-FYOO-veertide]] and lamivudine [[lah-MIHV-yoo-deen]]. This virus of the Lentivirus genus may present with Kaposi's sarcoma. X4R5 is a subtype of this virus which can use both CXCR4 and CCR5 receptors to enter the cell. The drug zidovudine [[zai-DOH-vyoo-deen]], or AZT, reduces activity of the reverse transcriptase of this virus which infects helper T-cells. For the point, name this retrovirus which causes AIDS.

HIV (or human immunodeficiency virus)

(26) A prior version of this programming language divided it into Transitional and Strict varieties, the latter of which was created for more common usage. WHATWG is a group involved in the development of this programming language that utilizes tags with text like "p" to represent paragraph and "img" to represent image. Cascading Style Sheets, or CSS, is a language often used in conjunction with this language whose namesake documents are displayed by internet browsers. For the point, name this markup language used on webpages.

HTML (accept HyperText Markup Language)

(2) The name of this group is taken from the tendency of its members to form salts when reacting with metals. The elements in this group are so highly reactive that they are not found free in nature but instead in compounds or in a diatomic state. The reactivity of this group is due to its seven valence electrons. For the point, what is this seventeenth group of the periodic table which includes chlorine, fluorine, bromine, and iodine?

Halogens (accept Group 17 before mentioned; accept Group 7A)

(7) This concept is displayed on a tri-axis graph called the de Finetti diagram, in which a parabola represents its expected frequency. Deviations from this concept may be influenced by the (+) founder effect and meiotic drive, and the formula illustrating this concept is "p-squared plus 2 pq plus q-squared equals one." Random mating and no (*) mutations are assumptions made by, for the points, what doublyeponymous principle, which states that allele and genotype frequencies are constant in every generation as long as no outer influences are present within a population?

Hardy-Weinberg Principle (or Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium)

(23) These cells were essential in the research of Harald zur Hausen in linking human papillomavirus 18 with cervical cancer, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 2008. These (+) cells were also essential in the development of the polio vaccine, as scientists found that the poliovirus was able to (*) replicate in these cells. For the points, name these "immortal" cells used in medical research whose name derived from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks.

HeLa [[HEE-la]] Cells (accept Henrietta Lack Cells before mentioned)

(31) [USED FOR ASIA SPRING] A 1979 study found that the measles virus mutated when it became infected with these types of cells. These cells were found to multiply faster in zero gravity while on board the Korabl-Sputnik-2 satellite. The National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis wanted a mass-production of these cells after it proved essential in the production of the polio vaccine. First successfully replicated by Theodore Puck and Philip I. Marcus, for the point, what "immortal" cells originated from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks?

HeLa cells

(4) In Einstein solids, which are composed of quantum harmonic oscillators, this property is defined as the derivative of internal energy with respect to temperature at constant volume. The molar [[MOH-lahr]] type of this property is modeled by the Dulong- Petit [[PET-it]] law. Water has a high value for this property, leading to land and sea breezes. For the point, name this property which gives the heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree.

Heat capacity (or Specific heat; accept Molar heat capacity)

(11) This principle is represented by an inequality in which the product of the variance of position and momentum must be equal or more than the reduced Planck constant divided by two. According to this principle, it is impossible to (*) simultaneously measure a particle's position and momentum. This principle is often confused with the related observer effect. For the point, name this principle in quantum mechanics, sometimes named after a German physicist.

Heisenberg('s) uncertainty principle

(26) This element has the highest ionization energy in the periodic table. Deuterium fuses with tritium to give an isotope of this element. Neon and this noble gas are found in a specific type of laser. The nucleus of an atom of this element is equivalent to an alpha particle, which has two protons and two neutrons. For the point, two hydrogen atoms can combine to form what noble gas, the second lightest and second most abundant element in the universe?

Helium

(13) Description acceptable. H.K. Erben suggested that this event was caused by deformed eggshells, while another debunked theory came from L.R. Croft, who proposed that this event was caused by cataracts. S.E. Flanders suggested that this event was due to the influx of caterpillars and their tendency to eat a copious amount of plant material, leading to the animals central to this event starving. The K-T boundary was characterized by, for the point, what event that is widely believed to have been caused by an asteroid impact, killing off an entire species of large reptiles nearly 65 million years ago?

Extinction of the Dinosaurs (accept answers synonymous to mass extinction of the dinosaurs; accept Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event; or K-Pg extinction event; accept Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event; or K-T Extinction event))

(19) The regions between these geologic features can contain depressed and raised areas known as grabens and horsts. The hanging wall lies above the plane of one of these features in the "normal" type, while the "reverse" type of these features sees the footwall above the plane. Types of these structures include dip-slip and strike-slip. For the point, name these planar fractures in rock, of which a notable one is named after San Andreas.

Faults (accept normal fault; accept reverse fault; accept dip-slip fault; accept strike-slip fault; accept San Andreas Fault)

(28) According to Carmichael's Theorem, for every value over twelve, the nth member of this construct will have at least one unique prime divisor. This construct's closed-form expression can be found with Binet's [[bih-NEHS]] formula. This construct converges at the golden ratio and is illustrated with a tiling spiral. For the point, identify this sequence named for an Italian mathematician, whose first five numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5.

Fibonacci Sequence (or Fibonacci Numbers)

(29) The absence of these objects has been referred to by researchers as the "immigration delay disease," which is caused by the improper expression of the protein SMARCAD1. A detection of these objects produces a dye called "Ruhemann's purple" when that dye's amino acids interact with a white organic compound called ninhydrin. The Henry Classification System is used to sort characteristics of these objects, common patterns of which include loops, whorls, and arches. For the point, name these unique human identifiers that are found at the ends of a person's digits.

Fingerprints

(27) Peter Singer criticized the 80% number given during this effort as a potentially dishonest claim, and this event was followed a month later by a similar one involving Philip Blaiberg. The overseer of this effort was helped by his brother, Marius, in providing a Lithuanian-born grocer named Louis Washkansky with the central entity at Groote Schuur Hospital. Taking place in Cape Town in 1967, this is for the point, what event in which Christiaan Barnard surgically provided a certain organ to a patient with congestive failure?

First Heart Transplant from Human to Human (accept Heart Transplant of Christiaan Neethling Barnard; prompt on partial answers)

(24) A mutation in one species of these animals, the Stickleback, has allowed them to adapt between different habitats. The majority of these animals belong to the class Actinopterygii [[ack-tee-nop-TEH-rih-gee]]. Respiration in these animals occurs through a closed-loop circulatory system and gills. For the point, name these aquatic animals, examples of which include lampreys, sharks, and piranhas.

Fish (accept Stickleback Fish; accept Catfish; prompt on "Shark" before mentioned)

(2) Certain organisms use organs called halteres to assist in this phenomenon. A behavior called WAIR, or inclined running, may explain the evolution of this phenomenon. (+) Archaeopteryx was likely capable of this phenomenon, as was Quetzalcoatlus. This phenomenon is divided into unpowered and powered forms, and the only (*) mammal to use this mode of locomotion are bats. For the points, name this behavior found in pterosaurs and birds.

Flight (or Flying; prompt on "throw[ing] yourself at the ground and miss[ing]")

(25) Catastrophic examples of this phenomenon created large formations such as Dry Falls and are often named for Missoula. A type of this phenomenon called jökulhlaup [[yoKOOL-lahp]] results from volcanic subglacial eruptions or geothermal heating. Glacial retreats can result in examples of this phenomenon, including one that carved out the Columbia River Gorge. For the point, name this phenomenon in which ice dams melt, leading to an overflow of water.

Floods (accept Glacial Floods)

(2) The development of these structures can be represented with the ABC model. They're not fruits, but the presence of these structures differentiate (+) angiosperms from gymnosperms. Carpels and sepals are components of these structures. Movement of pollen from the anther to the stigma of these structures causes (*) pollination. For the points, name these reproductive organs of plants which contain petals.

Flowers (accept Blooms; accept Blossoms; prompt on "petal")

(24) The age of these type of markings found on the White Sands Desert in 2021 were approximated by radiocarbon-dating the seeds of ditchgrass. These markings, which are excavated by paleontologists through the process of lithification, were discovered by a team led by Mary Leakey in Laetoli and likely belonged to the Australopithecus afarensis species, providing evidence of bipedalism in early hominins. For the point, name these impressions that are left on a surface when a human or animal takes a step?

Footprints (accept Laetoli Footprints; prompt on "Prints" or "Tracks")

(1) This quantity is the time integral of the impulse, and Coulomb's law states that one type of this quantity between two objects is inversely proportional to their distance squared. This vector quantity is equal to mass times acceleration, according to Newton's second law of motion. For the point, name this vector quantity, examples of which include pushes and pulls.

Force (or F; accept Gravity or Gravitational force; accept Electrostatic force; prompt on "electric")

(17) A period of these events that affected Australia during 2009 came to be referred to as Black Saturday. Low-lying debris can cause the crawling variety of these events which can undergo a wind-induced phenomenon called "jumping." Distinguished from a controlled variety that are used to manage their central environments, these events can be caused by lightning strikes and by the availability of combustible vegetation. For the point, name these events characterized by heavy smoke and widespread burning.

Forest Fires (accept Wildfires; accept Bushfire; accept Wildland Fire; accept Rural Fire)

(29) Mary Anning collected these objects in Lyme Regis. Types of these objects include coprolites, and an arrangement of these objects comprise "Sue" at Chicago's Field Museum. Iguanodon and Diplodocus were identified after discovering, for the point, what objects dug up by paleontologists?

Fossils (accept Dinosaur Bones)

(24) In order to correct for the Signor-Lipps effect, the location of where these objects end up are assumed to be in random order. Coprolites [[KAH-pruh-lites]] are an example of the "trace" type of these objects, and geologic relationships can be determined using their "index" type. The Burgess Shale is a source of, for the point, what preserved objects that a paleontologist might find at a dig site?

Fossils (accept Trace Fossils or Index Fossils or Fossilized Remains; prompt on "Bone" or "Skeleton" or "Remains")

(10) Paget's disease is a rare condition associated with this disease that causes eczema-like changes to the skin. Recent research suggests that Mucin and (+) HER-2 are potential biomarkers for this disease that can be classified by its expression of progesterone and estrogen receptors. The mutation of the BRCA1 gene increases the risk for this disease, which can be treated through a (*) mastectomy. Mammograms can help detect, for the points, what disease that is the most common form of cancer in women worldwide?

Breast Cancer (prompt on "Cancer")

(8) John Hunter claimed neural fluid caused this disease, which was treated with hemlock juice for Anne of Austria. William Halsted used a radical surgery to treat this disease, and John Warren performed a mastectomy to remove this disease from Nabby Adams. This disease has received greater attention due to the Pink Ribbon and the Komen Race for the Cure. Mammograms can detect, for the point, what cancer which typically develops in the milk ducts.

Breast cancer (prompt on "cancer")

(24) One of these structures was subject to a stress test at its opening by a team of elephants led by P.T. Barnum. A poorly designed one of these structures nicknamed Galloping Gertie collapsed due to failure caused by resonance. Cantilever and suspension, are types of, for the point, what structures that Roman engineers designed to span the Danube and Tiber Rivers?

Bridges (accept Cantilevered Bridges; accept Suspension Bridges)

(25) This scientist dropped out of the University of Pisa, but later returned and was named chief mathematician. This author of The Assayer utilized the telescope to discover that the moon had craters and mountains, which was contrary to contemporary belief that the moon's surface was smooth. For the point, name this Italian astronomer that was put under house arrest by the Catholic Church for his belief in heliocentricism.

Galileo Galilei (accept either)

(20) A largely outdated variety of these structures used flat stones in its construction and was known as the clapper type. Assessments of the temporary conditions of these structures are done by calculating the live load. Like dams, these structures can be supported by abutments and they can be supported by girders. Piers can be used to support these structures, the most common varieties of which are the cantilever and suspension types. Consisting of decks often traversed by vehicles, these are, for the point, what structures that can pass over bodies of water?

Bridges (accept Suspension Bridges; accept Cantilever Bridges; accept Clapper Bridges)

(27) Heinrich Gerber is best known for a component used to make these structures, which he invented. One type of these structures can be built using cantilevers and hinges. Elementary forced resonance is given as the reason for why two of these structures named for Tacoma Narrows collapsed in 1940. For the point, name these structures built over bodies of water, famous ones of which include London and Golden Gate.

Bridges (accept Tacoma Narrows Bridge; accept London Bridge; accept Golden Gate Bridge)

(23) Luhman 16 is a binary system of two of these objects, the closest-known of these objects to Earth. M, L, T, and Y are spectral classifications of these objects, and the spectroscopic lithium test is used to characterize these objects. These objects have masses of about 13 to 80 times the mass of Jupiter. For the point, name these so-called "failed stars" which do not have enough mass to perform hydrogen fusion.

Brown dwarfs (prompt on "star(s)")

(30) Marian Smoluchowski proposed a theoretical perpetual motion machine powered by this process called its namesake "ratchet". In mathematics, this phenomenon is modeled by the Wiener (+) Process, a stochastic one-dimensional model of it. This phenomenon was the subject of the second of Albert Einstein's Annus Mirabilis papers, and was first observed by its namesake in (*) pollen grains in water. For the points, name this random movement of particles in a fluid.

Brownian motion (accept pedesis, accept Brownian Ratchet; prompt on "random walk")

(19) In collaboration with Starling Burgess and Isamu Noguchi, this person designed and built prototypes of the Dymaxion Car. Biologists have drawn on this person's architectural designs to explain the (+) icosahedral shape of many viruses. This man helped to popularize the concept of "Spaceship Earth" and established a field he called "synergetics." A carbon (*) allotrope that comes in ball, tube, and onion varieties is named for this person. For the points, name this architect remembered for his geodesic domes.

Buckminster Fuller (or R(ichard) Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller; accept Buckminster Fullerine)

(2) Although this is the only ratio that can measure a liquid's response to stress, only Hooke's law, instead of this ratio, can be used to describe the behavior for anisotropic solids such as wood or paper. This quantity's inverse is the isothermal compressibility of a material at fixed temperature. (+) This quantity is calculated by an object's volumetric stress divided by its volumetric strain. (*) Symbolized as either B or K, this is, for the point, what modulus that measures an object's resistance when compressed on all sides?

Bulk Modulus

(19) The 89 version of this language is ANSI supported, and unlike an update of this language which uses "new" and "delete," this language allocates and frees memory through "malloc" and "free." GCC compiles this language which was developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs as a way to implement utilities and the kernel of Unix [[YOO-niks]]. For the point, name this programming language which was updated with objects in a "Plus Plus" version.

C

(11) In a controversy surrounding this concept, a hash code was sent between the opponents, which, when deciphered, contained the mention of fluxions. The publishing of the work Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis furthered one man's claim to invent this subject often described as the "study of infinitesimals." For the point, name this subject that was invented independently by Gottfried Leibnitz and Isaac Newton.

Calculus (prompt on "fluxions" before mentioned)

(4) This U.S. state is home to the Hale Telescope, which was the world's largest when it was constructed at this state's Palomar Observatory. Ernest Lawrence invented the cyclotron at a university in this state that won a Nobel Prize for discovering plutonium and uranium under Glenn Seaborg. For the point, identify this U.S. state where Berkelium and a namesake element were discovered.

California

(28) Extinct groups in this family include the Hesperocyoninae [[heh-speh-roh-sai-OHnih-nay]] and Borophaginae [[boh-roh-FADJ-ih-nay]]. One member of this family from south and southeast Asia is the dhole [[DOHL]]. Another member of this family that is endemic to Japan is the tanuki. Wild members of this family include jackals and dingos. For the point, name this family of mammals which includes foxes, coyotes, and wolves.

Canidae (or Canids; accept Canines; prompt on "Dog(s)"

(4) The value for this quantity in an isolated conducting sphere is equal to 4 pi times epsilon naught times its radius. This quantity can be increased by the presence of a dielectric, and unlike resistance, this quantity sums linearly for its circuit components in parallel. Charge is equal to this quantity times voltage. Self and mutual are two types of, for the point, what quantity, the ratio of charge stored to electric potential?

Capacitance (accept Capacitor)

(17) The namesake load of these devices can be found by dividing charge by voltage. These devices can be created by inserting a resistive dielectric between two parallel plates, and these devices' namesake quantity is measured in farads. For the point, name these circuit components that passively hold an electric charge.

Capacitors

(1) The Wittig [[VIT-izh]] reaction forms a bond between two atoms of this element. One allotrope of this element found in meteorites has a hexagonal structure and is named for Kathleen Lonsdale. Buckyballs and nanotubes are fullerenes formed from this element. Scotch tape is used to isolate a form of this element called graphene. For the point, name this element which is the basis of organic chemistry, symbolized "C."

Carbon (accept C before mentioned)

(28) One form of this element is named after Buckminster Fuller, while another form of this element ranks at the top of the Mohs hardness scale. Graphite is a form of this element, which together with oxygen and hydrogen forms molecules of glucose. For the point, name this element, the fundamental basis of organic molecules and life.

Carbon (or C)

(34) A concentration of a basic subtype of these regions is referred to as the Lost City. William Martin and Michael Russell claimed that the origin of life may have occurred in these places, an idea that was the subject of Günter Wächtershäuser's "iron-sulfur world theory." (+) Silicon and calcium are emitted by the lighter colored "white smoker" variety of these entities that contrast with the "black smoker" (*) type, which is chimney-like in appearance and usually found in the bathyal zone. Often found at hotspots and volcanically active areas, these are, for the point, what fissures in the ocean floor?

Hydrothermal Vents (accept Hydrothermal Chimney before "Chimney" is read and prompt after; accept Black Smokers until read; accept White Smoker until read; prompt on "Ocean Floor" or "Seafloor" before "Floor" is read)

(7) Elevated levels of free fatty acids are a risk factor for resistance to this hormone. The effect of this hormone is opposed by glucagon, and this hormone is released by beta cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. For the point, name this hormone involved in blood sugar modulation, which is often taken by people with type 1 diabetes.

Insulin

(28) Name spaces in this system are regulated by ICANN, and it uses dot decimal notation. The first two nodes of this system were at SRI and UCLA, and TCP/IP was standardized in this system for the NSF. This system's predecessor, ARPANET, was created by the Department of Defense which made this system for time sharing. For the point, name this global system of computer networks that allows you to access the World Wide Web.

Internet (prompt on "World Wide Web")

(9) The strength of compounds formed in this manner is equivalent to the lattice energy. Structures form in this way as a result of differences greater than 1.7 on the Pauling scale of electronegativity. These bonds typically form between metals and non-metal elements, forming a chemical salt. For the point, name this type of bond formed by atoms exchanging electrons, which can be contrasted with covalent bonds.

Ionic bond(s) (prompt on "Chemical bond(s)")

(8) This region of Earth's atmosphere contains the Kennelly-Heavyside layer. The plasmasphere lies above this atmospheric region. The D (+) layer, E and sporadic E layers, and the F layer subregions all make up this region. The thermosphere is encompassed within this region, which also contains parts of the mesosphere and (*) exosphere. For the points, name this electron-charged region of the atmosphere.

Ionosphere (prompt on mentioned layers until "encompassed")

(26) Namesake banded formations of this element alternate layers of its oxides with chert and were formed during the Precambrian. Hydrogen peroxide and this element make up a catalyst that cleans wastewater called Fenton's reagent. This element is the input of the Bessemer process, which uses the "pig" type of this element. This element's ores include hematite and magnetite. For the point, name this ferromagnetic element with chemical symbol Fe [[EFF-EE]].

Iron (accept Ferrum before "Fe")

(7) A test named for a chloride of this element is used to detect phenols in a sample compound. This element combines with a cyanide compound to form the pigment Prussian blue. After magnesium, this element has the most abundant isotope of any other metal in the solar system. One of this element's primary ores is magnetite, and another ore of this element is hematite. For the point, identify this element whose "pig" type is a byproduct of steel production.

Iron (or Fe)

(27) Foster's rule explains the population of animals in these ecosystems. Two oceanic plates colliding at a convergent boundary forms these landforms. The most famous example of adaptive radiation occurs in these ecosystems, which Charles Darwin investigated finches in. For the point, name these landforms surrounded completely by water, examples of which include Galapagos.

Islands (accept Island arc; accept Galapagos Islands)

(2) The thermodynamic square is used to remember this man's set of second-order partial differential relations between potentials. He's not Laplace [[lah-PLAHSS]], but this man posited a namesake "demon" that would violate the second law of thermodynamics. This scientist added a displacement current term to expand Ampere's law. For the point, name this Scottish physicist whose namesake four "equations" are the foundations of electromagnetism.

James Clerk Maxwell (accept Maxwell's Demon; accept Maxwell's Equations)

(12) One of these creatures is biologically immortal due to its ability to alternate between its polyp and medusa phases. These creatures possess structures called nematocysts, or stinging cells. The lion's mane species of these creatures is the largest member of the phylum cnidaria [[NYE-dare-ee-uh]]. For the point, name these venomous aquatic animals that include the Portuguese Man O' War.

Jellyfish (accept Cnidarians before mentioned; accept specific Jellyfish species)

(29) A theorem named for this man states that the order of any element of a group divides the order of that group. This man names (+) "multipliers" which are used to find local maxima and minima of a function under equality constraints. This mathematician names "points" in which the centrifugal force balances (*) gravity. For the points, name this Italian-French mathematician known for his contributions to number theory.

Joseph-Louis Lagrange (accept Lagrange Multipliers; accept Lagrange Points)

(12) This planet's gravity induces tidal forces that cause volcanism on some of its moons. This planet is orbited by the largest moon in the Solar System, which is larger than the planet Mercury. This planet's moons include Callisto, Io [[EYE-oh]], Ganymede, and Europa. This planet is home to a massive anti-cyclone storm called the Great Red Spot. For the point, name this largest planet in the Solar System.

Jupiter

(25) This planet's orbit marks the outer limit of the asteroid belt. An Italian scientist discovered four moons of this planet in the 17th century, including Ganymede and Europa. Galileo built a telescope to observe this planet, which is known for its Great Red Spot. For the point, name this fifth planet from the sun, the largest in the solar system.

Jupiter

(26) The location of this body's orbital resonances corresponds to Kirkwood gaps. A system on this planet found between two jet streams was found to move in an anticyclonic manner in time-lapse photos from Voyager 1. A massive storm called the Great Red Spot is found on this planet, whose moons include Ganymede and Europa. Most asteroids are found between Mars and, for the point, what largest planet in the Solar System?

Jupiter

(25) The necessity of a transplant for this organ is determined using Banff classification. This organ's glomerulus [[gloh-MEHR-yoo-luss]] is composed of small tufts of capillaries and is enclosed by Bowman's capsule. This organ creates a countercurrent gradient with the loop of Henle. This organ's functional units are called nephrons, and failure of this organ can require the use of dialysis. For the point, name this bean-shaped filtration organ that comes in pairs.

Kidneys

(16) Rapamycin targets one of these enzymes called mTOR that normally inhibits autophagy. The MAP signal transduction cascade functions through a series of the "serine-threonine" type of these enzymes. In the first step of (+) glycolysis, one of these enzymes transfers a functional group to a hexose sugar to form G6P, and phosphatases reverse (*) the activity of these enzymes. ATP often serves as a cofactor of, for the point, what enzymes that transfer a phosphate group to another molecule?

Kinases (accept Serine-threonine Kinases; accept MAP Kinases; accept Hexokinases)

(21) Scientists from this country include the author of Systema Naturae [[NAH-tyoo-ray]]. A village in this country is the namesake of four (+) chemical elements, including Ytterbium [[ee-TER-bee-um]]. The home country of Svante Arrhenius [[SVAHN-teh ah-REE-nee-us]] and Arvid Carlsson, (*) for the point, what is this country in which the presentation ceremonies of all three science Nobel Prizes are held?

Kingdom of Sweden (or Konungariket Sverige)

(10) An isomerization reaction in this pathway is catalyzed by the iron-containing enzyme aconitase. Dehydrogenases within this pathway convert between the intermediates succinate, fumarate, and malate. In the first stage of this pathway, oxaloacetate condenses with acetyl-CoA to form citrate, which gives an alternative name to this pathway that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. For the point, name this cycle that follows glycolysis within cellular respiration, and is sometimes named for a German biochemist.

Krebs Cycle (accept Citric Acid Cycle before mention of "Citrate;" accept Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle; accept TCA Cycle; prompt on "Cellular Respiration")

(13) Although not indicative of HSV-1 encephalitis, high levels of this substance in cerebrospinal fluid are indicative of bacterial meningitis. This substance is produced in the Cori Cycle from pyruvate and then converted back to pyruvate in the liver, leading to gluconeogenesis. A byproduct of anaerobic metabolism is, for the point, what compound that is the cause of muscle soreness after a person undergoes intense exercise?

Lactic Acid (or Lactate or CH3CH(OH)COOH)

(6) The molecule IPTG mimics this sugar by releasing a DNA-bound repressor. The metabolism of this sugar is induced by cyclic AMP binding to the catabolite activator protein, and this sugar is broken down by the enzyme beta-gal, which is expressed by a polycistronic system with Z, Y, and A structural genes. In E. coli, the metabolism of this sugar is controlled by a namesake operon that cleaves it into glucose and galactose. For the point, name this sugar found in milk.

Lactose (accept Lac Operon; accept Allolactose)

(19) One of these places referred to by the word "Untersee" is found in the Gruber Mountains. In 2020, scientists found an rRNA sequence in one of these places that was greater than 97% similar to that of the Notothenia coriiceps species of (+) rock cod. Radio Echo Sounding is often used to study the 379 examples of these places, including ones named for John Mercer and Lincoln Ellsworth. Freon was used to keep a borehole open (*) when studying one of these places, a meltwater variety of which was found near Shackleton Ice Shelf. For the point, name these often subglacial bodies of water on the world's southernmost continent.

Lakes of Antarctica (accept word forms such as Antarctic Lakes; prompt on "Subglacial Lake;" prompt on partial answers)

(21) Optical tweezers use two of these devices to hold together microscopic objects. One of these devices was used to cool rubidium atoms into the first Bose-Einstein condensate. In the three-level type of these devices, pumping is used to energize the gain medium until it reaches a state of population inversion. Stimulated emission produces a coherent beam of very focused light in, for the point, what devices often found in barcode scanners and printers?

Lasers (accept Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

(32) The solid-state type of these devices use crystalline or glass rods that are bombarded with ions of ytterbium, holmium, or thulium. Components of these devices typically consist of a gain medium, a high reflector, and an output coupler. These devices are triggered when an electron drops to a lower energy level after being hit with a photon in a process called stimulated emission. For the point, name these devices that emit a beam of light and are used in corrective eye surgery and handheld pointers.

Lasers (or Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation; accept LASIK)

(23) The 1902 poem "The Story of Fidgety Philip" made an early reference to these disorders, one of which was referred to by a German neurologist as "word blindness." Dyscalculia is one of these disorders affecting numerical reasoning, and dyslexia is another disorder of this type affecting literacy. Ritalin and Adderall are used to treat, for the point, what disorders in school-aged children?

Learning Disorders (or Learning Disabilities; accept Neurodevelopmental Disorders; ask for less specific information on answers such as "ADHD", "Dyslexia", or other learning disorders)

(3) This mathematician is the first namesake of a constant also known as gamma and equal to about 0.577. This mathematician solved the Basel problem by utilizing a power series. This man names a formula relating the exponential of complex numbers to trigonometric functions. The base of the natural logarithm is, for the point, a number named for which mathematician, symbolized e?

Leonhard Euler (accept Euler's Formula; prompt on "E")

(14) In analysis, this man found a creative solution by equating the power series expansion of the sine function to its factored form, allowing him to state that the sum of reciprocals of squares was "pi squared over 6." This man proved that there was no solution to a problem involving the Pregel River and the seven bridges of Königsberg [[KER-nigsburg]]. This man created the notation for the constant "e." For the point, name this prolific Swiss mathematician.

Leonhard Euler [[OY-lehr]]

(29) Fulgurites are glassy structures formed from these phenomena, which may also cause Lichtenberg [[LIK-ten-berg]] figures. The "ball" type of this phenomenon is still unexplained, and St. Elmo's fire may be indicative of one of these phenomena. Benjamin Franklin may have used a kite to determine that these phenomena are electric. For the point, name this electrical phenomenon which often appears as "cloud to ground."

Lightning (prompt on "electricity"; accept Ball lightning; accept Cloud-to-ground lightning; accept CG lightning)

(25) This operation's epsilon-delta definition was first formulated by Cauchy [[kohSHEE]]. This operation can be evaluated by L'Hopital's [[loh-pee-TAHLS] rule. (+) The formal definition of a derivative is this operation applied to a difference quotient. The two-sided type of this operation does not exist at jump discontinuities. (*) For the points, name this operation of finding where a function "approaches" as an input goes toward a value.

Limit

(14) This scientist failed to determine the shape of DNA by proposing a triple-helical model. In 1954, this scientist won a Nobel Peace Prize for his opposition to weapons of mass destruction. To treat heart disease and prevent colds, this scientist controversially advocated for megadoses of vitamin C. Electronegativity is measured within a range from 0.7 to 4 on a scale named after, for the point, what American chemist who wrote The Nature of the Chemical Bond?

Linus Pauling (or Linus Carl Pauling; accept Pauling Scale)

(25) Solvents in this phase of matter are used to partition solutes in the most common form of extraction. The HPLC type of chromatography uses a pressurized solvent in this phase, which also names the crystalline materials used in TV displays. This phase is bypassed by substances that undergo deposition and sublimation. At room temperature, bromine and mercury exist as, for the point, what state of matter?

Liquid (accept Liquid Crystals; accept Liquid-liquid Extraction)

(5) This region was first conceptualized by A.E.H. Love and was further defined in Reginald Aldworth Daly's "Strength and Structure of the Earth." The boundary between this layer and what lies beneath it is often determined by the rheological differences between this layer and the asthenosphere. For the point, name this outermost layer, or "shell," of a terrestrial planet, composed predominantly of the crust and upper mantle.

Lithosphere (prompt on "crust" or "mantle")

(26) The programming language Superplan introduced a now-common one of these entities whose form was defined with an "a sub i + addend" expression. A form of spacetime tradeoff that attempts to optimize the speed at which a program executes is partly named for these entities and is known as their namesake "unwinding." A count-controlled variety of these entities often employs the keyword "for" and is contrasted with the "while" variety, which occurs as long as a condition is met. For the point, name these computing statements that repeat an instruction set until satisfied.

Loops (accept for Loop; accept While Loop; accept Loop Unwinding)

(27) Chyle is a bodily fluid composed partially of this material that forms when fats enter capillaries of this substance called lacteals. A namesake heart of this material appears as a paired organ in amphibians and other animals. Elephantiasis can be caused by obstruction of the vessels that carry this material, which collects in small clusters of namesake organs that may swell as the result of infection. A system of the human body distributes, for the point, what fluid that accumulates in namesake nodes?

Lymph (accept Lymph Heart; accept Lymph Capillaries; accept Lymph Nodes)

(5) One example of these particles named for Wu and Yang provided the first solution to the Yang-Mills field equations. Two of these particles are connected by a theoretical Dirac string and are equivalent to dyons with zero electric charge. Maxwell's equations would need to be written symmetrically to accommodate (+) the existence of these particles, which would cause the divergence of the B-field to be non-zero and thus violate (*) Gauss's law for magnetism. For the point, name these hypothetical particles that consist solely of a north or a south magnetic end.

Magnetic Monopoles (accept Wu-Yang Monopoles)

(11) In October 2021, the WHO endorsed the RTS,S vaccine to protect against this disease that can be prevented through using DEET or picaridin. Chinese researcher Tu Youyou investigation into this disease involved a treatment with a drug she discovered call artemisinin, which is used alongside quinine and doxycycline to treat this disease. Individuals lacking the Duffy antigen are immune to this disease that is caused by organisms from the [i]Plasmoidum[/a] group. For the point, name this mosquito-borne infectious disease characterized by cyclic fevers.

Malaria

(28) As part of Project Nekton, this feature was explored by the Auguste Piccard designed Trieste [[tree-ESS-teh]] vessel. One portion of this feature was explored by the Kaiko and Nereus unmanned (+) submarines. This feature's southern end contains its deepest point, the Challenger Deep. (*) Located near an American-controlled Pacific island group, for the point, what is this deepest point in the ocean?

Mariana Trench (or Marianas Trench; accept Challenger Deep before mentioned)

(20) These animals make up the sister taxon Deltatheroida and are the last living metatherians. These animals include the Macropodidae, which are notably bipedal. Notable carnivorous examples of these animals include the extinct thylacine and the Tasmanian devil. The only example of these animals that is native to North America is the opossum. For the point, name this group of mammals known for their pouches, which includes kangaroos and koalas.

Marsupials (or Marsupialia)

(21) This quantity is an imaginary number in Tachyonic [[TAK-yon-ick]] Fields. Two different types of this quantity are equated in Einstein's equivalence principle. This quantity is zero for particles such as photons and gluons, and the gravitational force between two bodies is proportional to the product of this quantity for both. For the point, name this quantity measured in kilograms.

Mass (accept Imaginary Mass; or Gravitational Mass; or Inertial Mass)

(3) The Higgs mechanism explains why certain particles possess this quantity, which is mediated by the Higgs boson. Force is equal to this quantity times acceleration, while momentum is equal to this quantity times velocity. Unlike weight, this quantity is unaffected by gravitational force. According to Albert Einstein, energy is equal to this quantity times the speed of light squared. For the point, name this quantity, whose SI unit is the kilogram.

Mass (prompt on "M"; prompt on "weight" before "acceleration")

(7) Some animals performing this behavior use the lek system, which is a group performance that is typically displayed by birds. Other birds, such as the bowerbird, express this behavior by forming elaborate structures made up of twigs covered with bones and shells, while the birds of paradise exhibit this behavior by refining a dance inherited from their fathers. For the point, name this behavior animals exhibit when searching for mates.

Mating (accept synonymous answers; accept Reproductive Tactics; accept Courtship; prompt on "Polygyny", "Polygamy", and "Monogamy")

(30) During one hearing, Claire McCaskill said that a certain community "is almost monolithic against" this man who co-founded a company with Jeff Arnold that ran the RealAge Test. Following the death of a man from brain injury, this man assisted Eric Rose with providing baseball player Frank Torre with heart transplant. The son of immigrants from Turkey, this holder of both an MD and MBA hosted a namesake show co-produced by Oprah Winfrey. Currently running for Senator in Pennsylvania, this is, for the point, what celebrity doctor known for promoting dubious therapies?

Mehmet Oz (accept Doctor Oz)

(5) One laboratory method used to measure this quantity packs the sample into a thin capillary tube, which is then viewed through a lens while it is heated in a heating block. A mixture's lowest possible value for this quantity occurs at the eutectic point, and ethylene glycol is added to car engines to lower this quantity whose namesake "depression" is dependent on size. For the point, name this temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid, which is zero degrees Celsius for water.

Melting Point (or Freezing Point; or Melting Temperature; or Freezing Temperature)

(22) The malloc function in C and C++ allocates this resource, and Java uses automatic garbage collection to reclaim this resource, which is stored near the main processor in a CPU cache. The non-volatile type of this resource retains data even without a power source. For the point, name this computer resource used to store information that comes in a random access type abbreviated RAM.

Memory (accept Random Access Memory; accept RAM; accept Virtual Memory; accept Storage; prompt on "data")

(5) This element's methyl compounds bio-accumulate in fish and other seafood. Atmospheric pressure can be measured in millimeters of this element, and alloys of this element are commonly known as amalgams. Remaining liquid at room temperature this is, for the point, what transition metal that has largely been replaced by colored alcohol in glass thermometers?

Mercury (or Hg; accept Mercury Methyl Compounds; accept Millimeters of Mercury)

(15) This writer explored the danger of implanting neurostimulators in his second novel, The Terminal Man. This author was criticized when his novel State of Fear seemed to deny climate change, though his story of a silicon pathogen from space, The Andromeda Strain, is considered a modern sci-fi classic. An island of cloned dinosaurs was invented by, for the point, which author of Jurassic Park?

Michael Crichton

(19) After this scientist became the first to isolate benzene, he became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal (+) Institution. With his ice pail experiment, this chemist and physicist developed an enclosure wherein electromagnetic fields (*) are blocked. For the points, name this inventor of the homopolar generator who developed a namesake law on electromagnetic induction.

Michael Faraday (accept Faraday's Law of Induction; accept Faraday's Cage)

(30) Scientists studying this phenomenon rely on the Doppler shift in Platform Transmitter Terminals as well as using other methods such as radio-tracking collars. The "great" [this phenomenon] is exhibited by wildebeests, and the Sierra Madre Mountains in Mexico is the target destination of monarch butterflies after performing this 3,000-mile phenomenon from Canada. For the point, name this phenomenon animals exhibit when they move to another location in response to a change in their environment.

Migration (accept Great Migration)

(29) This galaxy is surrounded by a ringlike filament of stars that wraps around it three times. That ring surrounding this galaxy is the Monoceros Ring, which may have been torn off nearby Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy. This galaxy and the Andromeda galaxy are the two main constituents of the Local Group. The Orion Arm is a component of, for the point, what galaxy that contains the solar system?

Milky Way Galaxy

(13) Magellanic clouds at the south pole of this entity produce the Magellanic Stream. The 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for the discovery of Sagittarius A-Star, a "supermassive" object found at the center of this entity. This entity is part of the Virgo supercluster of galaxies, which also includes its nearest neighbor, Andromeda. For the point, name this galaxy which contains our solar system.

Milky Way galaxy

(27) This organelle in eukaryotic cells contains cytochrome c oxidase, which participates in the electron transport chain. The Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix of this organelle. Cristae are folds in the inner membrane of this organelle, where a proton gradient helps synthesize ATP, the cell's main energy currency. For the point, name this so-called "powerhouse of the cell."

Mitochondria (or Mitochondrion)

(7) Along with chloroplasts, the existence of these organelles is explained by endosymbiotic theory, which holds that one single-celled organism consumed and incorporated another. These double-membraned organelles are filled with a viscous namesake matrix. These organelles contain a maternally inherited genome consisting of a circular strand of DNA. For the point, name this organelle responsible for ATP synthesis, often called the "powerhouse of the cell."

Mitochondria (or Mitochondrion)

(3) Like arthropods, members of this phylum utilize copper-based hemocyanins to transport oxygen in the body. Members of this phylum possess a mantle that contains a large cavity for feeding and excretion. Many members of this phylum possess a tongue-like structure called a radula. Cephalopods, gastropods, and bivalves belong to, for the point, what largest marine phylum of invertebrates that includes clams and snails?

Mollusca (or Molluscs)

(26) Some members of this phylum utilize an operculum [[oh-PER-kyoo-lum]] to close off a calcified structure. Most members of this phylum possess a tongue-like feeding structure called a radula [[RAD-yoo-luh]]. Members of this phylum possess a body mantle, which secretes calcium carbonate and conchiolin [[kon-KAI-oh-lin]] to form a hard shell. Major groups within this phylum include bivalves and cephalopods. For the point, name this phylum of invertebrate animals which includes squids, octopuses, and snails.

Mollusca (or Mollusks)

(5) Planck's constant over this quantity is equal to the de Broglie [[deh BROY]] wavelength of a particle. The net change in this quantity is equal to impulse, while the rate of change of this quantity is equal to (+) force. This quantity, whose SI unit is equivalent to the newton-second, changes equally to the net force acting on it, according to Newton's Second (*) Law of Motion. For the points, what quantity is equal to mass times velocity, denoted as the letter "p"?

Momentum (accept P before mentioned; accept Linear Momentum; accept Angular Momentum; accept Translational Momentum)

(1) This biological order has four of five species as members of the Tachyglossidae genus. That genus of this order is divided into short-beaked and long-beaked species, with those animals being called echidnas or spiny anteaters. This order is the smallest of the three that form its class, alongside placentals and marsupials, and all extant species are native to Australia. For the point, name this smallest order of mammals, which includes the platypus and has egg-laying members.

Monotremes (or Monotremata)

(22) William Lassell discovered this planet's largest orbiting body just a little over two weeks after this planet's discovery. Despina is a satellite of this planet whose existence was predicted in part by Urbain Le Verrier's calculations. Features of this planet include the Adams Ring, as well as a series of anticyclonic storms within its Great Dark Spot. Triton is the largest moon of, for the point, what planet whose astronomical symbol resembles a trident, the eighth planet from the sun?

Neptune

(11) These particles are released as part of the cooling operation of white dwarfs and neutron stars in the urca process. Unlike their antiparticle, these particles have left-handed chirality, as well as a neutron and positron. These particles are emitted during beta decay, and these fermions come in flavors that corresponds to leptons such as the electron, muon, and tau. For the point, name these nearly massless particles that interact via the weak force.

Neutrino

(29) This is the heaviest particle created in beta-plus decay. "Thermal" and "slow" types of these particles are produced in nuclear reactors. Isotopes of elements are caused by differing amounts of these particles. These baryons are composed of one up quark and two down quarks. For the point, name these particles found with protons in atomic nuclei and which possess no electric charge.

Neutrons

(15) Though not known as an economist, this scientist conducted a study on the value of money in which he discovered an early form of Gresham's law and established quantity theory. This man's seminal work, On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, was not published until a year after his death in Poland. For the point, name this polymath who formulated the heliocentric model of the solar system.

Nicolaus Copernicus (accept Copernican System; or Copernican Revolution)

(33) "For his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms," this man won a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922 and subsequently gave a lecture about the correspondence principle he formulated. This protégé of J. J. Thomson founded an institute at the University of Copenhagen, which now bears his name. This scientist who names a synthetic element with the atomic number 107 co-names an atomic model with Ernest Rutherford. For the point, name this Danish theoretical physicist

Niels Henrik David Bohr

(6) Guanylate cyclase is activated when this molecule binds to the heme group, and this molecule is the principal propellant used in aerosol sprays. Along with a molecule with a greater number of oxygen atoms, this oxide is responsible for pollutive phenomena such as smog and acid rain. For the point, name this diatomic molecule containing one nitrogen and one oxygen atom.

Nitric Oxide (accept Nitrogen Oxide; accept Nitrogen Monoxide)

(10) The newly discovered element Oganesson is considered to be part of this group. This group's members are characterized by a full complement of valence electrons in their outer shell, leading to their lower likelihood of taking part in a chemical reaction. For the point, name this group of elements that contains helium, neon and argon.

Noble Gases (accept Inert Gases; accept Aerogens)

(20) ITU-R 468 weighting and A-weighting are commonly used to measure a type of this phenomenon. The thermal excitation of (+) electrons causes a type of this phenomenon known as its Johnson-Nyquist variety. A type of this phenomenon is given as the ratio of signal power to its power and adds error to electronic signals. A constant (*) power spectral density defines the "white" type of, for the points, what unwanted disturbance of an electrical signal.

Noise (accept Johnson-Nyquist Noise; or Thermal Noise; accept White Noise)

(25) A possible test of this technology was known as the Vela Incident. Tests of this technology include Smiling Buddha and Castle Bravo, and the presence of these weapons in Cuba triggered a 1962 diplomatic crisis. For the point, name this military weapon that uses a fission reaction to create an explosion.

Nuclear Weapons (accept reasonable equivalents, like Nukes; accept equivalents mentioning the Atom Bomb or A-Bomb; accept Nuclear Warheads; prompt on "Weapons of Mass Destruction;")

(6) Due to the Coriolis [[koh-ree-OH-liss]] force, the direction of these phenomena is described by the Ekman spiral. The deep variety of these phenomena is driven by thermohaline [[ther-moh-HAY-leen]] circulation. These phenomena form the confines of gyres [[GIRES]] such as the Sargasso Sea. Benjamin Franklin was the first person to chart one of these phenomena in the Atlantic Ocean. The Gulf Stream is a prominent warm-water version of these phenomena. For the point, name these large flows of water that circulate water through the world's oceans.

Ocean Currents

(4) The Aleutian [[ah-LOO-shen]] arc was formed by subduction along these types of locations, which were explored by vehicles such as Kaiko and Trieste. The deepest one of these locations is named after a nearby Pacific Island Chain, with its deepest point being Challenger Deep. For the point, name these depressions in the ground caused by tectonic plate movement, some of which include the Marianas.

Oceanic Trenches (accept Marianas Trench)

(28) The reproductive hectocotylus [[hek-toh-COT-ee-luss]] structure was first discovered in one of these animals, which can pass their bodies through any opening large enough to accommodate the rostrum. Possessing the highest brain-to-body mass ratio among invertebrates, this animal's mimic species can imitate sea snakes and stingrays, while its blue-ringed species is deadly to humans. Able to unscrew jars using its suction cups, for the point, what is this cephalopod mollusk with eight arms?

Octopuses (accept Octopi)

(9) This feature is located off the western edge of the Tharsis plateau, part of the Valles [[VAH-less]] Marineris canyon. This feature's name was changed after the Mariner 9 spacecraft imaged it. In 2011, Rheasilvia [[ray-ah-SILL-vyah]] on the asteroid Vesta was found to be of similar height to this mountain, thus competing with it as the highest mountain in the solar system. For the point, name this shield volcano on Mars with a height of over 20 kilometers.

Olympus Mons

(12) This mountain is home to the Pangboche Crater near its summit and formed during the Noachian Period. This mountain is associated with the Tharsis (+) Montes chain, and has a surface area larger than Hungary. Of known peaks, this mountain is only possibly surpassed by Rheasilvia on Vesta, standing at a height of (*) 72,000 feet. For the points, name this volcano, the highest of Mars and the Solar System.

Olympus Mons (accept Nix Olympica)

(28) The Banker's algorithm that aims to prevent deadlock was developed for one of these entities named for the Eindhoven University of Technology, where its developer, Edsger Dijkstra, served as professor. Hypervisors can be used to run guest versions of these entities on top of a host system through the process of virtualization. Prioritization of I/O operations can be accomplished by the schedulers in these entities, which contain a kernel. For the point, name these low-level computer programs that include Linux and Windows.

Operating Systems (accept OS; accept THE Operation System)

(1) It's not Aquarius, but a meteor shower named for this constellation is produced by Halley's comet. A feature in this constellation is formed by the stars Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka, and this constellation's brightest stars are Rigel and Betelgeuse. A mythological hunter names, for the point, what constellation with a famous belt?

Orion

(24) A compound containing this element is created in the Chapman cycle and can be measured in Dobson units. This element can be added to an alkene to form an epoxide. This element is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, and the diatomic form of this element is a product of photosynthesis. For the point, name this element with atomic number 8 that combines with iron to form rust.

Oxygen (or O; accept Ozone-Oxygen Cycle; accept O2; accept Ozone or O3 before "alkene" is mentioned)

(1) A single bond between two atoms of this element is present in molecules used to catalyze radical reactions. Another molecule with three atoms of this element is present in the stratosphere to absorb UV light. In respiration, a diatomic molecule of this element is exchanged for carbon dioxide. For the point, name this element with atomic number 8 and symbol O.

Oxygen (prompt on "Peroxide;" prompt on "Ozone")

(24) This man developed a motto translating to "Let no man belong to another who can belong to himself." The microcosm-macrocosm analogy was furthered by this man who was heavily supported by the Rosicrucians. This man claimed that "the sickbed is your study" in his rebuke of emphasis on medical titles, and this man often burned copies of works by Galen during lectures he held in Basel. The modern name for zinc may have originated with this man who conflated sulfur with the soul and salt with the body. Living during the German Renaissance, this is, for the point, what 16th-century alchemist?

Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim; accept Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim)

(18) The only stand-alone group of Hilbert axioms concerns an axiom about this property, which is equivalent to Playfair's axiom. Two vectors that have a cross product of zero have this property. Euclid's fifth postulate is named for this property and implies that all angles of a rectangle are right angles. Two lines with this property have the same slope. For the point, name this property of two lines in the same plane that will never intersect.

Parallel (accept Parallel Postulate)

(6) According to Emery's rule, the social form of this behavior is seen between two closely related organisms, which is exhibited when the larvae of large blue butterflies employ ant mimicry. Great (+) frigate birds stealing the prey of another seabird and cuckoo bees laying in the nests of other bees exhibit the klepto- form of this behavior. The presence of tapeworms (*) inside a human's intestines is a prime example of, for the points, what type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits at the expense of another?

Parasitism (accept other word forms; accept Social Parasitism; accept Kleptoparasitism; accept Brood Parasitism; accept Adelphoparasitism; prompt on "Symbiosis" before mentioned)

(15) It's not Alzheimer's, but the Braak staging method describes the progression of this disease, and it's not dementia, but cells affected by this exhibit aggregation of protein alphasynuclein that forms spherical masses called Lewy bodies. Most cell-based therapies for this disease transplant tissue into the substantia nigra, and the drug L-dopa treats this disorder, which is caused by the death of neurons that produce dopamine. For the point, identify this neurodegenerative disorder whose symptoms include a shuffling gait and involuntary tremors.

Parkinson's Disease (or PD; accept Shaking Palsy)

(18) Gytta is a type of mud formed from this material, which can be found in abundance in the Carbajal Valley of Argentina. This material is commonly found in peloids used in balneotherapy, and this material that is often used in histosols comprises a series of features on Sumatra's northeast coast known as (+) swamp forests. This material has a one millimeter annual growth rate that makes it effectively nonrenewable, and this material often includes Sphagnum moss for which is alternatively named. For the point, identify this collection of decayed vegetation found in namesake bogs.

Peat (accept Peat Moss; accept Peatland; accept Peat Bogs)

(4) Climate change is contributing to increasing the size of the active layer of this substance, increasing instability due to solifluction [[soh-lih-FLUK-shun]]. Collapse-scar bogs and (+) thermokarst lakes form where this substance has broken down. Palsas and pingos are notable examples of the patterned ground created from this feature of the tundra. (*) For the point, name this type of soil which remains below 32 degrees Fahrenheit year-round.

Permafrost (prompt on "soil" before mentioned)

(9) When constructed, the Yakutsk TV Tower was the tallest structure built on this surface, which can be found in patterns such as palsas and pingos. This material extended south to New (+) Jersey during the last Ice Age. This surface, whose erosion in Siberia led scientists to worry about vast carbon dioxide releases into the air, is common in the (*) tundra. For the points, name this type of ground that remains below the freezing point for two or more years.

Permafrost (prompt on descriptive answers; prompt on "ice" or "frost")

(14) This substance's OIP estimation is found by multiplying porosity, saturation, and volume. Catalytic reforming converts an intermediate of this substance called naphtha [[NAF-thuh]] into liquid reformates. This substance, which can be cracked and broken down into petrochemicals, is often extracted alongside brine and natural gas via fracking. For the point, name this liquid fossil fuel which is refined into diesel fuel and gasoline.

Petroleum (accept Crude oil; prompt on "Oil" or "Petrol" or "Gasoline"; prompt on "Hydrocarbons")

(1) This chemical compound was once used as an over-the-counter laxative, but it was discontinued due to the frequency of erythrocytes that can cause cancer. Despite its carcinogenicity, this compound is often mixed with sodium hydroxide to produce 'disappearing' ink (+) in toys. This compound was initially synthesized under acidic conditions by Adolf von Baeyer, and a reduced form of this compound is used to (*) detect blood in substances using the Kastle-Meyer test. For the point, name this compound often used as an indicator in acid-base titrations.

Phenolphthalein

(21) This effect disagrees with classical electromagnetism and, in practical experimentation, this effect illustrates that the removal of negatively charged particles from a material surface occurs only when incident rays of light exceed a certain frequency regardless of change in intensity. Albert Einstein used this effect to explain the particle nature of light. For the point, name this phenomenon in which light emits electrons when hitting certain materials.

Photoelectric Effect

(21) This particle's interaction with other elementary particles can be observed through Raman scattering. In the Standard Model, this hadron is categorized as having electroweak interactions, and this particle is unified with the W and Z gauge bosons. For the point, name these massless elementary particles symbolized by the Greek letter gamma, the quanta of the electromagnetic field, and more specifically light.

Photons

(3) Roughly 300 miles thick, this region lies above a superheated core and a layer that convects heat away from that core, causing it to reach temperatures in excess of 5000 degrees Celsius. That convection contributes to sunspots and solar flares in this layer of the sun - what many would consider the visible "surface." For the point, identify this layer of the sun which takes its name from the Greek word for "light."

Photosphere

(27) A form of this process involves the use of PEP carboxylase to produce oxaloacetic [[aak-sa-low-AH-suh-tayt]] acid. The most abundant enzyme in the world, RuBisCO, is used in this process alongside ATP and NADPH to produce the three-carbon molecule G3P during the Calvin cycle. The chloroplast is the site of, for the point, what process in which plants use light energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose?

Photosynthesis (accept C4 Photosynthesis)

(1) The second part of this process begins with a carbon dioxide molecule combining with RuBP to make a high-energy intermediate. Deciduous trees such as birches and maples perform this process using an organelle known as the chloroplast. Chlorophyll molecules absorb light in, for the point, what process in which plants use light energy to produce sugars?

Photosynthesis (accept Light Reactions or Light-dependent Reactions before "Second Part" is mentioned; prompt after mentioned; prompt on "Calvin Cycle" or "CalvinBenson Cycle" or "Dark Reaction")

(23) This number that was estimated in the Buffon's needle problem appears as one of the two exponents in Euler's [[OY-luhrs]] identity. 180 degrees equals this number of radians, and twice the product of the radius and this number helps compute the circumference of a circle. For the point, give this number approximately equal to 22 over 7, or 3.14.

Pi (accept 3.14 before mentioned; accept Archimedes' Constant)

(25) Variants of this statement are applied in the Art Gallery problem and the proof of the Pumping Lemma for Regular Languages. According to this principle, two people will share the same birthday in any given room of at least 367 people. Commonly known as Dirichlet's box principle, this mathematical statement explains that when n items are put into m containers if n is greater than m, then at least one container will have more than one item. For the point, name this combinatorial principle inspired by the roosts of a certain urban bird.

Pigeonhole Principle (accept Dirichlet's Box Principle before mention)

(4) Members of this genus develop from trophozoites into schizonts, and then burst into multiple merozoites to infect red blood cells. Tertian fever can be caused by both the (+) ovale and vivax species of this genus. Artemisinin and quinine are used to treat infections caused by the falciparum species of this parasitic genus, which is carried by the Anopheles (*) mosquito. For the points, name this genus of protozoa that causes malaria.

Plasmodium (accept Plasmodium falciparum; accept Plasmodium vivax; accept Plasmodium ovale)

(8) One type of this reaction proceeds via the Cossee-Arlman mechanism. Telechelic molecules are both produced by, and can serve as, reactants for one of these reactions, which are called "living" if they cannot terminate. The RAFT type of this reaction transfers free radicals during its propagation steps. Terminal alkenes bind to a Ziegler-Natta catalyst in one type of this reaction, which can come in "step-growth" and "chain-growth" subtypes. For the point, name these reactions that assemble individual subunits called monomers into long chains.

Polymerization reaction (accept Making Polymers; accept RAFT Polymerization; such as Radical Polymerization; accept Living Polymerization[/a]; accept Step-growth or Chain-growth ; accept Step-growth or Chain-growth Polymerization)

(1) The close resemblance of one type of cell in this phylum to choanoflagellates [[koh-an-oh-FLAH-jeh-lets]] may imply a close evolutionary relationship. Along with placozoa [[play-koh-ZOH-ah]], this is the only animal phylum to lack true, differentiated (+) tissues. This phylum is usually considered to be the most basal animal lineage, making it the sister taxon to (*) all other animals. For the point, name this simple animal phylum, which contains sponges.

Porifera (prompt on "sponges" before mentioned)

(25) The full output of one of these systems is referred to as its firm capacity. Islanding can result from the absence of these systems, which can experience rotational load shedding. In these systems, substations are able to receive the central product over long distances through (+) transmission, whereas distribution protocols provide said product to individuals. (*) Brownouts can result from drops in voltage along these systems, which can experience rolling blackouts. Supplied by power stations, these are, for the point, what interconnected systems that transmit electricity?

Power Grid (accept Grid; accept Electrical Grid; prompt on "Power Supply;" prompt on "Power Station" before mentioned; prompt on "Generator")

(4) The recalculation of a quantity related to this process led to the discovery of a previously missing factor known as the "Thomas half." The frequency with which one variety of this process occurs can be calculated by the negative product of the magnitude of an applied magnetic field and the gyromagnetic ratio. (+) The lack of an external moment acting on the subject of this phenomenon is characteristic of one variety of this process which comes in Larmor (*) and torque-free forms. For the point, name this shift in a body's rotational axis, often described as planetary wobbling.

Precession (accept Torque-free Precession)

(27) Types of this weather phenomenon include orographic, stratiform, and convective, and this weather phenomenon is measured using a udometer. According to the Thornthwaite system, the index relating to the effectiveness of this weather phenomenon in steppe vegetations ranges between 16 and 31, which classifies it as semiarid. For the point, name this weather phenomenon that formed when frozen or liquid water is released from clouds, whose subtypes include hail, rain, and snow.

Precipitation (accept Orographic Precipitation; accept Stratiform Precipitation; accept Convective Precipitation; accept Hail; accept Rain; accept Sleet; accept Snow)

(31) Biomolecules are purified using a form of this process called "salting out." The "immuno-" type of this process uses a substrate-coupled antibody to collect specific proteins. Cold ethanol can be used to isolate DNA via this process, which leaves behind a liquid called the supernatant. A reaction's K-sp value describes an equilibrium where the rate of dissolution equals the rate of this process, and ammonium and nitrate compounds can never undergo this process, according to the solubility rules. For the point, name this process that forms an insoluble solid product from a solution.

Precipitation (or Forming a Precipitate; accept Recrystallization; prompt on "Deposition")

(23) One form of this quantity can be calculated from enthalpy and temperature by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, that is the "vapor" form. Amonton's law correlates this quantity with temperature. Dalton's law equates the sum of the "partial" forms of this quantity to the "total" form in a system. For the point, name this quantity measured in pascals, the force per unit area.

Pressure (accept Vapor Pressure; accept Partial Pressure)

(16) The Green-Tao Theorem states that one can find arbitrarily long arithmetic sequences of these numbers. According to the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, every positive integer greater than one can be expressed as the unique product of these numbers, which can be computed using the Sieve of Eratosthenes [[ehr-uh-TOSS-thuh-neez]]. 2, 3, and 5 are examples of, for the point, what numbers, often contrasted with composite numbers, that are only divisible by 1 and themself?

Prime Numbers

(16) The ILLIAC I computer studied this object, as did Donald B. Gillies. The GURVO, or R7, Rocket was planned to be used with this object which was first envisioned as "Object D." The creation of this object was proposed from plans that Dimitri Ustinov and Sergei Korolev created. In Operation Moonwatch, observers sited this satellite. Prompting the Space Race, for the point, what was this Soviet Satellite launched in 1957?

Prosteyshiy Sputnik-1 (prompt on "Satellite 1," "Elementary Satellite 1," or "PS1")

(25) Levinthal's paradox concerns this class of compounds, and the assembly of this compound is facilitated by chaperonins. Those chaperonins assist the folding of these compounds into secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures, which are undone by the process of denaturation. In the ribosome, translation converts messenger RNA into, for the point, what macromolecules that are made up of amino acid monomers and whose subtypes include antibodies and enzymes?

Proteins (or Polypeptides, prompt on "Amino Acids" before mentioned)

(29) Ernest Rutherford was the first to apply the current name to this particle. This baryon is a fermion with a half-integer spin composed of three valence quarks, two up quarks and one down quark. While this nucleon is commonly bound to another subatomic particle, the most common isotope of hydrogen's nucleus is a lone one of these particles. For the point, name this positively-charged subatomic particle that composes an atom's nucleus with the neutron.

Proton

(8) The positive displacement type of these devices continuously trap and move small amounts of fluids. The diaphragm type of these devices alternates fluid motion between two chambers separated by a flexible rubber seal. Pressure is reduced in the vacuum type of these devices, and reciprocal examples of these devices power hand-operated wells. For the point, name these devices used to inflate tires.

Pump (accept Positive Displacement Pump; accept Diaphragm Pump; accept Vacuum Pump; accept Reciprocating Pump; accept Tire Pump)

(25) According to legend, this thinker drowned one of his students for discovering irrational numbers. This thinker provided the earliest account of music of the spheres and discovered the relationship between mathematical ratios and musical intervals. This thinker's namesake theorem is stated as A squared plus B squared equals C squared. For the point, name this ancient Greek philosopher who names a theorem in geometry used for finding the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle.

Pythagoras of Samos (prompt on "Pythagorean")

(5) Proofs of this formula include the "dissection and rearrangement" method or the use of trapezoids, which was developed by President James Garfield. The distance formula in Cartesian coordinates is derived from this formula, solutions for which include namesake triples such as 6, 8, and 10. The hypotenuse of a triangle can be computed by, for the point, what formula named for a Greek mathematician that states that a-squared plus b-squared equals c-squared?

Pythagorean Theorem

(10) The first model of this particle was proposed by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig. Quantum chromodynamics describes the interaction of the strong force between gluons and this subatomic particle. Hadrons are divided into two types depending on whether they comprise two or three of these particles. Protons and neutrons are composed of "up" and "down" varieties of these particles which come in six "flavors." For the point, name this subatomic particle.

Quarks (accept Quark model; accept Up quarks; accept U quarks; accept Down quarks; accept D quarks)

(30) A model named after these particles superseded a model proposed by Shoichi Sakata, and that model was independently proposed by Murray Gell-Man and George Zweig. The anti- variety of these particles is denoted with a bar (-) above its symbol, and those types of these particles possess color charges of antired, antiblue, and antigreen. Neutrons are made up of two "down" and one "up" types of these particles, which are bonded by gluons. For the point, name these elementary particles whose six flavors include top, bottom, charm, and strange.

Quarks (accept Up Quarks; accept Down Quarks; accept Top Quarks; accept Bottom Quarks; accept Charm Quarks; accept Strange Quarks)

(7) One of these objects is the entity behind the Einstein cross, which arises due to gravitational lensing. The distinction between these entities and blazars is the direction of emission of a relativistic jet, and these objects are often categorized as radio-loud or radioquiet. For the point, name these active galactic nuclei, the most luminous objects in the universe.

Quasars (accept Quasi-Stellar Object; or QSO; prompt on "Active Galactic Nucleus" before mentioned)

(22) One paradigm used in this language uses ggplot2 [[G-G-PLOT-TWO]] and dplyr [[DEE-ply-er]] and is known as the tidyverse. Stable packages used in this language can be (+) hosted by CRAN. This language is most commonly implemented in an Integrated Development Environment called [this language] "Studio." (*) For the point, name this open source programming language primarily used for data and statistical analysis.

R (accept RStudio)

(28) Types of this molecule called "si" and "mi" are used in "interference" experiments. A type of this molecule can be "charged" with the enzyme aaRS and has a "cloverleaf" shape. The secondary structure of this molecule can exhibit "wobble," and the "messenger" type of this molecule contains codons. This uracil-containing molecule is translated into protein by ribosomes. For the point, name this single-stranded nucleic acid contrasted with DNA.

RNA (or Ribonucleic acid)

(1) According to the Milwaukee Protocol, treatments of this disease involve placing an infected person into an induced coma through the use of anesthesia made of midazolam and ketamine. The virus causing this disease, uncommonly referred to as "hydrophobia", emerges from protein aggregates in the brain called Negri bodies. Foaming at the mouth is notable symptom of, for the point, what viral disease, caused by the genus Lyssavirus, that is spread through animal bites?

Rabies (accept Rabies Encephalitis; accept Hydrophobia before mentioned; accept Lyssa before "Lyssavirus" is mentioned)

(17) A book written by this person was the subject of H.F. van Emden and David Peakall's 1996 Beyond that book. This scientist's breakthrough publication was the nonfiction book The Sea Around Us. This scientist's best known book argued for calling chemical pesticides "biocides" due to their damage to the environment. For the point, name this American biologist and environmentalist, who described the effects of DDT in the book Silent Spring.

Rachel Carson

(23) This set of numbers can be constructed from the rationals using Dedekind cuts. This set of numbers was shown to be uncountable by Cantor's diagonalization argument. The rational numbers are dense in this set of numbers, which also includes the irrational numbers. For the point, what set contains any number that can be expressed on a number line, contrasted with complex numbers?

Real numbers (prompt on "R")

(22) To use this method on larger problems, it is often useful to implement a "tail call" to optimize memory use and avoid stack (+) overflows. Common implementations of this concept in programming are calculating factorials, greatest common divisor, binary search, and the Towers of (*) Hanoi problem. For the points, what is this non-iterative method of solving computational problems, where functions call themselves from within their own code.

Recursion (accept Recursive algorithm/program; accept Tail Recursion)

(24) Adding gold salts and possibly tin to glass turns it this primary color in a technique dating to the Roman Empire. Stars of this color are classified as K or M, during which the helium flash occurs. The flame tests of strontium and lithium are this color, and litmus paper turns this color in acidic solutions. Jupiter has a large storm called the "great [this color] spot." Light with wavelength longer than visible light is called, for the point, "infra" what color?

Red

(8) According to legend, this thinker built a robot copy of his daughter Francine after she died of scarlet fever. Along with Snell, this thinker lends his name to the law of refraction. This thinker founded analytic geometry by combining algebra with coordinate planes. This man lends his name to the most common two-dimensional coordinate system. For the point, name this early modern French philosopher and mathematician, who stated "I think therefore I am."

René Descartes

(19) These cells are coated with a myelin sheath, which allows them to quickly transmit action potentials. These cells are split into "sensory" and "motor" types and separated from each other by synapses. For the point, name these signal-transmitting nerve cells, the basic units of the nervous system.

Neurons (accept Nerve Cells)

(20) The core collapse type of these events occurs when stars accumulate extremely massive iron cores. Thermal runaways can be seen in the type 1a form of these events that occur when a white dwarf surpasses the Chandrasekhar [[SHON-druh-say-karr]] limit. For the point, name these extraordinary large stellar explosions.

Supernova (do not accept or prompt on just "Nova")

(1) Unlike most other mammals, monkeys and apes cannot synthesize this nutrient which is the primary cofactor for the formation of collagen. Diets poor in this nutrient can lead to bleeding gums and brown skin spots. That deficiency of this nutrient is known as scurvy. This vitamin is commonly taken in "super doses" to prevent and fight colds. For the point, name this vitamin which is commonly found in citrus fruits.

Vitamin C (or Ascorbic acid)

(30) One surface feature of a satellite orbiting this body was described by NASA as a "mountain sitting in a moat." This body has not made a full orbit around the Sun since its discovery due to its orbital period being over 200 years. This object was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh and it is named after the Roman god of the underworld. For the point, name this body which, in 2006, was reclassified as a dwarf planet.

Pluto (prompt on "Charon" if buzz firstline)

(27) One of these devices was codenamed D1, and was deployed at Flers-Courcelette [[FLEHRS CORE-suh-lett]] in France. The Soviet T-34 type of these devices was first deployed against the invading Germans in World War Two. The Battle of El Alamein debuted of one of these devices with a fully rotating gun turret. The M4 Sherman was one type of, for the point, what heavily armored military vehicles?

Tanks (accept British Mark I; or Male Tanks; or T-34 Tanks; or M4 Sherman Tanks)

(30) During the winter in South Korea, frozen sausages are often used to interact with this technology. Extended use of this technology without rest can lead to a repetitive motion injury commonly known as "gorilla arm." Mobile devices often employ haptics to improve user experience with this technology. Pinches and multi-finger swipes are common gestures used with this technology. For the point, name this technology used to give inputs when using smartphones.

Touch screen (accept descriptive answers involving screens which are operated by touch)

(28) A 2005 study linked the occurrence of this disorder with mutations in the SLITRK1 gene. PANDAS is a syndrome that bears many similarities to this disorder that was named for an intern of Jean-Marie Charcot. Premonitory urges can precede central occurrences associated with this disorder that often co-occur with ADHD or OCD. Often beginning in adolescence, this nervous disorder is characterized by the occurrence of motor tics. For the point, name this disorder characterized by sudden twitching movements.

Tourette's Syndrome (accept Tourette's TS; or Tourette's)

(29) These data structures connect all vertices of a graph with minimum edge weights. The red-black variety of this data structure is self-balancing, differentiating it from the binary search (+) variety, and the first node of this structure is known as the root node. (*) For the point, name this type of data structure whose terminal nodes are referred to as leaf nodes rather than branches.

Tree (accept Binary Search Tree before mentioned; accept Binary tree; prompt on "graph" before mentioned)

(17) While the "complacent" type of these features show little variation, "sensitive" types allow for easier cross-dating to assign dates to when they were formed. These things, which are compared on skeleton plots, are "crowded" during periods of drought. Dendrochronology is the process of dating these things, which are affected by amounts of rainfall and are found in the cambium. For the point, name these circular patterns found in wood.

Tree Rings (accept Growth Rings)

(29) A transversal line that crosses the sides of this shape creates segments related by Menelaus's theorem. The Minkowski inequality is a generalization of a statement named for this shape. The area of this shape can be found by multiplying the semiperimeter and inradius, or it can be calculated using Heron's formula. For the point, name this geometric shape that comes in "obtuse" and "acute" varieties and has three sides.

Triangle (accept obtuse triangle; accept acute triangle)

(11) A circle that goes through points derived from these objects is called the "nine point circle." A statement named for these objects can be proved using the Cauchy [[KOH-shee]]- Schwarz inequality. "S squared root three over four" is the area of one type of these shapes. Binomial coefficients are found in an arrangement of these shapes named for Pascal. For the point, name these shapes whose isosceles type has two sides of the same length.

Triangles (accept Pascal's triangle; accept Equilateral triangle; accept Triangle inequality)

(12) Many ammonoids and conodonts went extinct during this period's Carnian pluvial episode. During this period, Pangaea began to separate into the continents of Laurasia and Gondwana. This period, which followed the mass extinction of trilobites in the "Great Dying," gave rise to the archosaurs. The Permian era preceded, for the point, what first geologic period in the Mesozoic Era, named for a set of three distinct rock layers?

Triassic Period

(25) One of the first references to this term for a type of computer program was in the first UNIX manual in 1971. This term was popularized by Ken (+) Thompson in his 1983 Turing Award lecture "Reflections on Trusting Trust". These entities differentiate themselves from a virus by not injecting themselves into other (*) files. For the points, name this type of malware that misleads users of its purpose, whose name derives from an Ancient Greek story of deception.

Trojan (accept Trojan Horse)

(29) Transpiration has the largest effect on weather in this ecosystem, one example of which can be divided zoologically by Wallace's line. The birds of paradise are native to this biome which is also home to many arboreal mammals like orangutans and sloths. Bark gouging to feed on gum is a behavior of marmosets in the canopy of this biome. High temperature and frequent precipitation are key features of, for the point, what equatorial ecosystem which includes the Congo and Amazon?

Tropical rainforests (or Jungles; accept specific rainforests before they are mentioned)

(15) The strength of these phenomena are measured on the Sieberg-Ambraseys Intensity Scale. Changes in barometric pressure during extreme weather events like thunderstorms can cause the meteorological version of these events, which are characterized by entities that have abnormally high crests. One of these phenomena named for Boxing Day struck in 2004 and devastated Aceh province in Sumatra. Often caused by earthquakes centered underwater, these are, for the point, what phenomena characterized by large waves making shore?

Tsunami (prompt on Underwater "Earthquake" before mentioned)

(16) Climates in this biome are categorized under ET in the Koppen climate classification. Soil in this biome often contains large amounts of biomass stored as methane under layers of permafrost. This biome can be found in mostly arctic, alpine, and Antarctic variants. For the point, name this biome characterized by little tree growth, low rain and snowfall, and extensive moss and lichen growth.

Tundra

(5) The alpine form of this biome can be identified by the presence of stunted forests called Krummholz. Short growing seasons affect this biome where the Sami people of Finland reside. Animals native to this biome include the ptarmigan and lemming. For the point, identify this biome characterized by low temperatures and limited tree growth that contains permafrost in its Arctic example.

Tundra (accept Alpine Tundra; accept Arctic Tundra before mentioned; accept Antarctic Tundra)

(2) 108 bones were found belonging to this specimen, making him the most complete skeleton of his species found to date. Blood poisoning caused by severe tooth decay and a lumbar disc herniation found in a (+) 2013 study are possible theories concerning the death of this specimen, which was estimated to have occurred when he was around seven to eleven years old. Discovered by Kamoya Kimeu and Richard (*) Leakey, this is, for the points, what specimen of the Homo ergaster species, named after a lake in Kenya?

Turkana Boy (or Nariokotome Boy; or KNM WT-15000)

(12) Several patients with aphakia [[ah-FAY-kee-ah]] have claimed to be able to perceive this kind of radiation. This type of radiation creates free radicals by reacting with CFCs, which can damage the ozone layer. This kind of radiation creates (+) vitamin D from ergosterol [[er-GAH-steh-rol]] and 7-dehydrocholesterol [[dee-hy-dro-"cholesterol"]]. The primary cause of (*) sunburns, for the point, what is this type of electromagnetic radiation which has wavelengths longer than x-rays, but shorter than visible light?

Ultraviolet Radiation (or UV Radiation; prompt on "radiation")

(3) This region of the electromagnetic spectrum partly names a situation in which a blackbody emits boundless energy in a namesake "catastrophe." Hydrogen emits a spectral Lyman-alpha line that falls within this region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Exposure to radiation in this part of the electromagnetic spectrum can lead to conditions such as photokeratitis of the eye. With a shorter wavelength than visible light, this is, for the point, what type of radiation, excessive exposure to which can cause skin cancer?

Ultraviolet Radiation (or Ultraviolet Light)

(8) According to this theory, the arrangement of nitrosonium octafluoroxenate(VI) [[SIX]] is square antiprismatic. Notations used for this theory denote "A" as the central atom, "X" as bonding pairs, and "E" as lone pairs in the convention known as the AXE method. Strontium fluoride is an exception to this theory, as its structure angles are 120 degrees between each bond instead of 180 degrees. Methane is a tetrahedral molecule according to, for the point, what theory that suggests the geometry of molecules is based on its number of electron pairs?

VSEPR [[VES-purr]] (or Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion)

(2) Lazzaro Spallanzani originally discovered these organelles, which he labelled as "stars." Cell sap can be found within this organelle where ions of cobalt 2+ and strontium 2+ are often sent. These organelles can facilitate increased germination speed by expanding, and osmoregulation takes place within one variety that can undergo expansions, while its other variety completes the opposite process. The contractile variety compartmentalizes enzymes in, for the point, what water-filled organelles involved in storage.

Vacuole (accept Contractile Vacuole)

(1) The kudzu variety of this plant, which is native to Japan, is referred to as the "invasive [this plant] that ate the south" since it prevents the photosynthesis of other grasses and trees by stealing their sunlight. Hormones such as jasmonates and indole-3- acetic acid mediate the coiling action exhibited by tendrils which have adhesive pads that assist this plant in climbing. Grapes grow on, for the point, what long, nonwoody plants that use neighboring plants and structures for support?

Vines (accept Kudzu Vines; accept Gravevines)

(27) One of these entities named for its wheel-like shape contains the surface proteins VP4 and VP7 which induce the neutralization of antibodies. The Baltimore system is used to classify these entities, which typically replicate using the lytic [[lih-tik]] or lysogenic cycle. Reverse transcriptase is used by the "retro" type of these infectious agents, which require host cells to reproduce. Bacteriophages [[bak-TEE-ree-oh-FAY-juz]] are a type of, for the point, what pathogens that can cause Ebola, chicken pox, and the flu?

Viruses (accept Retroviruses; accept Rotaviruses; accept either Bacteriophages or Phages before "Bacteriophages" is mentioned)

(2) An increased risk of developing this condition has been associated with the FOXD3 gene, as well as variations of the NLRP1 and (+) PTPN22 genes. This condition is classified as segmental or non-segmental, the latter of which can be further classified into focal, acrofacial, and mucosal. Michael (*) Jackson notably suffered from, for the points, what condition that occurs when the body stops producing melanin, leading to patchy discolorations of the skin?

Vitiligo [[vih-tuh-"LIE"-goh]] (or Leucoderma; accept Segmental Vitiligo; accept Non-segmental Vitiligo; accept Generalized Vitiligo; accept Universal Vitiligo; accept Focal Vitiligo; accept Acrofacial Vitiligo; accept Mucosal Vitiligo)

(10) The total sum of this quantity around a closed loop is zero according to Kirchhoff's [[KEER-koffs]] second law. For a point charge, this quantity is calculated using the formula "k times q divided by r." Power is equal to this quantity times current, and this quantity is equal to current times resistance according to Ohm's law. For the point, name this quantity, symbolized V, which is 120 for U.S. wall outlets and measures the electric potential difference.

Voltage (accept Volts; accept Potential before mentioned)

(9) Common mistakes made while using one device that measures this quantity include pushing down to the "second stop" while collecting a sample or not switching tips. The "serological" or "Mohr" types of a device that measures this quantity often use a rubber bulb as a vacuum source. Titration is also referred to a type of analysis named for this quantity, which is measured using a burette, and this quantity is accurately assessed by reading the point at the bottom of the meniscus. For the point, name this quantity measured in milliliters using a graduated cylinder.

Volume (accept Volumetric Analysis)

(30) Subsurface oceans of this molecule exist on Ganymede, Enceladus [[en-keh-LAHdus]], and Europa, and it exists in liquid form in the Goldilocks zone. In 2015, NASA confirmed evidence of this molecule in Martian perchlorate salts, and it is found under the carbon dioxide ice cap at Mars's south pole. Along with rocks and dust, the frozen form of this molecule makes up comets. For the point, name this substance thought to be required for alien life since it covers about 70% of the Earth's surface.

Water (or H-2-O; accept Water vapor or Water ice)

(2) Diels-Alder reactions are accelerated when this molecule is used as the solvent. The enzyme catalase breaks down its substrate into oxygen and this compound. Combustion reactions produce carbon dioxide and the gaseous form of this compound. Carbon dioxide and this compound are the inputs into photosynthesis. For the point, name this "universal solvent" with chemical formula H2O.

Water (or dihydrogen monoxide; accept H2O before mentioned)

(1) This disease ravaged European forces active in the Caribbean, and France's effort to reconquer Haiti was thwarted in part by this disease. This disease, also known as "Bronze John", is mentioned on the tombstone of Walter Reed, a U.S. Army physician who confirmed the theory, proposed by a Cuban physician named Carlos Finlay, that this disease was transmitted through Aedes aegypti [[eh-DEEZ eh-GIP-tee]]. For the point, name this viral disease that is transmitted through mosquitos, named for the jaundice it causes.

Yellow Fever (or Yellow Jack; or Yellow Plague; accept Bronze John before mentioned)

(2) The Englert-Greenberger-Yasin relation quantifies the results of this experiment, a non-overlapping version of which was carried out by G. I. Taylor. Claus Jönsson pioneeringly used a lone electron when performing this experiment, an earlier variety of which demonstrated the (+) disappearance of fringes when an obstructing object was placed in front of a beam. That experiment formed patterns (*) that demonstrated interference. For the point, name this experiment by Thomas Young that supported the wave theory of light, named for the twin apertures used.

Young's Double slit Experiment (accept Young's Interference Experiment before "Interference" is read; accept Young's Double-slit Interferometer; accept Claus Jönsson's Double-slit Experiment; accept (Sir) G(eoffrey) I(ngram) Taylor's Double-slit Experiment)

(21) KGB intervention may have caused the death of this man and instructor Vladimir Seryogin during a routine flight in 1968. Nazi occupation forced this man and his family to live in a three-meter by three-meter mud hut for years, and this man shouted "Poyekhali!" or, "Off we go," shortly before departing from Baikonur Cosmodrome on Vostok One. For the point, name this Soviet Cosmonaut, the first man in space.

Yuri Gagarin

(17) In The Analyst, George Berkeley [[BAR-klee]] used an error involving this value in his critique of fluxions [[FLUK-shuns]] and infinitesimals. This value represents the Turing degree of the partial (+) computable functions. This value represents the bottom element of a bound lattice and is the cardinality of the empty (*) set. For the point, name this number that creates an undefined expression as the denominator of a fraction.

Zero (accept Naught or Nil)

(17) Some of these objects are engineered at the Renton and Everett factories, where parts like the fuselage and stabilizer are fused together with bolts. Bernoulli's principle explains how lift is generated when air passes over a certain part of these objects. It's not a helicopter, but for the point, name these class of vehicles that can fly, examples of which include the Airbus A380 and Boeing 787.

airplanes (or aeroplane; accept jet; or jetplane)

(20) In 1969, the FDA banned one of these substances called cyclamate due to it having caused bladder cancer in lab rats. Consuming these substances has been linked to insulin resistance due to changes in gut bacteria. Common varieties of these substances include aspartame, sucralose, and saccharin. Popular brands selling these substances include Stevia and Splenda. For the point, name these food additives, which replace sugar in diet soda.

artificial sweeteners (or nonnutritive sweetener; or low-calorie sweetener; or zero-calorie sweetener; accept sugar replacements or sugar substitutes before "sugar" is read; prompt on just "sweetener")

(8) One of these astronomical bodies has a satellite named Dactyl. A region with many of these bodies was visited by the Dawn spacecraft. These bodies make up the Jovian Trojans, and gaps where these bodies are not found are named after Daniel Kirkwood. One of the largest of these bodies is called Vesta which is found in a region between Mars and Jupiter. For the point, name these astronomical bodies which make up a namesake "belt" in the solar system.

asteroids

(5) Proteins are "displayed" on the surface of the M13 class of these agents in a common method for directed evolution. The T2 (+) type of these agents was labelled with radioactive sulfur and phosphorus in the Hershey-Chase experiment that proved DNA is genetic material. When reproducing, these agents can switch from the lysogenic to the lytic cycle, which destroys their (*) host cell. For the points, name these viruses that infect bacteria.

bacteriophages (or phages; accept phage display; prompt on "virus")

(32) A study led by Gene Robinson concluded that these animals who foraged had higher levels of octopamine than those that did not. RNA viruses, such as the Israeli acute paralysis virus, was linked to a population collapse of these animals. A 2008 study from the University of Illinois-Champaign discovered that these animals "dance more" while under the influence of cocaine. Karl von Frisch won the Nobel Prize in 1973 for successfully translating the "waggle dance" these animals used while gathering resources. For the point, what insects, of the genus Apis, pollinate plants and collect nectar?

bees (accept honey bees)

(9) This is the simplest molecule that can undergo pi-pi stacking. The prefixes "ortho", "meta", and "para" describe positions on this molecule in most EAS reactions, including the Friedel-Crafts reaction that adds an alkyl group onto it. A hydroxyl group is added to this molecule to produce phenol. This simplest aromatic molecule is often drawn as a hexagon around a circle. For the point, name this molecule whose formula is C6H6.

benzene (accept C6H6 before mention)

(15) The opposite of this word names a type of "deep scattering" that gave evidence for the existence of quarks. Young's modulus is also named for this property of a material. According to kinetic molecular theory, gas particles undergo collisions described by this term where the total kinetic energy remains the same. For the point, what term describes materials like rubber that return to their original shape after a deformation?

elastic (or elasticity; accept elastic collisions; accept elastic modulus; do not accept or prompt on "inelastic")

(1) Organisms in this kingdom have cell walls made of chitin [[KAI-tin]]. Algae and these organisms form a symbiotic relationship in lichen, and the death cap is a highly poisonous organism in this kingdom. These organisms have hyphae which make up their mycelium, and examples of these organisms include molds and yeasts. For the point, name this kingdom of organisms which are primarily decomposers, like mushrooms.

fungi (or funguses)

(28) Orally active drugs have no more than five donors of these interactions according to Lipinski's rule. The secondary structure of proteins is determined by these interactions. (+) These interactions are stronger than van der Waals forces but weaker than covalent bonds. (*) These interactions hold together water molecules. For the points, identify these bonds named for the first element on the Periodic Table.

hydrogen bonds (accept H-Bond)

(29) These features can be identified by the presence of tektite and a shatter cone. Many examples of these features in the inner solar system were formed during the Late Heavy Bombardment. One of these features located off of the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico is linked to an event that may have caused the dinosaurs to go extinct. For the point, name these geologic features which consist of a depression on the surface of a body created by the impact of a meteor or asteroid.

impact craters (accept meteorite crater and similar answers; do not accept or prompt on "volcanic crater")

(10) In a pathway in this organelle, cyanide can bind to complex IV [[FOUR]] and lead to asphyxia. They're not chloroplasts, but it is believed that these organelles arose from the endosymbiosis of a prokaryotic cell and aerobic bacteria. People derive these organelles from egg cells, so DNA passed down through them is maternal. For the point, name this organelle in which most of the body's ATP is generated, leading to its nickname, the "powerhouse of the cell."

mitochondria (or mitochondrion)

(9) The "dark" type of these entities blocks light from their "emission" and "reflection" types. The Hubble space telescope photographed the "Pillars of Creation," which are located in one of these entities. Messier 1 is one of these objects which corresponds with a supernova seen by Chinese astronomers in 1054. For the point, name these astronomical star-forming regions, examples of which include the "eagle" and "crab."

nebulae (or nebulas)

(5) Observing double beta decay without emission of these particles would prove that they are their own antiparticles. Observatories built to detect these particles include SuperKamiokande and one called IceCube which is found underground at the South Pole. Flavor oscillation allows these fermions [[FERM-EYE-ONS]] to switch between their tau, muon, and electron subtypes. For the point, name these nearly massless particles with no charge which rarely interact with matter.

neutrinos (accept tau neutrinos; accept muon neutrinos; accept electron neutrinos; prompt on "fermions" before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "neutrons")

(18) This quantity is defined as the negative logarithm of a solution's proton concentration. Mixing compounds with a large difference in this value can lead to a neutralization reaction. A solution's value for this quantity can be estimated with an indicator, and changes in this quantity are modulated by buffer solutions. For the point, name this scale which ranges from one to fourteen with low values for acids and high values for bases?

pH scale

(13) This scientist, who discovered iron oxide's use as an arsenic antidote, discovered the elements cesium [[SEE-zee-um]] and rubidium [[roo-BIH-dee-um]] with Gustav Kirchhoff [[KEER-kof]]. This scientist lends his name to a device (+) that manipulates airflow at the top and fuel supply at the bottom to control (*) combustion rate. For the point, name this German chemist, who lends his name to a common type of open-flame burner used in lab experiments.

Robert Bunsen (or Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen; accept Bunsen Burner)

(5) An outbreak of this condition in Australia resulted in the discovery of congenital cataracts in infants born to mothers diagnosed with this disease. This disease, also known as "three-day measles", can be prevented through a vaccine whose name is in conjunction with the measles and mumps. Primarily transmitted through airborne droplets from an infected individual, this is, for the point, what contagious infection caused by an eponymous virus that produces a red rash, a condition also known as German measles?

Rubella (accept German Measles before mentioned, accept Three-day Measles before mentioned; do not accept "Measles")

(30) Voyager discovered a cloud pattern at this planet's north pole called its "hexagon." Depressions on the surface of a moon of this planet have been nicknamed "tiger stripes." Another moon of this planet, Prometheus, is a shepherd moon, and the Cassini division is present in an important feature on this planet. Having the lowest density of any planet in the solar system, for the point, what is this sixth planet from the sun known for its extensive ring system?

Saturn

(7) Thomas Kuhn [[KYOON]] argued that these periods involve paradigm shifts in a book about The Structure of [this sort of period]. Along with the Renaissance, one of these periods is held to have not been a radical break from the (+) Middle Ages in the "continuity thesis." The publication of Copernicus's theories (*) is considered the beginning of one of, for the point, what type of social era, which included the development of modern biology and chemistry?

Scientific Revolutions (prompt on "Copernican Revolution")

(3) On the eastern edges of this "sea" is the Sinus Concordiae [[kon-KOR-dee-ay]], while the Rupes Cauchy [[ROO-pes koh-SHEE]] crater lies in the northeastern portion of this sea. A metallic placard was left in this sea including the text (+) "We Came in Peace for all Mankind." This sea's namesake "Base" is the location at which Buzz (*) Aldrin and his colleagues landed the Eagle module. For the point, name this "Sea" on the Moon in which American astronauts first landed.

Sea of Tranquility (or Mare Tranquillitatis)

(21) One subtype of these materials can be created in a process known as plasma etching. The cat's whisker detector was the first diode made of these materials, and that device was manufactured by the company Fairchild. These materials include gallium arsenide, and these materials can add electrical qualities through a process called doping. As temperature increases, the resistivity decreases in these materials that include transistors. For the point, name these materials that share properties of both insulators and conductors.

Semiconductors (anti-prompt on "Transistors" before mentioned; anti-prompt on "Integrated Circuits" or "Diode")

(2) One form of this sense is activated when glutamic [[gloo-TAM-ik]] acid binds to a "G" protein-coupled receptor. Another form of this sense is activated with the presence of alkali metals and may have evolved to detect (+) toxins. The lack of this sense is called hypogeusia [["high"-poh-JYOOS-yah]]. This sense's receptors are contained in the papillae [[pah-PIH-lay]], which detect (*) umami [[oo-MAH-mee]], sweet, and sour. For the point, name this sense detected by the tongue.

Sense of Taste (accept Gustatory sense or Gustatory system)

(23) This molecule's receptors are activated by a class of hallucinogenic drugs that includes psilocin [["SIGH"-loh-sin]] and LSD. When prepared for gastrointestinal use, this molecule is synthesized and secreted by enterochromaffin [[en-teh-roh-KROH-mah-fin]] cells, which synthesize it from tryptophan [[TRIP-toh-fan]]. Lexapro, Zoloft, and Prozac are name brand examples of this neurotransmitter's selective re-uptake inhibitors. For the point, name this appetite and mood-regulating neurotransmitter.

Serotonin [[seh-roh-TOH-nin]] (accept 5-hydroxytryptamine; or 5-HT)

(23) A set of axioms describing these objects was developed by Zermelo and Fraenkel. A theorem equivalent to the axiom of choice states that all of these objects can be wellordered. A table of ordered pairs is produced by applying the Cartesian product to two of these objects, and functions that map between these objects can be classified as injective, surjective, or bijective. The "empty" type of these objects has a cardinality of zero. Union and intersection are operations that can act on, for the point, what mathematical collections of elements?

Sets (accept Set theory; accept Empty Set; accept Injective Sets; accept Surjective Sets; accept Bijective Sets)

(28) Electroreceptors in the pores of these animals are known as Ampullae of Lorenzini. Cladoselache was a genus of early predecessors to these animals, which contain multiple rows of replaceable teeth. The "whale" variety of these animals is the largest extant fish species. For the point, name these animals that include "hammerhead" and "great white" varieties.

Sharks (accept Whale Sharks; accept Hammerhead Sharks; accept Great White Sharks; prompt on "Fish")

(26) This function names a modified form of the Klein-Gordon wave equation. This function appears in the imaginary parts of both Demoivre's [[de-MWAHV]] and Euler's formulas. The terms in this function's Taylor series contain odd exponents divided by odd factorials. This function is positive in the first and second quadrants because it gives the ycoordinate on the unit circle. Cosecant is the reciprocal of, for the point, what trigonometric function, which, in a right triangle, equals the opposite side over the hypotenuse?

Sine (or Sin X)

(9) Ramsey's theorem explains that at a party with this many people, it is guaranteed that at least three of the guests either know or don't know each other. This number is the order of the smallest non-abelian group and appears in the denominator of the solution to the Basel problem. This is the smallest perfect number, and also the number of possible handshakes among 4 people. 3 factorial is equal to, for the point, what number that gives the number of sides in a hexagon?

Six

(13) William Jenney constructed some of these things using the "Chicago skeleton" method, employing curtain walls over a steel frame. Early examples of these places include one named for Equitable Life in New York and Louis Sullivan's example named for Ellis Wainwright in St. Louis. The invention of the safety elevator enabled an 1890s boom in, for the point, what very tall office buildings?

Skyscrapers

(30) The Vaccinia virus is used to inoculate against this disease that was once harvested from the hands of milkmaids. British and American forces used this disease as a bioweapon via contaminated blankets, and the world's first vaccines were produced by Edward Jenner to prevent this disease. For the point, name this disease caused by Variola viruses, which was eradicated in the 1970s.

Smallpox (prompt on "Variola Major" or "Variola Minor" before mentioned) Extra Questions

(28) Highly inefficient algorithms for this task are given the prefix "bogo." One algorithm for this task that uses paired comparisons is named after garden gnomes. Exchange-based algorithms for this task have a (+) worst-case runtime of "Big O [[OH]] of n squared." Common algorithms for this task include ones named bubble, quick, and (*) merge. For the point, name this task of organizing an array or list into the desired order.

Sorting (or Sorting algorithm; accept Bogo, Gnome, Exchange, Bubble, Quick, or Merge Sort)

(2) William Derham accurately measured this quantity using the mostly displaced metric of Parisian feet. The choked velocity in a nozzle is usually less than this quantity, which is at its lowest within an ocean layer known as the SOFAR channel. Shockwaves may form when this quantity is surpassed, and, at 68 degrees Fahrenheit, the measure of this quantity is 343 meters per second. Supersonic travel is accomplished by exceeding, for the point, what quantity sometimes known as Mach 1?

Speed of Sound (accept Mach 1 before mentioned)

(27) This quantity reaches its highest values in solids, due to the formation of a shear wave. Prandtl-Glauert [[PRAHN-tuhl GLAO-ert]] singularities were previously believed to form when this quantity was exceeded. At normal temperatures, this quantity is approximately 343 meters per second in air. The ratio of an object's velocity to this quantity is known as the Mach number. For the point, a "sonic boom" may be caused when exceeding what quantity?

Speed of sound (accept Mach 1 before mentioned; prompt on "sound barrier")

(33) In the normal type of these structures, a-site cations fill one-eighth of the tetrahedral sites while the B-site cations fill one-half of the octahedral sites. A unit cell of these structures is made up of eight face-center cubic cells. Divalent cations, trivalent cations, (+) and elements such as oxygen, sulfur, selenium, or fluorine make up the stoichiometry of these structures, and these structures follow the chemical arrangement of (*) AB2O4. For the point, name these close-packed structures that are often cubic crystal systems and shares their name with a gemstone with formula MgAl2O4.

Spinel

(15) Aside from the number of calories, a 2018 study found no difference in the effect of this general category of products versus the DripDrop ORS used during cholera outbreaks. Dr. Robert Cade invented a popular example of these products for the University of Florida's football players, and many claim the high level of sugar in these products offsets the electrolytes they replace. For the point, name this type of beverage, like Powerade and Gatorade, meant to rehydrate athletes.

Sports drinks (accept Electrolyte drink before "electrolytes" is mentioned; prompt on "Powerade," "Gatorade," or other similar drinks)

(13) This structure contains a nutritive tissue layer called the tapetum, and the process of dehiscence releases microgametophytes from this structure, which contains all the microsporangia (+) found within angiosperms. The androecium is a collection of these structures, which each consist of a filament and an anther. The pistil (*) is contrasted with, for the points, what pollen-producing structure, the male reproductive organ of the flower?

Stamens (or Stamina; accept Androecium before mentioned; accept Anthers before mentioned; prompt on "Flower")

(8) A relation named for a letter describing this quantity and sigma describes black holes. Luminosity is proportional to this quantity to the 3.5 power for main-sequence stars. Low values of this quantity for a star never enter the asymptotic giant branch of stellar evolution. Units for this quantity are often expressed in terms of the Sun. For the point, name this quantity of how much matter a star contains.

Stellar mass (prompt on "M" or "M-sigma relation")

(5) These bodies can be found in the inner cell mass, and they divide in gastrulation to form germ layers. The depletion of the functional mesenchymal [[meh-zen-KYE-muhl]] type of these bodies in bone correlates to the increase in adiposity. The hematopoietic type of these bodies, from which blood cells ultimately derive, is found in bone marrow and can be transplanted to treat leukemia. Sometimes sourced from embryos, these are, for the point, what undifferentiated cells which can multiply indefinitely and generate various other types of cells?

Stem Cells (accept Mesenchymal Stem Cells; accept Hematopoietic Stem Cells; accept Embryonic Stem Cells or other specific types)

(23) For heat and moisture-sensitive materials, ethylene oxide gas can be used to perform this task by inhibiting metabolism. An autoclave uses "wet-heat" to leverage hydrolysis [["high"-DRAH-lih-siss]] (+) to perform this task on glassware, rendering it aseptic. 70 percent is the most effective concentration of isopropyl [["eye"-soh-PROH-pil]] (*) alcohol for performing this task. For the point, identify this task of killing microorganisms on lab equipment and other surfaces.

Sterilization (accept word forms and answers such as "making sterile; accept answers indicating "killing microorganism" before mentioned; prompt on answers such as "cleaning")

(15) Male populations of these carnivorous organisms create elaborate nests glued together by the protein spiggin. Changes in the regulatory switch regions of the PITX1 [[pit-ex-one]] gene can lead to morphological differences in this organism such as a loss of the pelvic spine. (+) A landmark study in the ethology of this fish was documented by Niko Tinbergen in The Study of Instinct, (*) in which this organism was observed engaging in mating rituals and demonstrating fixed action patterns. For the point, name this three-spined family of fish commonly studied in evolutionary biology.

Stickleback Fish

(1) It's not the pancreas, but this organ's secretion of fluids can be regulated by secretin. (+) Intrinsic factor is produced by parietal cells in this organ, which also produces hydrochloric acid. Peristalsis moves matter through this organ after it is received by the (*) esophagus. For the points, name this digestive organ in which food is broken down by acid and enzymes following chewing.

Stomach

(9) The export of protons leads cells surrounding these structures to uptake potassium ions. Root-produced abscisic acid causes the closure of these structures, which are inactive during the day in CAM plants. These structures are surrounded by two guard cells and are located mainly on the bottom of leaves to take in carbon dioxide. For the point, name these pores that regulate gas exchange in plants.

Stomata (accept Stomates; accept Guard Cells before mentioned)

(26) Temperature increases with elevation in this layer of the atmosphere until its upper boundary, where the ozone layer can be found. In this layer of the atmosphere, certain cirrus clouds can occur above the tropopause. For the point, name this atmospheric layer where U2 spy planes have operated for decades and from which the extreme sport athlete Felix Baumgartner jumped and survived.

Stratosphere

(2) In a theory concerning this force, David Gross and Frank Wilczek discovered asymptotic freedom, which, in one context, can be explained by pion exchanges. Referred to as residual in one capacity, this force explains why free particles are required to have a color charge value of zero. Gluons experience this force, which is responsible for the confinement of quarks and is the subject of quantum chromodynamics, or QCD. For the point, name this force which binds together the atomic nucleus, contrasted with a weak counterpart.

Strong Force (accept Strong Interaction; accept Strong Nuclear Force)

(9) Chiral [[KY-rull]] symmetry breaking and asymptotic [[AY-simp-TAH-tik]] freedom are among the properties of the quantum chromodynamics theory of this force, which confines smaller particles into (+) hadrons. This force, whose magnitude increases with distance, is mediated by gluons. Binding together neutrons and (*) protons in the nucleus, for the point, what is this fundamental force which is much more powerful than the weak force?

Strong Nuclear Force (or Strong Interaction; or Color Force; prompt on "quantum chromodynamics" before mentioned)

(11) This person ended his Nobel Prize lecture by stating "Beauty is the splendor of truth." An observatory named for this scientist includes the ACIS, or Advanced CCD Imaging (+) Spectrometer, and is NASA's flagship X-ray telescope. A value named for this man is about 1.4 solar masses and is the maximum mass that a stable white (*) dwarf can have. For the points, name this Indian-American astrophysicist who spent most of his professional career as a professor at the University of Chicago.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (accept Chandrasekhar limit; prompt on "Chandra" or "Chandra X-ray Observatory")

(21) A sensitive magnetometer [[mag-neh-TAH-mee-ter]] called a SQUID [["SQUID"]] consists of two of these materials separated by a thin layer. A loop example of these materials is called a Josephson junction. Through the Meissner (+) effect, these materials expel magnetic field lines. The BCS theory of these materials posits that phonons mediate the binding of electrons into Cooper (*) pairs. For the point, name these materials which have no electrical resistance.

Superconductor (accept Superconductivity; prompt on "conductor")

(13) In one type of these events, a "rebound" and "bounce" can lead to "core collapse." A flood of neutrinos may be the result of one of these events. When a white dwarf exceeds 1.4 solar masses, or the Chandrasekhar [[chahn-drah-SEH-kar]] limit, one type of these events used as a standard candle called "one a" will occur. One of these events seen in 1054 created the Crab Nebula. For the point, name these events in which a star explodes.

Supernovae (or Supernovas in place of Supernovae; accept Type II supernovae; accept Type IA supernovae; prompt on "SN or "SNe")

(7) This scientist's namesake law states that an increase in acid leads to an increase in air temperature and concerns the greenhouse effect. The Eyring [[EYE-ring]] equation modifies this scientist's namesake equation, which contains the pre-exponential factor symbolized "A." This man defined acids as species that form hydronium in solution. For the point, name this Swedish chemist whose namesake equation relates activation energy to reaction rate.

Svante Arrhenius [[ah-RAY-nyuss]] (accept Arrhenius's law; accept Arrhenius's equation)

(2) IgG depositions are found at one junction in this disease's namesake band test, which is used in its diagnosis. Hydralazine and/or procainamide use are the most common causes of the drug-induced form of this disease, which can be treated by belimumab. This disease is nearly ten times more common in women of childbearing age than in men, and a butterflyshaped mark is the most common and identifiable symptom of this rheumatic disease. For the point, name this disease characterized by a red rash that was thought to resemble a wolf's bite.

Systemic Lupus erythematosus (accept SLE; accept Drug-induced Lupus Erythematosus; accept DIL; accept DILE)

(23) Hemoglobin exists as both an R, or relaxed, form and another form denoted by this letter. The MHC complex binds receptors on cells named for this letter, which mature in the thymus and come in types such as "cytotoxic" or "helper." In RNA, uracil replaces a nucleotide symbolized by this letter, which forms base pairs with adenine in DNA. For the point, name this letter which represents the nucleobase thymine.

T (accept T cells, accept taut or tense before "letter")

(18) The Cassegrain design can be employed when making one type of these objects, examples of which include IRAS and ISO. Cryogenic assembly is a characteristic of many of these objects for which a dedicated multiband photometer is used in one of these objects named for Lyman Spitzer, while the Chandra variety of these objects focuses on X-Rays. A nearly eight-foot mirror can be found on one of these objects named for Edwin Hubble. For the point, what are these objects used to observe distant stars?

Telescopes (accept Space Telescopes; accept Hubble Space Telescope)

(30) Pinnules [[PIN-yoolz]] are found on these structures in beard worms, and the nose of the star-nosed mole is surrounded by 22 of these structures. Anthozoans [[AN-thuh-ZOHinz]] have cnidocytes [[NY-doh-"sites"]] on these structures, and some ctenophores [[TEHnuh-FORZ]] have retractable these structures that feature sticky colloblasts. A squid has eight arms and two of these structures, which are used for seizing prey. For the point, name these appendages that are covered with stinging cells in jellyfish.

Tentacles (prompt on "Limb" or "Leg" or "Ray"; prompt on "Arm" before "arms" is mentioned; prompt on "Appendage" before "appendages" is mentioned)

(22) This element can be n-doped with phosphorus and p-doped with boron. This element's crystalline form is the primary component of photovoltaic cells. Integrated circuits frequently utilize a thinly sliced "wafer" of this element. This element is the most common material used in modern semiconductors. For the point, name this element with atomic number 15, which sits directly below carbon on the periodic table.

Silicon (or Si)

(23) The BdGPL-2 fungus causes chytridiomycosis [[kye-trih-dee-oh-my-KOH-sis]] infections and mass die-offs of members of this class. Legless members of this class are called caecilians [[kah-SEE-lee-uns]]. Like reptiles, members of this class possess a three-chambered heart. Most members of this class undergo a metamorphosis from having gills to air-breathing lungs. For the point, name this class of vertebrates that includes salamanders and frogs, whose members live on both land and water.

Amphibians (or Amphibia; accept Caecilians before "class")

(6) This mountain range is home to the only extant short faced bear, the spectacled bear. This range's northern end is home to the Mountain Tapir, and this mountain range is the natural habitat of chinchillas and guinea pigs. Wild camelids found in this mountain range include the vicuña [[vih-KOO-nyah]] and guanaco [[gwah-NAH-koh]]. For the point, name this South American mountain range home to alpacas and llamas.

Andes Mountains (or Cordillera de los Andes; accept Andean Mountains; prompt on "Altiplano")

(3) Lewis Binford promulgated the "new" form of this field in a book that said this field is "anthropology or it is nothing." The study of seemingly unimportant features in this field was popularized by In Small Things Forgotten by James Deetz. Popular methodologies of this field include remote sensing and analysis of physical culture. For the point, name this social science field that involves excavating old human settlements.

Archaeology (accept word forms)

(6) Faraday's constant equals the charge of an electron times this quantity, which is also multiplied by Boltzmann's constant to give the ideal gas (+) constant. This constant equals the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12, which is approximately 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd (*) power. For the point, name this constant that defines the number of particles in a mole, named for an Italian scientist.

Avogadro's number (or Avogadro's constant)

(28) The cold molding method of making these objects involves binding thin pieces of wood together with epoxy to produce rigidity. The transom supports of these devices connect to the sterndrive. These devices are divided into inboard and outboard motor varieties based on the placement of their propeller. These devices can be steered by redirecting fluid with a rudder. For the point, name these vehicles, examples of which include canoes.

Boat (or Ship; accept Motor Boat before "canoe" is mentioned)

(8) This disease's primary subtypes are the ductal and lobular varieties. This disease's likelihood is increased by the presence of mutations to the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. Surgical treatments for this disease include a lumpectomy or a mastectomy. Awareness groups for this disease use pink ribbon logos. For the point, name this cancer, found most commonly in women, which can be detected with a mammogram.

Breast Cancer (accept Ductal carcinoma; accept Lobular carcinoma; prompt on "cancer")

(18) This scientist inverted his bene factor's temperature scale to create the modern Celsius system. This scientist's major work popularized a scientific racist theory of classifying humans into four groups based on skin tone and alleged personality. This scientist's Systema Naturae is credited with standardizing binomial nomenclature and modern taxonomy. For the point, name this taxonomist who invented the modern Latin naming convention for organisms.

Carl Linnaeus (or Carl von Linné; or Carolus Linnæus; prompt on "Linnaean taxonomy" or "Linnaean system")

(23) The most dangerous part of this disease originally came from CTX-phi [[C-T-X-fai]] bacteriophages [[bak-TEE-ree-oh-fay-jes]]. This disease, which is caused by a namesake bacteria-derived toxin, is sometimes called The Blue Death. The main treatment for this disease involves lightly sweetened water-based liquids or oral rehydration therapy. For the point, name this bacterial disease spread by contaminated drinking water, which causes diarrhea so severe it can cause fatal dehydration.

Cholera (accept Cholera toxin or Choleragen; accept Blue Death before mentioned)

(7) The equivalence ratio describes the ideal mix of reactants for performing this reaction. The temperature at which a volatile compound undergoes this reaction most readily is called the flashpoint. Smoldering is an extended, slow rate form of this reaction. The incomplete form of this reaction produces carbon monoxide and solid carbon instead of the typical CO2 and water. For the point, name this form of rapid exothermic redox reactions in which fuel is burned.

Combustion (accept Incomplete combustion; accept Burning before mentioned; accept answers indicating Flames or Fire before "flash point," and prompt afterward; prompt on "oxidation," "reduction," or "redox" reactions)

(2) Normality is defined as this quantity divided by the equivalence factor. Colligative [[koh-LIH-gah-tiv]] properties only depend on this quantity and not on the properties of the chemicals involved. This quantity for H+ [[H-PLUS]] ions determines Ph [[P-H]]. In diffusion, particles move from areas with high values for this quantity to areas with low values of it. For the point, name this quantity that can be measured in moles per liter, the abundance of a constituent divided by its total volume.

Concentration (accept Molar Concentration)

(12) This material releases heat as it cures, requiring coolants such as water or liquid nitrogen to be pumped through it as it sets. This material's reinforced type is augmented with steel rebar. This material is composed of rough aggregate held together with a binding agent. For the point, name this material made of stone set in cement that is used to make structures such as buildings and dams.

Concrete (accept Reinforced concrete; prompt on "cement" until mentioned)

(17) The most common type of this ecosystem is the "fringing" variety, which grows in shallow waters just below the surface. These ecosystems can create atolls when the island around which they grow erodes below sea level. These ecosystems are formed from colonies of polyps held together by calcium carbonate. For the point, name this ecosystem, the largest of which is the Great Barrier in Australia.

Coral Reef (accept Fringing reef or Fringing coral reef; prompt on "Reef" or "Great Barrier Reef")

(1) This process names a syndrome associated with neural crest cell function and traits such as spots and floppy ears. A team led by Dmitry Belyayev [[bel-YAH-yef]] has performed studies of this process using silver foxes. Unlike taming, this process is inheritable. For the point, name this process by which humans intentionally alter animals to be useful, which resulted in modern dogs arising from a wolf-like ancestor.

Domestication (accept answers referring to domestic animals; do not accept or prompt on "taming" or similar answers)

(26) The Faber-Jackson and Tully-Fisher equations relate the stellar velocity dispersion of these entities to their luminosity, and Hubble's tuning fork diagram is used to classify these entities. In approximately four billion years, two of these will collide, creating an entity named "Milkomeda" [["milk"-AH-meh-dah]]. Coming in irregular, spiral, and elliptical varieties, for the point, what are these large collections of dust, dark matter, and stars, of which Andromeda is one?

Galaxy (accept Galaxies; accept Milkomeda galaxy or Milkdromeda galaxy; accept Andromeda galaxy; accept Irregular, Spiral, or Elliptical galaxy)

(4) Joseph Lister made some of the first practical applications of this theory with his antiseptics. Despite being demonstrated by Muslim doctors like Avicenna [[ah-vee-SEH-nah]], this theory was originally discounted in favor of Galen's [[GAY-lens]] miasma [[mee-AZ-muh]] theory in pre-modern Europe. Louis Pasteur is the father of, for the point, what currently accepted theory of infectious transmission, which holds that diseases are spread by pathogens?

Germ Theory of Disease

(2) One of these structures named Strokkur [[STROH-koor]] was first made by an Icelandic earthquake in the late 1700s. These structures name a type of siliceous [[sih-LIH-syuss]] sinter which commonly makes up their "cone" variety. These structures are distinguished from perpetual spouters by their discharge-recharge cycle. For the point, name this kind of erupting hot spring, which include Old Faithful in Yellowstone.

Geyser (accept Cone geyser; prompt on "hot springs")

(1) A grip-assisting extension of this animal's sesamoid [[SEH-sah-moyd]] bone was used as an example of a spandrel in a Stephen Jay Gould essay titled for this animal's "thumb." Due to their lack of interest in mating in captivity, a method of artificial insemination using liquid nitrogen was developed. For the point, name these black and white bamboo-eating bears from China.

Giant Pandas (or Ailuropoda melanoleuca; accept Panda bears)

(17) The presence of a three-body scatter spike on a radar map is indicative of the presence of these objects. These objects maintain a liquid core due to releasing latent heat during formation. These objects begin to form when supercooled water comes into contact with dust nucleation sites. These objects form after repeated passing through updrafts in cumulonimbus clouds during severe storms. For the point, name these icy objects that fall as precipitation.

Hail stones

(26) Thermal effects can induce super-paramagnetic limits in these devices. Modern computers typically replace these devices with solid-state technology. Individual blocks of data in these devices can be retrieved in any order, allowing for random-access memory. For the point, name this component of a computer used for long-term storage, whose capacity can be measured in terabytes or megabytes.

Hard Drive (or Hard Disk Drive; or HDD; or Fixed Disk; prompt on "storage" or "disk"; do not accept or prompt on "memory")

(5) An organism's field metabolic rate is commonly measured by treatment with this molecule, a type of DLW. The CANDU reactor uses this molecule as a neutron moderator to avoid the need for enriched uranium. This common NMR solvent has a mass of 20 daltons because of its two extra neutrons. For the point, name this molecule that contains two deuterium atoms bonded to an oxygen atom and has a larger mass than a similar universal solvent.

Heavy Water (or Deuterium Oxide; or D2O or 2H2O; prompt on "Deuterium"; do not accept or prompt on "water" or "H2O")

(30) Mike Alder created a philosophical razor named for this man's "flaming laser sword." In one thought experiment, this scientist imagined a cannon tall enough to fire a cannonball into orbit. This scientist names the standard SI unit of force, and, coinciding with Leibniz [[LIBE-nitz]], this author of Principia Mathematica independently developed calculus. For the point, name this English physicist who described the three laws of motion and a namesake law of universal gravitation.

Isaac Newton (or Sir Isaac Newton; accept Newton's flaming laser sword; accept Newton's laws of motion)

(9) This scientist used the Platonic solids to defend Copernicus in his Mysterium Cosmographicum [[kahs-moh-GRAH-fee-kum]]. This scientist names a law that states equal area is "swept out" in equal time by an orbiting body. This assistant to Tycho Brahe [["TIE"-koh BRAH-heh]] was the first to demonstrate that a planet's orbit is an ellipse with two foci [[FOH-kai]]. For the point, name this German astronomer who names three laws of planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler (accept Kepler's laws of planetary motion; accept Kepler's Second law of planetary motion)

(13) The citrate of this element can be used to prevent kidney stones and is used as a laxative to prepare for colonoscopies. Calcined dolomite can be used to purify this element. This element's sulfate is often used for anti-inflammatory soaks and is called epsom salt. In a flame test, this element emits bright white light. For the point, name this alkali earth metal with number 12.

Magnesium (accept Mg; accept Magnesium citrate)

(22) The "shocked" variety of this mineral is used as evidence for major meteor impacts, such as the crater at Chicxulub [["CHICK"-soo-loob]]. This mineral is a seven on the Mohs hardness scale and notably exhibits piezo [[pee-YEH-zoh]]-electricity. This mineral, which is commonly found in sands, has an electric current passed through it to keep time in many watches. For the point, name this mineral whose chemical name is silicon dioxide.

Quartz (accept Shocked quartz; accept Silicon Dioxide before mentioned; prompt on "silica")

(10) The discovery that these objects were once much more plentiful in the early universe helped refute the steady-state thesis. Gravitational lensing can cause multiples of these objects to appear, as in an Einstein cross. These objects form where a supermassive black hole rapidly accretes new matter, emitting energetic jets and winds. For the point, name these highly luminous active galactic nuclei.

Quasars (accept Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources; accept Quasi-Stellar Objects or QSOs; prompt on "Active Galactic Nuclei" or "AGN" before read)

(26) While in Sweden, this man published his work Passions of the Soul, and this man passed away after only giving Queen Cristina a few private lessons. This so-called "father of analytical geometry" lends his name to the "coordinate system," and this man's Meditations on First Philosophy contains the saying "cogito ergo sum" [[KOH-gee-toh EHR-goh SOOM]], or "I think, therefore I am." For the point, name this French mathematician and philosopher.

René Descartes [[day-KAHRT]] (or Renatus Cartesius; prompt on "Cartesian coordinates")

(27) Biospheres located along these systems are classified as crenon, rhithron, and potamon [[poh-TAH-mun]]. Studies of these systems introduced Strahler [[STRAY-ler]] numbers for describing branch order. Riparian [["rye"-"PAIR"-ee-an]] zones form buffer areas around these systems. Cutting off sections of these bodies of water forms oxbow lakes. For the point, name these bodies of water that flow into the sea at deltas.

Rivers (accept more narrow synonyms such as Stream, Brook, Creek, or Rivulet)

(29) This planet's irregular moons are divided into Inuit [[IN-yoo-it]], Norse, and Gallic groups. This planet is orbited by a moon with a possible ring system, Rhea [[REH-ah]]. This planet is orbited by a moon with icy geyser structures, which were sampled by the Cassini Orbiter. Another moon orbiting this planet is the only known moon to possess its own atmosphere. For the point, name this sixth planet from the sun, which is orbited by a brilliant ring system.

Saturn

(17) This technology was first used commercially by Thomas Savery, who used it to remove water from mines. Thomas Newcomen created a version of this technology capable of giving continuous power through the use of pistons. This technology was proliferated by James Watt and is frequently held to have kicked off the industrial revolution by powering factories and trains. For the point, name this technology, a type of engine powered by boiling water.

Steam Engine (accept Steam pump; accept Steam power; prompt on "engine")

(9) A class of painkillers named for the fact that they do not act on these hormones includes aspirin and ibuprofen. Examples of these hormones include the androgen and estrogen sex hormones. Cholesterol is in a class of precursors for these hormones, which include stress hormones like cortisol. For the point, name these hormones, whose anabolic variety are illegally used to grow muscle mass.

Steroids (accept Anabolic steroids; prompt on "Corticoids")

(1) This disease can be prevented with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin [[bah-SIH-lus kal-MET-gweh-RAHN]] vaccine. Pott disease is a variety of this condition that infects the spine. This disease can be treated with the four-drug RIPE [["RIPE"]] regimen. The formation of a bump under the skin in the Mantoux [[man-TOO]] test is a positive sign for this disease which presents as nodules that can be viewed with a chest x-ray. For the point, name this respiratory disease caused by mycobacterium, which was historically called consumption.

Tuberculosis (or TB; accept Consumption before mentioned)

(11) The enzyme gamma-glutamyl carboxylase [[kar-BAHK-sih-"lace"]] uses this nutrient as a cofactor for the production of GLA proteins. The most common types of this nutrient are phylloquinone [[fih-loh-KWY-nohn]] and menaquinone [[meh-nah-KWY-nohn]]. This vitamin, which is synthesized by gut bacteria, is often given as a shot to newborn babies to prevent hemorrhaging. For the point, name this vitamin found in dark, leafy plants, which is necessary for blood clotting.

Vitamin K

(5) This protein is transported to the nucleus by importin-9, and this protein is anchored by vinculin to the cell membrane. This protein comes in globular (+) and filamentous types, and this protein, under the sliding filament theory, makes up thin filaments along with tropomyosin and troponin. In cell adhesion, (*) cadherins link to, for the points, what protein which is the primary component of microfilaments and is paired with myosin to facilitate muscle contraction?

Actin (accept G-Actin; or F-Actin)

(6) The preliminary stages of using this device see the administration of either a CQT or a GKT. "General state" and "specific point" are two countermeasures of this device, the latter of which may include physical measures such as pinching one's own skin or biting one's own tongue. A person's skin conductance response, respiration, and heart rate are measured in, for the point, what device, typically used by law enforcement to assess a person's veracity based on their answers to a series of questions?

Polygraph Test (or Lie Detector Test)

(22) When oxygen is present in its substrate, this protein produces phosphoglycolate [[foss-foh-gly-KOH-"late"]] and 3-phosphoglycerate [["three" foss-foh-GLIH-seh-"rate"]]. In C4 plants, this protein has reduced specificity and is located in the bundle (+) sheath cells. This protein is the most abundant enzyme on Earth and catalyzes the start of the Calvin (*) cycle. For the point, name this major enzyme important for the carboxylation of RuBP in photosynthesis.

RuBisCO [[roo-BIH-skoh]] (or RuBPCase; or RuBPco; accept Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase)

(15) Aprotic examples of these substances include tetrahydrofuran and DMSO. Partition coefficients describe compounds where two of these substances are present, and their polarity is given by their dielectric constants. The main ingredient in nail polish, acetone, is often used in organic chemistry as one of these substances. Immiscible examples of these substances do not mix with each other. For the point, name these substances that dissolve solutes to form solutions.

Solvents

(1) By stopping the release of this mineral from voltage-gated channels, Benzothiazepines [[ben-zoh-THAI-uh-zuh-peens]] can be used to treat high blood pressure. The release of this mineral's 2+ [[TWO-PLUS]] ion is an important trigger for muscle contraction. The amount of this mineral in the blood is regulated by the action of osteoclasts. Diets poor in vitamin D can prevent the absorption of this mineral, leading to rickets. For the point, name this elemental mineral found in milk, which is used to build teeth and bones.

Calcium (or Ca [[SEE-AY]])

(22) Any function that is differentiable over these numbers at every point along its domain is called holomorphic. Raising these numbers to an exponent "n" using de Moivre's formula can generate roots of unity. These numbers are added together like vectors on an Argand diagram, and the quaternion system generalizes these numbers, which give a real product when multiplied by their namesake conjugate. A quadratic equation with a negative discriminant has two roots with, for the point, what property of numbers that have a real and an imaginary part?

Complex Numbers (prompt on "Imaginary" before mentioned)

(10) The liquid form of this element is used in experiments such as DarkSide and other dark matter detection surveys. An isotope of potassium decays to this element in a radiometric dating technique named for the two elements. This noble gas is the third-most abundant element in Earth's atmosphere after nitrogen and oxygen. For the point, identify this noble gas named for the Greek for "lazy" whose atomic number is 18.

Argon (or Ar; accept K-Ar dating)

(5) In computer languages, this property determines how operators with equal precedence are grouped. When a function has this property, the placement of parentheses (+) does not impact output. Like commutativity, this property is lacking for (*) subtraction and division. For the point, name this property of addition and multiplication, in which the grouping of operations does not change the outcome.

Associative Property (or Associativity)

(21) Plumes of this region are believed to cause volcanic hot spots. The highly ductile upper portion of this region is known as the asthenosphere, and conductions in the semiliquid portions of this region cause the movement of tectonic plates. For the point, name this region of the Earth located between the inner core and the crust.

Mantle

(6) This person recorded their best known achievement in the journal 20 Hrs., 40 Min.. This person is the namesake of the scholarship fund awarded by a women's organization known as the Ninety-Nines. This person was last seen traveling from New Guinea with navigator Fred Noonan. For the point, name this female aviator who disappeared in 1937.

Amelia Mary Earhart

(27) The mineral form of this element's sulfide is the ore Galena [[gah-LEE-nah]]. This element's tetra-ethyl compound was formerly widely used as a gasoline anti-knock additive. This element is used in radiometric dating because both thorium and uranium ultimately decay into it. This element is used in radiation shields for X-rays due to its high density. For the point, name this toxic heavy metal whose atomic symbol is Pb.

Lead (accept Pb before mentioned)

(3) This material is the primary component of the Lunar Maria on the surface of the moon. This material formed hexagonal columns in North Ireland, creating the Giant's Causeway. Massive deposits of this material are called "floods" and are created by large volcanic eruptions. Oceanic crust is primarily made out of this rock. For the point, name this fine-grained extrusive igneous rock, formed from the rapid cooling of lava.

basalt

(20) Because of the existence of virtual particles, these objects can "evaporate." Reinhard Genzel, Andrea Ghez, and Roger Penrose won the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for a discovery regarding a supermassive one of these objects called Sagittarius A-star. For nonrotating examples of these objects, the Schwarzschild radius defines the event horizon. For the point, name these objects from which not even light can escape.

black holes (do not accept or prompt on "singularity")

(15) A hydrogen-based type of this phenomenon is used in a common "ionization detector" for gas chromatography. The simplest type of emission spectroscopy observes the color given off by samples exposed to this phenomenon, which produces yellow for sodium and bright white for magnesium. This phenomenon is produced in laboratory settings using a Bunsen burner. For the point, name this phenomenon given off by combustion reactions.

flames (or fire; accept flame test; accept flame ionization detector; prompt on "heat")

(17) During this process, Aurora B kinase localizes to a namesake "spindle." In monocentric organisms undergoing this process, the kinetochore is localized. In one step of this process, chromosomes line up on a "plate." This part of the cell cycle occurs after the G2 phase and ends at cytokinesis, and steps in this process include metaphase and anaphase. For the point, name this process by which cells divide, contrasted with meiosis.

mitosis (accept anaphase; accept metaphase)

(15) The Cassini-Huygens [[HOY-genz]] space-research mission discovered many of its physical features, including the String of Pearls and Great White Spot. The second-largest moon of this planet is called Rhea, and other moons of this planet include Enceladus. Titan is the largest moon of, for the point, what sixth planet from the Sun, located between Jupiter and Uranus?

Saturn

(16) Setting a "characteristic" one of these objects to zero allows Eigenvalues for a matrix to be found. These objects of degree five or higher cannot be solved algebraically. These objects can be factored using difference of cubes or difference of squares, and can be multiplied out using FOIL. For the point, name these objects with integer powers of variables, such as cubics and quadratics.

polynomials

(11) This scientist proposed the parton model of hadrons and the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics. (+) Constructs named for this scientist can be used to visualize scattering processes. This scientist's Lectures on Physics is one of the most popular (*) science books ever written. For the points, name this Caltech physicist whose namesake "diagrams" represent the motion of particles.

ANSWER: Richard Feynman (accept Feynman Diagrams)

(13) The outer portion of this region is determined by the Kármán line. This region is comprised of several layers, including one which absorbs much of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide are the four predominant gases that make up, for the point, what collective term for the layers of gases surrounding a planet?

(Earth's) Atmosphere (prompt on "thermosphere" or "exosphere" before "several layers"; prompt on "air")

(28) In 2019, this company partnered with Worldpay to expand access to their own namesake payment services. This company's cloud computing web services are used by the NFL to create Next Gen Stats. This company's subsidiaries include Twitch, Goodreads, and Audible, and this company's streaming service and complimentary two-day delivery is included in its Prime service. For the point, name this online shopping company, which was formerly headed by Jeff Bezos.

Amazon.com, Inc.

(9) David Geffen was forced to open an access point to a Malibu beach named for this element, also nicknamed "Billionaire's Beach." A salt (+) lake with this element's name in Patagonia contains the lowest point in the Western Hemisphere. Besides the elements that are gases at room temperature, this element is the (*) universe's most abundant. For the points, name this element whose allotropes include graphite and diamond.

Carbon (or C; accept Element 6; accept Carbon Beach)

(17) This mathematician found six proofs of quadratic reciprocity. Complex numbers that have both an integer real and imaginary part are known as this man's (+) "integers." This mathematician names a probability distribution that resembles a "bell curve." According to legend, this man stunned his teacher by calculating the sum of the first 100 positive (*) integers rapidly. For the points, give this mathematician, the namesake of the normal distribution.

Carl Friedrich Gauss (accept Gaussian integers; accept Gaussian Distribution; or Laplace-Gauss Distribution)

(15) Cultural isolation can lead to this phenomenon, which explains why Ellis van Creveld syndrome is common amongst the Amish community in the United States. Ernst Mayr formulated this phenomenon, which is a type of (+) genetic drift, as opposed to the bottleneck effect. The lack of genetic variation within a (*) population can be caused by, for the points, what genetic effect that results when small group of organisms start a new population after diverting from a larger population?

Founder Effect (prompt on "Genetic Drift" before mentioned)

(16) The Trofile assay identifies the cell types infected by this virus, which expresses the glycoprotein gp120 on its envelope. A deletion of 32 base pairs on chromosome 3 confers resistance to this virus by stopping the expression of CCR5 receptors on white blood cells. Patients infected with this virus often develop Kaposi's sarcoma, and the drug AZT inhibits the activity of reverse transcriptase in this virus, which attacks CD4 helper T-cells to weaken the immune system. For the point, name this virus that causes AIDS.

HIV (or Human Immunodeficiency Virus; do not accept or prompt on "AIDS")

(1) This force can be found by taking the product of its direction with the dot product of the unit vector and the Cauchy [[CO-chee]] stress tensor. For a ramp with an angle of inclination theta, the magnitude of this force is equal to mg cosine theta. This force prevents a book perched on a table from sinking through it. For the point, name this force produced by a contact surface perpendicular to itself.

Normal Force

(30) This element forms a structural motif in DNA domains known as its namesake "finger." This element is commonly used to galvanize iron and steel against corrosion in heavy industry. This element's alloy with copper is brass, and it is the main component of pennies. Ointments and sunscreen commonly use an oxide of, for the point, what metal with symbol Zn?

Zinc (accept Zn before mentioned; accept Zinc Finger)

(19) Animals possess a reflective layer called the tapetum lucidum, which is in the organ that allows them to have this ability. Although humans cannot perform this ability, they are able experience it with a virtual reality device called the Tarsier Eclipse. An increased amount of high-density rod cells in the eyes allow animals to perform, for the point, what ability possessed by most nocturnal animals, such as owls, that allows them to see in the dark?

Night Vision (accept the description see in the dark or equivalents before mentioned)

(8) Features of this constellation include the Becklin-Neugebaeuer [[NOY-geh-bowehr]] Object and the Barnard's Loop, which is an emission nebula located in the constellation's molecular cloud complex. The horsehead nebula is in this constellation's most defining feature, and the brightest stars in this constellation include Rigel and Betelgeuse. The stars Alnitak, Alnitam, and Mintaka make up the "belt" of, for the point, what constellation that is named for a hunter in Greek mythology?

Orion

(30) Because this substance stores as much as ten times more carbon dioxide than other ecosystems, scientists consider it the most efficient natural carbon sink on earth. The (+) Tollund Man was preserved in an ecosystem containing this substance, which makes up fens. Sphagnum moss makes up most of this substance, which is made of decayed (*) plant matter. For the points, name this substance that can accumulate in bogs.

Peat (accept Peat moss; accept Turf)

(6) The V variant of this substance can be taken orally, while its G variant can only be administered intravenously. This substance was discovered as a result of a crude extract of P rubens, which was shown to kill a sample of staphylococcus aureus. For the point, name this first commercial antibiotic, derived from a type of mold and accidentally discovered by Alexander Fleming.

Penicillin (accept Penicillin VK; accept Phenoxymethylpenicillin; accept Penicillin G; accept Benzylpenicillin; prompt on "Benpen"; prompt on "PcV")

(3) The developer of this concept referred to its particles as "corpuscles." Arthur Haas utilized a derivative of this concept with a single electron to determine the value of Planck's constant. This concept was superseded by Ernest Rutherford's model after students Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden proved the existence of the nucleus using gold foil. Developed by J. J. Thomson, this is, for the point, what early atomic model exhibiting negatively charged electrons surrounded by a positively charged volume, named for a dessert?

Plum Pudding Model

(3) In 1961, Bernice Eddy discovered that millions of people were exposed to SV40 [[S-V-"forty"]] through contaminated vaccines for this disease. During the Cutter incident, thousands of Americans were given (+) faulty live-virus vaccines for this disease. This disease's first vaccine was invented by Jonas (*) Salk in the 1950s. For the point, name this disease that attacks the nervous system and which can cause paralysis.

Polio (or Poliomyelitis)

(2) These reactions are the subject of Marcus theory. This type of reaction occurs in galvanic cells, which are used to power batteries. The Nernst equation quantitatively expresses the outcome of this type of reaction. The mnemonic OILRIG is commonly used to remember the flow of electrons in this type of reaction. For the point, what type of reaction involves the loss and gain of electrons?

Redox reaction (or Reduction-oxidation reaction; prompt on descriptive answers)

(2) Carbonyl groups are removed in a type of this reaction named for Wolff and Kishner. Sodium borohydride and lithium aluminum hydride are readily used to carry out this type of reaction by converting nitriles into amines, and aldehydes into alcohols. Hydrogenation is a specific type of this reaction, which occurs at the cathode of a galvanic cell and decreases a metal's oxidation state. For the point, name this type of reaction in which a species gains electrons, which is contrasted with oxidation.

Reduction Reaction (accept Hydrogenation Reaction; prompt on "Redox" or "Oxidation-Reduction")

Practice Question A - The Hylonomous was the earliest known member of this class, which split off from birds around 65 million years ago. Members of this class of animal are cold-blooded and usually covered in scutes or scales. For the point, name this class of animals that includes turtles, lizards, and snakes.

Reptiles (or Reptilia)

(17) This island is home to the world's smallest known reptile, the nano-chameleon. This island's largest native predator is the fossa [[FOO-sah]]. This island was once home to the world's largest known bird, the elephant bird. This island's native primates include the silky sifaka and the aye aye. This island is also home to the majority of the world's baobab trees. For the point, name this African island nation.

Republic of Madagascar

(4) This structure is sometimes referred to as Palade granules, which are composed of RNA and ribonucleoprotein. Tetracycline blocks the aminoacyl-tRNA and (+) peptidyl-tRNA during a process that takes place in this structure. This structure is comprised of two subunits denoted as 30S in prokaryotes and 40S in eukaryotes. Translation (*) occurs in, for the points, what protein-synthesizing organelle that resides in the nucleus and nucleolus and gives a form of endoplasmic reticulum its "rough" appearance?

Ribosomes (accept Palade granules before mentioned)

(8) These structures are numbered based on the thoracic vertebra to which they attach. The lowermost of these structures are known as the floating type, and the false type of these structures are connected via cartilage to the sternum. For the point, identify this set of 12 paired bones that form a namesake cage in the chest.

Ribs (accept True Ribs; accept False Ribs; accept Floating Ribs)

(23) This scientist described cultural features that are passed down in a way analogous to genes with the coined term "meme." This scientist popularized the gene-centered view of (+) evolution in books such as River Out of Eden and The Selfish Gene. (*) For the point, name this British evolutionary biologist, known for his criticisms of religion in his book The God Delusion.

Richard Dawkins

(2) The "order" of these features can be determined using Horton or Strahler's method. Buffers around these objects are called riparian zones. The meandering type of these objects can be cut off to form oxbows. Deltas of sediment form at the "mouths" of these objects, and the term "tributary" is used for these things which flow into larger examples of these things. The Nile and Amazon exemplify, for the point, what moving bodies of water?

Rivers (accept Streams in place of Rivers; accept Strahler('s) stream order; accept Horton('s) stream order; accept Meandering rivers)

(29) Pyrrolysine is an alpha-amino acid involved in the synthesis of these compounds, and SH3 is a namesake domain of these compounds that can be replaced during their namesake turnover. Anfinsen's dogma hypothesizes how to determine the structure of the small, globular variety of these compounds in a physiological environment. Western blot can be used to analyze these compounds that turn into a three-dimensional structure through their namesake "folding" process. Containing a minimum of one polypeptide, these are, for the point, what compounds that include enzymes?

Proteins (accept Globular Proteins; accept Protein Folding; accept Protein Turnover)

(19) Description acceptable. Animals involved in this contest included Ham, Enos, and Laika, and one competitor in this contest launched the Vostok program. Major achievements during this contest included the flight of Yuri Gagarin, the landing of Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, and the creation of NASA. For the point, name this competition between two Cold War opponents to achieve superiority in exploring beyond Earth.

Space Race (accept answers describing the contest between the Soviet Union and the United States to achieve greater spaceflight capability)

(30) In 2020, scientists witnessed a star undergoing this phenomenon, in what some astronomers call a tidal disruption event. The difference in acceleration between the head and feet of a human (+) causes this effect, although it is theorized that humans may not experience this phenomenon in supermassive black holes since its tidal force is less than what is experienced on (*) Earth. For the points, name this phenomenon that is caused by vertical stretching and horizontal compression, also called the noodle effect?

Spaghettification (accept Noodle Effect before mentioned)

(4) This theory explains the Sagnac effect, which is used in ring laser gyroscopes. This theory explains the aberration of light, and the derivation of this theory depends on Minkowski spacetime or Lorentz transformations. Time dilation and length contraction are explained by this theory, from which the mass-energy equivalence can be derived. For the point, name this theory in physics by Albert Einstein which preceded a "General" formulation.

Special Theory of Relativity (prompt on partial answers; do not accept or prompt on "General Relativity")

(26) Kepler's conjecture concerns the packing of these figures in three-dimensional space, and the sum of angles of a triangle on this shape exceeds 180 degrees. The surface area of one of these objects is 4 pi r squared. For the point, name this 3D shape with a volume of four thirds pi r cubed, exemplified by structures such as marbles and globes.

Sphere (accept Spherical; accept Spherical Harmonics; accept Spherical Triangle)

(15) In his De Architectura, Vitruvius [[vih-TROO-vee-us]] said that these devices were invented by Anaximander [[ah-naks-ih-MAN-der]]. In their simplest form, these devices possess a vertical portion, the gnomon [[NOH-mon]], and a horizontal (+) portion, the style. Along with specialized candles and water drip clocks, these were among the earliest devices to (*) mark the time of day. For the point, name these devices that determine the time from the position of a shadow.

Sundial

(10) These phenomena, which can be visualized with a butterfly diagram, were less frequent during the Spörer and Maunder Minima. The position of these phenomena predicts the location of (+) coronal loops and solar flares. The frequency of these phenomena varies on an eleven-year cycle which corresponds to the reversal of a (*) magnetic field. For the point, name these darker regions found on the surface of the Sun.

Sunspots

(18) Gas flows in a radial fashion across a region of these features in the Evershed effect. The cyclical decline in latitude of these features is described by a law named for Gustav Spörer, and a period beginning in 1645 exhibited a significantly lower amount of observations of these features than normal. The Maunder Minimum was a period of low observance for these features that vary within 11 cycles and can be caused by reductions in convection. For the point, identify these low temperature regions of a solar body that appear as dark marks on the solar system's largest star.

Sunspots

(18) This technique's first description in Ancient India was found in the Bower Manuscript, which also mentioned Sushruta [[SOO-shroo-tuh]], the "Father of [this procedure]." The Edwin Smith Papyrus describes procedures for this practice in Ancient Egypt, including the use of sutures. For the point, name this invasive medical technique that uses instruments to treat a patient's condition.

Surgery (accept descriptive answers regarding specific Surgical Procedures)

(22) Three of these objects meet in a configuration called the triple junction, such as a ridge-ridge-ridge example of these objects in a triangle named for the African region of Afar. The Nazca and Cocos are two of these objects, which are composed of felsic rock. A small example of one of these objects named for Juan de Fuca formed the Cascade Range. For the point, name these objects which are pieces of the Earth's crust and are prone to shifting.

Tectonic plates (accept Nazca plate; accept Cocos plate; accept Juan de Fuca plate)

(25) Diagonal scratches in these structures are the primary evidence of right-hand dominance in early human ancestors. Exposing the base of these structures causes a painful condition called abfraction. Damage to these structures can painfully expose the nerve-rich inner pulp, which is normally surrounded by dentin and enamel. For the point, name these oral structures, which are used to chew food.

Teeth (accept Tooth)

(19) One of these devices found in San Diego utilized large aluminum-coated "honeycomb" Pyrex mirrors and is supported by a "horseshoe" mount. These devices, which can be classified into reflecting and refracting varieties, were used to capture images of the Double Helix Nebula and the Pillars of Creation. For the point, name these optical devices used to observe stars, examples of which include the James Webb and Hubble.

Telescopes (accept James Webb Space Telescope; accept Hubble Space Telescope)

(12) A hybrid algorithm that performs this task is named after Tim Peters. One algorithm for this task relies on partitioning data around a pivot and then calling itself recursively. The "insertion" and "selection" forms of algorithms for this task typically have the worst runtime. The concept of stability is most often applied to algorithms for this task, which the "quick" form notably lacks. For the point, name this task of putting elements of a list in order.

Sorting (accept Timsort; accept Insertion Sort; accept Selection Sort; accept Quick Sort)

(21) Larger objects that make use of these objects often use service structures as a starting point, where they are eventually severed from an umbilical tower prior to one process. An equation dealing with these objects relates specific impulse to delta-v, and these objects come in multistage varieties. The namesake exhaust of one component of these objects is created by its propellant, which is hydrogen peroxide for those used in jet packs. Gaining thrust from its namesake engine, this is, for the point, what type of object commonly used to power spacecraft?

Rocket Engine (prompt on "Spacecraft" or "Space Shuttle" or similar answer)

(25) This body was systematically observed by the Babylonians during ancient times and was visited by the Pioneer and Voyager probes. Features of this celestial body include depressions known as "tiger stripes" and periodic storms like the Great White Spot. The Cassini division can be found within a feature of this planet, which is orbited by the moons Rhea and Titan. An extensive ring system belongs to, for the point, what sixth planet from the Sun?

Saturn

(17) Connate fluids are expelled during a process used to form these rocks called diagenesis. These rocks can be classified as clastic or chemical, and conglomerate and breccia [[BREH-chuh]] are both this type of rock. These rocks are formed from compaction and cementation. For the point, name these rocks, exemplified by sandstone and limestone, which are contrasted with igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Sedimentary rocks

(2) These phenomena are the most common disorders treated with split-brain procedures. The febrile type of these phenomena occur in children with high fevers. Muscle spasms and unconsciousness typify a type of this phenomenon known as grand mal. For the point, name these convulsion events, the defining characteristic of epilepsy.

Seizures (accept specific seizure types like Grand Mal Seizure before mentioned; prompt on "Convulsions")

(2) As a consequence of its high density, this body's atmosphere experiences super-rotation. Unique volcanic features on this body's surface include pancake domes and ticks. This body is the only (+) planet to experience retrograde rotation. Due to its similar size, this body is sometimes called (*) "Earth's twin." For the point, name this planet with the hottest surface in the Solar System, the second planet from the Sun.

Venus

(9) This planet's atmosphere is composed of extremely thick clouds primarily made of sulfuric acid. That thick atmosphere traps greenhouse gases, giving this planet the hottest surface temperature in the solar system. For the point, identify this second planet from the sun, sometimes called "Earth's Twin."

Venus

(17) One of these products invented by Alexey Pajitnov is sometimes used to disrupt visual memory. Congressional hearings concerning these objects questioned whether they cause children to engage in violence, and these products are given ratings based on their content by the ESRB. For the point, name these entertainment products produced by companies such as EA and Nintendo.

Video Games (prompt on "Games")

(9) An acne treatment sold under the brand name Accutane is a derivative of this vitamin. The "golden" variety of rice was genetically engineered to treat deficiencies of this vitamin. Chemical sources of this vitamin include retinol and retinal. This vitamin's precursor is beta-carotene. For the point, name this vitamin found in sweet potatoes and carrots, which supports vision health.

Vitamin A (accept Retinol or Retinal before mentioned)

(15) Under the Georgi-Glashow model, this letter designates bosons responsible for proton decay. A satellite communications spectrum band named for this letter falls between eight and twelve gigahertz. This letter can represent any halogen in organic chemistry reactions, and the genes causing hemophilia and colorblindness are carried on a chromosome of this letter. Wilhelm Röntgen [[RENT-gun]] could view bones using rays labeled with, for the point, what letter which resembles the multiplication sign?

X (accept X boson(s); accept X band; accept X chromosome(s); accept X-ray(s))

(14) This man died along with Colonel Vladimir Seryogin [[seh-ree-OH-gin]] while piloting an experimental MiG-15 aircraft near the town of Novosyolovo [[no-vo-syo-LO-vo]]. During his most significant mission, this man allegedly said, "I don't see any God up here." The pilot of Vostok I, for the point, who was this Soviet cosmonaut, the first human to reach space?

Yuri Gagarin

(1) The Maggi-Righi-Leduc effect focuses on changes in this quantity that are caused by a magnetic field. A fraction in which this quantity is the denominator is multiplied by the characteristic length to give the Biot number. Laser flash analysis (+) is used to calculate a form of diffusivity in which this quantity is divided by the product of density and heat capacity. (*) Dividing the heat flux by the temperature gradient times negative 1 gives this quantity, according to Fourier's law. For the point, identify this quantity that is low in insulated materials, a heat-related measure symbolized k.

Thermal Conductivity (prompt on "Conductivity;" prompt on "K" before mentioned)

(12) The organizers of the KEO, one of these objects in space, said, "All the messages received, without undergoing any censorship, will be embarked aboard," when it launched in 2003. Another one of these objects launched aboard the (+) Voyager spacecraft in 1977 exists as two phonograph records containing 115 images as well as audio samples of greetings spoken in 55 languages. The Voyager (*) Golden Record is an example of, for the points, what memory box that contains present-day objects to be opened in the future?

Time Capsules (accept Voyager Golden Record before mentioned; prompt on "Capsules"; prompt on "Satellite")

(15) The deadliest instance of this phenomenon affected the cities of Daulatpua and Saturia in Bangladesh. These phenomena that can form from supercells are measured by their intensity on the Fujita scale. Waterspouts are aquatic versions of, for the point, what devastating natural disasters of revolving air columns?

Tornado (accept equivalents such as Twisters; accept Cyclones)

(33) A discontinuous path is a key characteristic of the skipping variety of these phenomena, a particularly large example of which affected Gainesville in 1936. "Roping out" is the condition involving the stretching of one part of these phenomena whose namesake "families" arise from the same storm cell. The Fujita scale measures the strength of these phenomena, which are highly concentrated in states like Oklahoma that make up its namesake "Alley." For the point, identify these destructive, spinning weather phenomena.

Tornado (accept equivalents such as Twisters; accept Cyclones)

(23) These events can be detected by the presence of a "hook echo" pattern on a Doppler Radar. These events, examples of which include the landspout and waterspout varieties, and their intensity is measured by the TORRO and Fujita scales. A namesake "Alley" in the Central United States depicts, for the point, what meteorological events characterized by a violent funnel-shaped rotating cloud of air?

Tornadoes (accept Tornado Alley; prompt on "Landspout" or "Waterspout" before mentioned)

(4) These animals were hypothesized to be juvenile examples of the Torosaurus. These animals' two species were the horridus and prorsus, and these animals were first thought to be an extinct type of bison. The Tyrannosaurus rex was likely the primary predator of, for the point, what dinosaurs that may have defended themselves with their three horns?

Triceratops

(10) When this structure is cooled by advection, it becomes a thicker, low viscosity structure known as "Polish doughnuts." The turbulence this object has when orbiting is caused by a (+) fluid instability known as magnetorotational instability, which happens when the angular velocity of fluid is destabilized by a weak magnetic field. Dust, (*) gas, and particles make up, for the points, what flat elliptical structures made of debris that surround a gravitational source, such as black holes?

ANSWER: Accretion Disks (accept Circumstellar Disks)

(23) In fluorescence microscopy, this organelle is commonly stained with the dye Hoechst [[HURKST]] 33342 when imaging cells or tissues. A structure within this organelle, the karyolymph, is noted for (+) "sap"-like substance, while another structure in this organelle, continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum, is responsible for the synthesis of ribosomes. (*) Transcription occurs in this organelle, only found in eukaryotes. For the points, the "control center" of the cell is what organelle where where DNA is stored?

ANSWER: Atomic Nucleus (accept Nuclei)

(3) Entities named for these molecules have a subtype called caveolae [[KAH-veeOH-leh]] that are flask-shaped. Ceramides [[SEH-ruh-midez]] are an example of the "sphingo" [[SFIN-goh]] type of these molecules. (+) Microdomains enriched in cholesterol are "rafts" named for these nonpolar molecules. The cell membrane consists of a bilayer named for these hydrophobic molecules. The main components of living (*) cells include proteins, carbohydrates, and for the points, what biomolecules synonymous with fats?

ANSWER: Lipid (accept Lipid raft or Sphingolipid; prompt on "fat" or "fatty acid")

(5) In one method for calculating this quantity, little g is multiplied by the difference in the mass of two objects, all divided by the sum of the masses. In Torricelli's formula, a coefficient is multiplied by both this quantity and the change in displacement. Jerk is the time derivative of this quantity that has a value of zero for an inertial reference frame. For the point, what is this quantity given by "delta v" over "delta t," a measure of the rate of change in velocity?

Acceleration

(2) This is the simplest non-aldehyde molecule that can form an enol through a tautomerization reaction. A cooling bath at negative 78 degrees Celsius is created by mixing dry ice with this polar aprotic solvent, which consists of a carbonyl group bonded to two methyl groups. This three-carbon compound is commonly used to clean laboratory glassware. For the point, name this simplest ketone often found in nail polish remover.

Acetone (or Propanone)

(5) John Searle refuted this mathematician's namesake test with the Chinese Room thought experiment. That test named for this mathematician is explained with the "imitation game." This mathematician's namesake theoretical machine consists of a computer that manipulates symbols on an infinite tape. For the point, name this English mathematician, who names a test which can determine if a computer possesses strong artificial intelligence.

Alan Turing

(18) This type of material can be naturally occurring or man-made. Because this material is a physical combination, it can retain beneficial properties of both donor materials and take on new properties such as increased strength, durability, or resistance to corrosion. Duralumin, electrum, solder [[SAW-der]], steel, alnico, nichrome [[NIH-krome]], pewter, bronze, and brass are all examples of this solid solution. For the point, what is this mixture of a metal and another substance?

Alloys

(27) Since 2019, Huawei [[HWAH-WAY]] has been banned from implementing this technology in the U.S. due to espionage claims. Protestors in the UK who believed this technology was responsible for (+) Covid-19 set fire to cell towers. The Samsung Galaxy S20 was the first smartphone (*) compatible with this technology. For the point, name this latest broadband cellular standard.

5G NR (or 5G New Radio]

(17) This disease and frontotemporal dementia are both caused by the CHCHD10, SQSTM1, and TBK1 genes, and are linked with the abnormal presence of the TDP-43 protein. One moniker of this disease is derived from its discoverer, Jean-Martin Charcot, while a more common moniker derives its name from a New York Yankees first baseman who died in 1941. Stephen Hawking suffered from, for the point, what progressive neurodegenerative muscle disorder also known as Lou Gehrig's Disease?

ALS (or Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis; accept Motor Neuron Disease; accept Charcot's Disease; accept Lou Gehrig's Disease before mentioned)

(6) This tissue is removed in a process called girdling. According to the pressureflow hypothesis, this (+) tissue performs photosynthate partitioning by translocating carbon solutes. This tissue consists mainly of companion cells and sieve tube elements, which come from the meristem. Sap (*) is carried by, for the points, what vascular plant tissue that transports sugars and nutrients, as opposed to xylem?

ANSWER: Phloem (prompt on "Bark")

(20) Reacting this compound with copper oxide forms a bright blue salt, and a stock 98% solution of this compound has a molarity of 18.4. The 100% pure (+) version of this substance has a Hammett function of negative twelve, and was known as oil of vitriol. This substance is formed from a vanadium oxide catalyst in the contact (*) process. For the points, name this strong acid with formula H2SO4.

ANSWER: Sulfuric Acid (accept H2SO4 before mentioned; prompt on "Oil of Vitriol" before mentioned)

(18) A chemist from this country discovered a way of predicting reaction rates based on temperature and wrote an early acid-base definition. This country's village of (+) Ytterby was where the elements of yttrium, ytterbium, erbium, and terbium were discovered. A scientist from this country invented the smokeless powder Ballistite, as well as dynamite. Svante (*) Arrhenius was from, for the points, what country, whose native Alfred Nobel names a set of annual prizes?

ANSWER: Sweden (or Sverige; accept Kingdom of Sweden; or Konungariket Sverige)

(8) These phenomena and the polar easterlies travel in the same direction, though the polar easterlies are (+) farther north and south by at least 30 degrees latitude. These entities meet at the Intertropical Convergence Zone. These winds blow from east to (*) west near the equator. For the points, identify these winds named for their role in allowing ships to cross the Atlantic with greater ease and facilitate commerce.

ANSWER: Trade Winds (prompt on "Easterlies")

(19) This company's TDI technology creates more power while disbursing less fuel and producing fewer emissions. This company lost half its board after the (+) CARB denied a proposed fix for vehicles with 2.0 liter engines. CEO Mark Winterkorn resigned from this company after certain vehicles produced 40 times more nitrogen oxide than during (*) emissions testing. For the points, name this German car company that produced the Beetle.

ANSWER: Volkswagen (accept VW; accept Volkswagen Beetle)

(24) One experiment testing this theory measured gamma rays emitted from an iron sample placed in a loudspeaker cone, and was performed by Pound and Rebka. The equivalence (+) principle relates two forms of mass in this theory, which is also described by a set of field equations that contained the cosmological constant. Gravity is explained by the curvature of (*) space-time in, for the points, what theory proposed by Einstein with a "special" counterpart?

ANSWER: general relativity (accept GR; prompt on "relativity"; do not accept or prompt on "special relativity")

(10) One element in this family was initially called brevium due to its short halflife. The radioactive decay of another element in this family is single-handedly the largest contributor to the internal heat of Earth, and that element is named after a (+) Norse god. Consisting of 15 elements, this subdivision of the periodic table includes thorium, (*) nobelium and californium amongst its members and is found below a family containing elements like gadolinium. Largely on the f-block, this is, for the point, what group of metallic elements that share similarities with lanthanides?

Actinides (accept Actinoids; accept An)

(29) A project called Breakthrough Starshot aims to send many miniature spacecraft to this system using solar sails to explore this star system, the brightest object in the constellation Centaurus. Comprised of three stars, this is, for the point, what closest stellar system to our Sun which contains a star known as Proxima?

Alpha Centauri (prompt on "Proxima Centauri" before mentioned)

(18) Medical knowledge was mixed with spells in documents from this civilization named for Ebers, Edwin Smith, and London Medical. Hippocrates and Galen studied this civilization's early medicine, including fruit-derived ointments, at the temple of one of its rulers. Despite advances in dental technology, this civilization's Queen Hatsheput died from an abscess following a tooth extraction. For the point, name this ancient civilization whose early science was advanced thanks to the patronage of the pharaohs.

Ancient Egypt (accept Kemet; or km.t; prompt on "Black Land")

(23) If this mission had failed, Richard Nixon would have read the "Fate Has Ordained..." speech. Michael Collins was selected to remain in the orbiting Command Module during this mission which involved landing the Eagle at Tranquility Base. During this mission, one astronaut stated "that's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." For the point, name this NASA mission during which Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong walked on the Moon.

Apollo 11 (prompt on "Apollo"; prompt on answers mentioning landing on the moon but not giving the specific mission)

(27) The largest unit of this measurement is a yotta, although a bronto has been proposed. This computer component is supported by secondary forms, including cards, external hard drives, and the Cloud. For the point, identify this computer component that comes in Random Access and Read-Only types.

Memory (accept Random Access Memory or Read-Only Memory before mentioned)

(1) Skywave propagation involves the reflection of radio waves off this region, allowing AM broadcasts to travel long distances. Interactions between the magnetosphere and this region cause the (+) aurora borealis. This region contains the entire thermosphere and portions of the mesosphere and (*) exosphere. For the point, name this layer of the atmosphere named for containing a high concentration of charged particles.

Ionosphere (prompt on "Thermosphere" before mentioned)

(24) This compound can be artificially synthesized using dimethylurea and malonic acid. With theophylline, this compound is often used as a treatment for sleep apnea, and this stimulant is an alkaloid and adenosine antagonist commonly used to prevent drowsiness. For the point, name this stimulant found in tea and coffee.

Caffeine (accept Guaranine; accept Methyltheobromine)

(18) The rank and depth of this substance are correlated in Hilt's Law. Strip mining is done at banded deposits of this substance called its namesake "seams." The Carboniferous [[kar-boh-NIH-fer-us]] period is partially named from the Latin for this substance. Lignite is turned into types of this substance like its "bituminous" [[bih-TOO-mih-nus]] type, or anthracite. For the point, name this black, sedimentary rock formed from plant matter which is burned for energy.

Coal (accept Bituminous coal; accept Black coal)

(1) Resacas are types of these features that are formed when water moves from the Colorado River to the Gulf of Mexico. These features can release lethal amounts of carbon dioxide in events known as limnic eruptions. Billabong is the Australian term for one of the oxbow types of these bodies of water. For the point, name these bodies of water that include Okeechobee and Huron.

Lakes (accept Oxbow Lakes; accept Billabong before mentioned; accept specific lakes; prompt on "Limnic Eruption" before mentioned)

(2) Recovery is one of the two options after this effect occurs, which was exhibited by the American bison after its population size grew from an estimated 750 in 1890 to about 360,000 by the year 2000. The (+) Toba catastrophe theory suggests that humans faced this effect 75,000 years ago after the eruption of a supervolcano in Indonesia. Environmental disasters, habitat destruction, and (*) overhunting can result in, for the points, what form of genetic drift, which occurs when a drastic reduction of a population size changes its gene pool?

Bottleneck Effect (or Population Bottleneck; or Genetic Bottleneck; prompt on "Genetic Drift" before mentioned)

(22) This largely spherical body's highest point is the cryo-volcano Ahuna Mons. Along with Uranus, this body's orbit was predicted by the discredited Titius-Bode Law. Vesta and this body were the destinations of the Dawn probe, and this body is the only dwarf planet within Neptune's orbit. For the point, name this largest object in the asteroid belt.

Ceres

(13) An early mathematics textbook from this country that discussed bounding fields and proportions is titled The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. The first seismometers were developed in this country, as well as the first compasses made of lodestone. Early blast furnaces were developed in this country by Du Shi. For the point, name this country, which produced many technological developments during the Han Dynasty.

China (or Zhōngguó; accept People's Republic of China; or Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó; or PRC; accept Imperial China)

(25) Along with Echinodermata [[ee-kai-no-der-MAH-tah]] and acorn worms, members of this phylum are deuterostomes [[doo-TEH-roh-stohms]], meaning they have a separate mouth and anus. Members of this phylum possess either pharyngeal [["fair"-en-JEE-ahl]] pouches or pharyngeal slits while in their embryonic state. For the point, name this animal phylum named for possessing a namesake cartilage tube or backbone.

Chordata (or Chordates)

(4) The first of these objects was discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi and named after the Roman goddess of agriculture. Other examples of these objects were named after Hawaiian, Inuit, and Rapa Nui deities. The term for these objects was coined by Alan Stern, though the International Astronomical Union rejects the implication that the objects qualify as certain larger bodies. For the point, name this type of object, whose most famous member was demoted to its ranks in 2006.

Dwarf Planet (do not accept or prompt on "Red Dwarf" or "White Dwarf")

(21) The V-2 rocket took the first two images of this celestial body between 1946 and 1947. This celestial body was in the background when Alexei Leonov performed a 12- minute spacewalk outside Voskhod 2, and this celestial body was the subject of an impromptu image taken by Voyager 1 which was dubbed by Carl Sagan as the Pale Blue Dot. During the Gemini 12 mission, Buzz Aldrin took the first "space selfie" with, for the point, what celestial body that is the third planet from the sun?

Earth

(28) This phenomenon is usually accompanied by eastern movement of atmospheric convection. This weather pattern is the warm phase of a southern oscillation named for it, and it is responsible for the seasonal rise of ocean temperatures. For the point, identify this warm weather pattern, which is contrasted with La Niña and named for the Spanish for "the boy."

El Niño (or El Nino-Southern Oscillation; or ENSO)

(10) The conservation of this quantity can be derived from Noether's [[NOY-thurrs]] theorem for systems that possess time invariance. The Lagrangian is the difference between the kinetic and potential types of this quantity. The joule is the SI unit that measures, for the point, what quantity that is needed in order to do work?

Energy (or Total Energy; accept Kinetic Energy; accept Potential Energy or any other specific type of energy)

(4) The WKB method can be applied to this man's namesake equation, which governs the wave function of a quantum-mechanical system. This man designed a thought experiment to ridicule the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. This man's theoretical experiment involved a Geiger counter, poison, and an animal inside a box. For the point, name this Austrian physician who demonstrated superposition using his namesake cat.

Erwin Schrödinger [[SHRER-ding-uh]] (be lenient on pronunciation; accept Schrödinger's equation; accept Schrödinger's cat)

(20) Doppler spectroscopy is a common way to find these objects, the least massive of which is Draugr. Bellerophon [[beh-LEH-roh-fun]] is a prototype for "hot Jupiters," which are examples of these objects. TRAPPIST-1 is a system with several of these objects, and dimming can be observed when looking for these objects using the transit method. Habitable examples of these objects could be present in the Goldilocks zone. For the point, name these objects which orbit stars that are not the sun.

Exoplanets (accept Extrasolar planets; prompt on "planet(s)"; accept answers indicating planets not in the solar system)

(27) Pouchlike protrusions are present in a type of these objects described by William Clement Ley, the "mammatus" type. Some of these objects which resemble hoods are called a "pileus" [[pai-LEE-us]], and contrails from airplanes are an artificial example of these things. "Anvil" types of these objects are "cumulonimbus," and other types of them include cirrus and stratus. For the point, name these objects from which rain falls.

Clouds (accept Mammatus clouds; accept Scarf clouds; accept Cap clouds; accept Cumulonimbus clouds; accept Cirrus clouds; accept Stratus clouds)

(15) This law is extended to the enthalpy of a chemical reaction by Hess's law. This law, which is often notated as "delta U equals Q minus W," is (+) equivalent to stating that first kind perpetual motion machines are impossible. (*) For the point, name this law that states that the total amount of mass-energy in a system is constant.

First Law of Thermodynamics (prompt on "Conservation of Energy"; prompt on partial answers)

(24) Through 2020, more Boy Scout merit badges have been earned for learning this practice than any other. The ABC protocol assesses if a person needs one form of this practice. Applying a tourniquet and performing the Heimlich maneuver are vital skills of this treatment, for which the Red Cross awards certification. Rescue breathing and CPR are components of, for the point, what form of immediate medical assistance which may use the dressings and bandages in a namesake kit?

First aid (accept CPR before mentioned' anti-prompt on "stopping bleeding," "stopping choking," and similar specific answers)

(11) In Conway's Game of Life, the boat, long tail, and glider occupy this number of cells. This Wilson prime is also the third Catalan number and the fifth of the Fibonacci numbers. This number appears under the square root in the numerator of the golden number, and this number is also the value of the hypotenuse of the smallest Pythagorean triple. For the point, identify this number, the atomic number of boron, as well as the total sides in a pentagon.

Five

(13) In plants, this nutrient is synthesized by the shikimate [[shee-kee-MAH-teh]] pathway. The antibiotic trimethoprim [["try"-MEH-thoh-prim]] works by targeting the synthesis of this nutrient. Like cobalamin [[koh-BAH-lah-min]], this nutrient is essential for one-carbon transfer oxidations. This nutrient is added to enriched grains to prevent a namesake kind of megaloblastic anemia. Deficiency of this vitamin during early pregnancy can lead to neural tube defects. For the point, name this B vitamin whose name derives from being found in green leafy vegetables.

Folate (or Folic Acid; or Folacin; accept Vitamin B9; accept Tetrahydrofolate; prompt on Vitamin "B")

(23) This force transforms charge in the tribo-electric effect, and can be depicted in Amontons Law, which states that this force is directly proportional to the applied load. The strength of this force is proportional to the normal force and can be related by a namesake coefficient symbolized mu [[MYOO]]. For the point, name this force that comes in static and kinetic forms and opposes the change in motion.

Friction (accept Static Friction; accept Kinetic Friction; accept Dry Friction)

(10) A mutation on chromosome 15 in Prader-Willi syndrome can disrupt the function of this structure, which is also impacted in Kallmann syndrome. The ventromedial nucleus is a feature in this structure that is responsible for thermoregulation and food intake. This organ's parvocellular cells stimulate prolactin release, while its magnocellular cells synthesize vasopressin and oxytocin. It's not the pituitary gland, but the endocrine and nervous system is linked by , for the point, what small organ located below the thalamus?

Hypothalamus (do not accept or prompt on "Thalamus")

(3) An early manifestation of this disease is seen in many newborns in what is known as meconium ileus in which a child suffers from bowel obstruction. Among the methods used to diagnose this disease is a sweat test that measures the concentration of chloride in an individual's sweat and a carrier screening that can help detect a mutation of the CFTR gene. For the point, name this genetic condition in which scar tissue forms on the pancreas and mucus clogs the lungs.

Cystic Fibrosis (accept CF)

(5) The influence of this quantity causes the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect. The existence of an increasing variety of this quantity, known as its phantom (+) type, would cause the "big rip" end of the universe. Driving the expansion of the (*) universe, for the point, what is this unobserved quantity that makes up the bulk of the universe's mass-energy, more than twice as prevalent as dark matter.

Dark energy (do not accept or prompt on "dark matter")

(7) The "short-path" type of this technique may use a vacuum tube called a Kugelrohr. The Fenske equation is used during this technique to calculate a minimum number of equilibrium "theoretical plates," and refluxing is used in this technique to continually recondense solvents. Solutions of 96% ethanol in water (or other azeotropes) cannot be separated using the "fractional" form of this technique, which is used to refine petroleum. For the point, name this process of separating liquids by their boiling points.

Distillation (accept Fractional Distillation; accept Short-path Distillation)

(4) The number of turns in these devices divided by length is directly proportional to their magnetic flux density. These devices are typically constructed out of an insulated (+) wire coil and store energy in the magnetic field when passing an electric current through it. (*) For the point, name these circuit components whose namesake quantity is measured in Henrys.

Inductors (accept Coil, Choke, or Reactor)

(22) Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel is a thought experiment that illustrates the counterintuitivity of sets with this property. Georg Cantor denoted a "countable" variety of this property aleph-null. Euclid proved that there are this many prime numbers, while irrational numbers have this many digits after the decimal point. For the point, name this mathematical property denoting a number that is uncountably large.

Infinity (accept countable infinity)

(13) Some compounds composed of these molecules have a lattice energy that can be measured via applications of Hess's law, and they are held together by electrostatic attractions. A covalent bond unites atoms in the polyatomic type of these molecules. For the point, name these charged molecules that can be either cations [[CAT-"eye"-ons]] or anions.

Ions (accept Ionic Compounds; accept Cation or Anions before mentioned)

(2) Due to this phenomenon, changes in wind velocity can cause a hook echo on weather radar. This phenomenon's namesake radar is used by police (+) radar guns to determine a car's velocity. This phenomenon is visualized with the bunching of waves in front of a moving source. (*) Redshift is caused by, for the point, what phenomenon in which a pitch shifts with movement, as with a siren driving by?

Doppler effect (or Doppler shift; accept Doppler radar; prompt on "red shift" or "blue shift" before mentioned)

(10) According to Bredt's rule, these interactions cannot occur at the bridgehead of a ring system. Lindlar's catalyst selectively forms these interactions between carbon atoms, and these interactions alternate in the simplest conjugated systems, such as butadiene. E-Z notation describes the orientation of atoms around these interactions, which also link the carbon and oxygen atoms in a carbonyl [[car-bo-NEEL]] group. These interactions consist of one sigma bond and one pi bond. Alkenes contain, for the point, what covalent bonds that share four electrons?

Double Bonds (accept Alkenes before Carbonyl; prompt on "Covalent Bonds;" prompt on "Pi Bonds")

(1) The breaking up and recombination of molecules that contain this entity is known as their namesake "metathesis." Molecules that contain this structure between two carbon atoms are known as alkenes. Molecular oxygen contains this structure between its two oxygen atoms. For the point, name this structure, designated with two lines, where two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.

Double bond (accept Olefin; accept answers involving Two bonds; accept Alkenes before mentioned)

(8) A "tree" variant of this animal is native to New Guinea, and that variety is the only true arboreal macropod. Osphranter is a genus containing these animals, and that genus contains the red species of this large mammal. For the point, name this Australian marsupial and relative of the smaller wallaby.

Kangaroo (accept Kangaroo Island; accept Tree-Kangaroo)

(20) This scale's namesake worked with James Joule to discover an effect regarding the throttling of a non-ideal gas. In 2019, this scale was recalibrated around Boltzmann's constant. A constant term of about 273 is used to convert this scale's measures to Celsius, and this scale is named for the title held by physicist William Thompson. For the point, name this temperature scale that starts at absolute zero.

Kelvin Scale

(6) A "tension" named for this scientist is the discrepancy in measuring a value named for him. "A dot over a," in which "a" is the scale factor, is used to calculate a constant named for this scientist. A system devised by this scientist gives designations like SBc to galaxies which are arranged in a "tuning fork" shape. With a namesake constant describing the expansion of the universe, for the point, who was this scientist who names a 1990 space telescope?

Edwin Hubble (accept Hubble's tension; accept Hubble's constant; accept Hubble's sequence; accept Hubble's tuning fork)

(20) Similar to alternators, these devices can be divided into brushed and brushless varieties. Permanent magnet varieties of these devices lack field windings. An H-bridge can be used to allow the DC type of these devices to run forward or backward. These devices create torque from a rotor mounted in a stator. For the point, name this type of motor used to power the Nissan Leaf and Tesla Model 3.

Electric Motor (accept Brushed or Brushless DC electric motor; accept Permanent Magnet electric motor; accept DC electric motor; prompt on "motor")

(27) The young of these animals are called crias, and their enameled teeth differentiate these vertebrates from the similar vicuña. The ccara and tapada are breeds of this relative of the guanaco with wool of varying thickness. This animal is the largest camelid in the Western Hemisphere. For the point, name these domesticated pack animals of South America, a larger cousin of the alpaca.

Llama (accept Alpaca before "enameled teeth")

(12) Inclusion-cell disease is a namesake "storage disease" of this organelle which stems from phosphotransferase's inability to transfer phosphate to mannose. After their creation, parts of the cytoplasm are delivered by the autophagosome [[aw-toh-FAY-joh-sohm]] to this organelle which carries out its central function via hydrolytic enzymes. For the point, name this organelle which disposes of waste.

Lysosomes

(20) These biomes are the predominant environment in which the European chamois [[sham-WAH]] goat-antelope is found. The pika is a close relative of the rabbit that can be found in these biomes that also contain South American camelids such as guanacos and vicuñas. Plant-life typically stops above the snow line in, for the point, what high-altitude biomes that include the Himalayas?

Mountains (accept Alpine; accept Mountain Range; accept Highlands; accept Himalayan Mountains)

(1) A quantum mechanical counterpart of this law is known as Ehrenfest's Theorem. The substitution of one quantity in this equation can lead to a theorem that relates impulse to the change in momentum. This law is applied when a quantity in its central equation is non-zero for multiple entities on a free-body diagram. A fixed quantity and two similarly directed vectors appear in this formula, which is part of a set that includes a "law of inertia" and another formulation that describes the inverse relationship of reactions. For the point, name this law, often simply stated as F = ma.

Newton's Second Law of Motion (prompt on "Newton's Laws" of Motion; prompt on partial answers)

(4) C compilers turn source code into code named after these entities. All classes in Java are a subclass of a class named for these entities. Creating these entities typically involves calling a constructor or using the keyword "new," and a central programming paradigm involves these entities, which are instances of classes. For the point, name these things, whose importance in programming leads languages like Java to be termed "[these things]- oriented."

Objects (accept Object code; accept Object-oriented programming)

(26) The rotary form of this process is used to purify substances. This process explains why sweating cools the body, and salt deposits are created when it occurs in saline water. When this process occurs at low pressures or high temperatures, it is called boiling. For the point, name this process in which a liquid turns into a gas.

Evaporation (or Vaporization; accept Boiling before mentioned)

(2) One form of this law is joined with Faraday's law to give an induction equation for ideal MHD. Another form of this law states that current density equals sigma times electric (+) field. At low forward bias, this law does not apply to diodes, and the drops calculated by this law add to zero, according to (*) Kirchhoff's loop rule. For the points, name this law that states voltage equals current times resistance.

Ohm's Law

(30) Robert Chambers published an anonymous book that shifted public opinion about this general theory. An 1859 work that advanced this theory rejected the conclusions of William Paley's Natural Theology. The idea of giraffes stretching their necks to reach high leaves was a faulty explanation of this theory by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. For the point, name this theory of "descent with modification," which was proposed by Charles Darwin through natural selection.

Evolution (accept Natural selection; prompt on "survival of the fittest")

(17) One of these objects, considered to be the least massive of its type, is sometimes referred to as Draugr. The 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for discovery of one of these objects known as 51 Pegasi b. Changes in light during one process can help detect and predict features of these objects in the transit method. Most of these bodies can be found within the tidal locking zone, and rogue varieties of these objects do not revolve around a star. For the point, name these planets outside of the solar system.

Exoplanets (accept Extrasolar Planets; Planets Outside the Solar System or similar answers until "Outside" is mentioned and prompt after)

(2) By firing a gun into the ballistic variety of these devices, the momentum of a bullet can be found. A classical example of a chaotic system is the double (+) variety of these devices. The ideal form of these devices consists of a weighted bob at the end of a massless rod. (*) For the point, name these devices that swing to keep time in grandfather clocks.

Pendulums (accept Double pendulum)

(27) This man pioneered the method of infinite descent in proofs and frequently applied that method to Diophantine [[dee-oh-FAHN-teen]] (+) equations. This mathematician proved that a prime number must be 1 mod 4 to be the sum of two perfect squares, and his "Little Theorem" is one of the pillars of (*) number theory. For the points, name this French mathematician whose "Last Theorem" was proved by Andrew Wiles in 1995.

Pierre de Fermat [[fehr-MAH]]

(28) Along with the disease called flacherie, this man found that Nosema parasites afflicted silkworms eggs in a disease called pébrine. This scientist found that nothing would grow in nutrient broth unless it was exposed to the air, thereby rejecting the theory of spontaneous generation and providing evidence for germ theory. For the point, name this French chemist and microbiologist, who developed a namesake process of heating certain foods and beverages to destroy pathogens.

Louis Pasteur (accept Pasteurization)

(7) This molecule is silenced by proteins in the Argonaute family. Micro and small interfering variants of this molecule are noncoding, and one type of this molecule links amino acids to form proteins. Ribosomal, messenger, and transfer are types of, for the point, what single-stranded nucleic acid that does not contain deoxyribose?

RNA (or Ribonucleic Acid; accept RNA Interference or miRNA or siRNA or microRNA or Small Interfering RNA or rRNA or tRNA or mRNA or Ribosomal RNA or Transfer RNA or Messenger RNA)

(7) Individuals infected with this disease may exhibit Bannwarth syndrome. The bacterium that causes this disease come from the genus Borrelia, and those spirochete [["SPY"-roh-keet]] class bacteria makes this disease hard to treat by creating a biofilm that allows it to hide within many areas of the body. A bull's-eye pattern rash is a common symptom of, for the point, what vector-borne disease that is contracted from the bite of a deer tick?

Lyme Disease (accept Lyme Borreliosis; accept Lyme Neuroborreliosis; prompt on "Borrelia" before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever")

(6) This function appears three times in the formula for combinations, and it is estimated by Stirling's approximation. This function applied to 3 is 6, and when applied to 4 yields 24. Defined as the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n, for the point, this is what function denoted by an exclamation point?

Factorial

(2) Many moon rocks have a large concentration of one type of these minerals called anorthite. Alkali types of these minerals have lower specific gravity than their plagioclase and orthoclase types. A subclass of these minerals constitutes the continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series, and a subclass of these minerals defines six on the Mohs hardness scale. For the point, name this most abundant class of minerals in Earth's crust.

Feldspars (accept Plagioclase Feldspars; accept Orthoclase Feldspars; accept Alkali Feldspars)

(18) In H Two regions, Bok globules are extremely cold locations where this process may occur. This process, which occurs at high rates in starburst galaxies, leads to the formation of a protoplanetary (+) disk. The photograph The Pillars of Creation shows this process, which starts after the collapse of a giant (*) molecular cloud. For the points, name this process that occurs in stellar nurseries, forming objects like the Sun.

Star formation (accept reasonable equivalents like stars being created)

(2) It's not the Earth, but scientists estimate this body formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter. Copernicus first advanced the theory that the planets don't orbit Earth, but rather this object, the nearest star to Earth. For the point, name this massive body at the center of the solar system.

Sun (accept Sol)

(5) This man proposed his most important mathematical ideas in the book The Laws of Mathematical Thought. Statements named for this man can be simplified using a Karnaugh [[KAR-noh]] Map. A satisfiability problem named for this man was the first such problem to be proven to be NP-complete. For the point, name this English logician whose namesake algebra uses ones and zeros to represent "true" and "false."

George Boole (accept Boolean Algebra; accept Boolean Satisfiability Problem)

(18) This quantity divided by surface area is used to calculate surface tension. This quantity can be calculated as enthalpy minus the product of temperature and entropy. When the change in this quantity is less than zero for a reaction, the reaction will be spontaneous. For the point, name this thermodynamic quantity which at constant temperature and pressure, represents maximum reversible work that can be done, symbolized "G."

Gibbs free energy

(29) A form of this process on the planet Venus resulted in an atmosphere of 96% carbon dioxide. The opposite of this process has been observed on Titan, where the moon's surface temperature is reduced by 9 degrees Kelvin. For the point, name this effect by which atmospheric radiation warms the surface of the planet by trapping the sun's heat.

Greenhouse Effect

(13) One technology using this type of radiation was invented by Manne Siegbahn [[MAH-neh SEEG-bahn]]. A type of crystallography using this radiation was used by Rosalind Franklin to take a (+) photo of the structure of DNA. The discovery of this type of radiation earned Wilhelm Röntgen [[RENT-gen]] (*) a Nobel Prize in Physics. For the point, name this type of radiation with a lower frequency than gamma rays, which can be used to image bones.

X-rays (or X-Radiation; accept Röntgen Radiation before "Röntgen")

(7) Examples of an aggressive form of this phenomenon include the angler fish's light organ and the alligator snapping turtle's tongue. The Müllerian [[myoo-LEHR-ee-an]] form of this phenomenon works through strengthening conditioned responses. The Batesian form of this phenomenon involves harmless creatures appearing harmful. For the point, name this phenomenon in which one creature evolves to take on the appearance of another.

mimicry (accept mimicking; prompt on descriptive answers involving creatures taking on the appearance of another)

(14) When these elements have their electron configuration written out, they are denoted with their name in brackets. These elements tend to have relatively small atomic radii due to having high effective nuclear charges. These elements are mostly non-reactive due to possessing full valence shells of electrons. For the point, name this group of elements including neon and helium which is located at the rightmost portion of the periodic table.

noble gases (or group 18; or group 8A)

(8) A Pourbaix [[poor-BAY]] diagram plots this quantity on the x-axis and voltage on the y-axis and can be used to evaluate corrosion. Phenolphthalein [[FEE-nahlf-THAY-leen]] turns from colorless to pink as this quantity increases, leading to its use in titrations. Hortensia can be blue or pink depending on this quantity for the soil. Buffers resist changes to, for the point, what quantity which is contrasted with pKa and describes the acidity or basicity of a substance.

pH [[PEE-AITCH]] scale

(1) A bullet's speed can be measured using the "ballistic" type of this device. The motion of these devices is described using the small angle approximation of "sine theta equals theta". A system with two of these devices attached end-to-end exhibits chaotic behavior. Foucault [[foo-KOH]] demonstrated the rotation of the Earth using one of these devices, which is also a simple harmonic oscillator. For the point, name these devices that consist of a mass hanging on a string.

pendulums (accept Foucault's pendulum; accept double pendulum; accept ballistic pendulum; prompt on "simple harmonic oscillator" or "SHO")

(21) The finding that this particle's constituents contribute almost no spin has led to its namesake "spin crisis." Some Grand Unified Theories hypothesize that this particle can decay into a positron and a neutral pion. Cosmic rays consist mostly of these particles, which are made of two up quarks and one down quark. For the point, name this subatomic particle with a positive charge.

protons

(21) This term is used to refer to a hypothetical situation where technological development becomes uncontrollable or irreversible. A misapplication of general (+) relativity to an infinite time in the past would predict the formation of an object described by this term that contained all of the mass in the universe. (*) For the points, give this term that refers to the infinitely dense center of a black hole.

singularity (accept technological singularity; accept gravitational singularity; or spacetime singularity)

(35) One class of these objects represents a quark changing flavor via a W or Z loop and is named for a penguin. Either the t-channel or u-channel types of these objects can be used to represent a process involving the exchange of a photon between two electrons in Møller scattering. Gluons in these objects are denoted as helices, while photons are denoted as waves. For the point, name these diagrams that exhibit the interactions between subatomic particles and are named after an American physicist.

Feynman Diagrams

(1) One of these objects that is sometimes named for its use of Kjeldahl bulbs is often spherical in shape. A hose barb protrudes from the neck of these objects, which, though not burners, are sometimes named for Bunsen, but better known as the Büchner variety. Like test tubes, these objects can employ rubber stoppers, and one of these objects named for Erlenmeyer has a flat bottom and a conical shape. Often noting millimeters amounts on their exterior, these are, for the point, what pieces of laboratory glassware that hold liquids?

Flasks (accept Erlenmeyer Flasks; accept Büchner Flasks; accept Kjedahl Flasks; accept Bunsen Flasks)

(27) The cirque and valley-head are types of these formations. Ridges protruding from these formations are called nunataks, and the thermal state of these formations makes them either temperate or polar. These formations move via basal sliding, and their leftover deposits are called eskers. For the point, identify these slow-moving formations of ice.

Glaciers

(26) This organ's sinoatrial node is located near the superior vena cava, and its activity is recorded by an EKG. Purkinje fibers conduct action potentials in this organ, which is affected by myocardial infarctions. Atriums and ventricles make up the four chambers of this organ in humans. For the point, name this central organ whose namesake "beat" is essential to human life.

Heart (accept Heartbeat)

(31) This element has a 211 isotope that is preferred to iodine-131 in nuclear medicine applications involving low tumor burdens. This element with a low, eighthours half-life has a name that is derived from a Greek term meaning (+) "unstable." This element is the least reactive among the halogen group, and the 210 isotope is the most stable one of this element, which is the rarest element to occur naturally (*) in the Earth's crust. For the point, name this element with atomic number 85 and chemical symbol At.

Astatine (accept At before mentioned)

(7) Common systems of a disorder caused by this hormone include crowded teeth and enlarged hands and feet. Excessive levels of this hormone can cause (+) pituitary tumors and acromegaly [[ak-roh-MEH-gah-lee]]. Deficiencies of this hormone are the primary cause of human dwarfism. (*) For the point, name this common performance-enhancing drug, a peptide hormone responsible for stimulating cell division.

Human Growth Hormone (or HGH; accept Somatropin or Somatotropin)

(10) This man ran a museum in Monaco that is blamed for releasing the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia [[kuh-LUR-puh TAX-ih-FOH-lee-uh]]. Loël (+) Guinness leased this man a vessel with a "false nose" that sank in Singapore in 1996, the year before his death. This man, who often wore a red cap, is featured in the documentary (*) The Silent World. The Calypso was the research ship used by, for the points, what French oceanographer who co-invented a breathing device called the Aqua-lung?

Jacques Cousteau [[zhahk koo-STOH]] (or Jacques-Yves Cousteau)

(25) These animals' livers have enough vitamin A in them to kill over 50 adult humans. These animals' hollow, clear fur and black skin insulates heat so well that they appear invisible on thermal imaging. According to legend, Inuit people learned to hunt seals by watching these animals, which are the largest land carnivores. For the point, name these large, white bears which live in the Arctic.

Polar bear(s) (or Ursus maritimus)

(13) The discovery that this entity is a supermassive compact object was the subject of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics. The non-alphanumeric (+) character in this entity's name was attached because it was "exciting." This entity is near the constellations Scorpius and another constellation it shares a name with, which is named for an (*) archer. For the points, name this supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way.

Sagittarius A* [["star"]] (prompt on "Sagittarius" or "Sagittarius A", prompt on descriptions like "black hole at the center of the Milky Way" by asking "is known by what name?")

(30) An EEG can measure stages one through four of this process, during which Kcomplexes occur. A disease commonly named for this process is known medically as trypanosomiasis [["trip"-ah-noh-SOH-mye-AY-sis]]. Muscle paralysis often occurs during the rapid eye movement form of this process, and obstruction of breathing can lead to its namesake apnea. People with insomnia struggle to undergo, for the point, what process which can include dreaming?

Sleep (accept REM Sleep; accept African Sleeping Sickness)

(6) The vaccinia [[vak-SIH-nee-ah]] virus is used to inoculate against this disease and was first harvested from sores on the hands of milkmaids. During a 1763 siege, British and American soldiers (+) used this disease as a bioweapon by distributing contaminated blankets. The world's first vaccines were produced by Edward (*) Jenner to prevent this disease. For the point, name this deadly disease caused by Variola viruses, which was eradicated in the 1970s.

Smallpox (prompt on "Variola Major" or "Variola Minor" before mentioned)

(21) One long-running show on this television channel raised controversy by refusing to air an episode on RFID credit card security, while having tripled the available data on bullets shot straight up. This channel replaced narrator David Attenborough with Sigourney Weaver when it aired Planet Earth, and its award-winning series Walking with Dinosaurs is still the most expensive TV documentary. Shark Week is an annual tradition on, for the point, which cable TV channel, home of the MythBusters?

The Discovery Channel

(30) The very low Bond albedo of this planet's rings explain why they are so dark in color. This planet was originally called the "Georgian Star" by its discoverer, who also was the first to spy its moons Titania and Oberon. This planet's extreme seasonal variance has been explained by its almost ninety degree sideways tilt. William Herschel discovered, for the point, what seventh planet from the Sun that lies between Saturn and Neptune?

Uranus

(19) A breath test for this compound can be used to assess stomach ulcer risk and the presence of H. pylori [[H-"pie"-LOH-ree]]. With water, this compound is the end product of the Bosch-Meiser [[BOSH-MY-zer]] process. Friedrich Wohler [[VOH-luh]] disproved vitalism by inorganically synthesizing this compound. This compound's namesake cycle forms it by combining two molecules of ammonia with one of carbon dioxide. For the point, name this compound used in nitrogen excretion, which is found in urine.

Urea (or Carbamide; accept Urea cycle)

(6) This asterism is surrounded by stars like Rigel, Castor, and Pollux. This asterism encompasses much of the faint constellation (+) Monoceros. Its three component stars form an equilateral triangle when drawn on the celestial sphere. This asterism contains the brightest stars from Orion, Canis Major, and Canis (*) Minor. For the points, name this asterism which contains three of the brightest stars in the winter sky.

Winter Triangle (do not accept or prompt on "Summer Triangle")

(16) The Ukok Plateau is one of the last remnants of this animal's namesake steppe, and resources from this animal were used to make the Venus of Brassempouy and Lion-Man statues. A handful of isolated populations of this animal on St. Paul Island and Wrangel Island survived until 4,000 years ago, and a frozen specimen of this animal was discovered at Yukagir. For the point, name this tusked, furry creature that roamed the earth during the last Ice Age.

Wooly Mammoths (accept Mammuthus primigenius; prompt on partial answers; do not accept or prompt on answers mentioning elephants)

(25) A cycle between muscle and this organ regenerates glucose from lactate through a pyruvate intermediate. In addition to being the site of the Cori cycle, this organ is divided by the falciform ligament. Macrophages in this organ include Kupffer cells. This four-lobed organ has the ability to regenerate, and the hepatic portal vein brings nutrients to this organ. For the point, name this organ which is the site of detoxification.

liver

(1) Fibroids are smooth muscle tumors found in this organ, whose inner lining grows in the wrong location during endometriosis. A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of this internal organ, which is also cut open during a Caesarean section. The placenta forms within this organ after the embryo implants into its wall at the start of gestation. For the point, name this reproductive organ where the fetus develops.

uterus (or womb)

(26) These structures that can produce tephra were observed by the Voyager 2 spacecraft on Triton. The Pacific Ring of Fire is home to many of these structures that can be found at convergent and divergent tectonic plate boundaries, examples of which include Krakatoa and Mauna Loa. Cinder cone, submarine, and shield are all types of, for the point, what type of structure from which lava erupts?

volcano (accept cinder cone volcano; accept submarine volcano; accept shield volcano)

(30) A method named for Euler repeats this operation to find the limit of a series. This operation is applied to trapezoids in a method for approximating integrals. Doing this operation on two vectors applies the parallelogram law by aligning them, and, with multiplication, this is the only commutative arithmetic operation. Zero is the identity of, for the point, what operation represented by a plus sign?

Addition (or Adding; accept Sum; or Summation; accept Plus before mentioned)

(14) This type of cloud comes in species such as spissatus and fibratus, the latter of which is the most common. This cloud type is the highest of the two that can produce a phenomena called fallstreak holes. This type of cloud occurs near the tops of stacked cumulonimbus clouds, and its low temperature usually results in the formation of ice crystals. For the point, identify this type of high, wispy cloud that takes its name from the Latin for "curl of hair," abbreviated Ci [[C-I]].

Cirrus (prompt on "Cirrostratus" or "Cirrocumulus")

(14) A super variant of this entity created by Samy Kankar could track even anonymous TOR users, and their risk is mitigated by the Public Suffix List. Lou Montoulli coined this term to describe entities that can record browsing histories of users and store passwords and usernames on their devices. For the point, name these small blocks of data created by a web server while browsing the web, named after a popular baked snack.

Cookies (accept Web Cookies; or HTTP Cookies; or Internet Cookies; or Browser Cookies; or Authentication Cookies; or Tracking Cookies; or Super Cookies)

(20) Some of the largest types of features made from this natural material include Christmas Island. Islands formed from this material comprise the countries of Tuvalu and Kiribati [[KEER-uh-bahs]], and this material also comprises the world's largest structure made by living organisms. For the point, name this material that forms the Great Barrier Reef.

Coral (accept Coral Atolls; prompt on "Great Barrier Reef" until mentioned)

(4) Ecosystems that are rated 60 to 100 on the Trophic State Index are defined with an adjective named after this process, which indicate it having the highest amount of biological activity. Severe cases of this process may lead to a state of (+) hypoxia [["high"-PAWK-see-ah]], which coincides with the gradual increase in elements such as phosphorus and nitrogen in its ecosystems, such as in estuaries or lakes. An increase in phytoplankton (*) productivity is primarily the cause of, for the points, what process which occurs when plant nutrients in bodies of water encourage algal blooms?

Eutrophication (or Hypereutrophication; accept Algal Blooms before mentioned)

(28) This structure consists of various gyri [[JYE-RYE]], including the nonfunctional gyrus rectus located in this structure's lateral portion. The functions of this structure are measured by Wisconsin (+) Card Sorting and Token Tests, which examine response inhibition and language, respectively. Injury to this lobe may lead to personality changes, as seen in Phineas (*) Gage after an iron rod severed this area of the brain. For the points, name this the largest lobe of the brain associated with problemsolving?

Frontal Lobe (prompt on "Cerebrum", "Prefrontal Cortex", "Frontal Cortex", or "Cerebral Cortex"; prompt on "Brain" before mentioned)

(14) The genome of this organism was completely sequenced in 2000, and the white-eyed mutation of this organism is often studied in introductory biology classes. This organism was used by Thomas Hunt Morgan to study heredity and sex-linked traits. For the point, name this common insect and model organism.

Fruit Fly (or Drosophila melanogaster)

(5) Substances in this phase are described using an equation with "a" and "b" correction terms called the van der Waals equation. Chromatography of substances in this phase is often paired with mass spectrometry. Methane and ethane are in this phase at standard temperature and pressure. The "ideal" type of substances in this phase are described by the equation "PV equals nRT." For the point, name this phase contrasted with liquid and solid.

Gasses

(22) The lack of this construct differentiates a pseudo-ring from a ring. For matrices, the multiplicative type of this construct consists of a square (+) matrix with 1's on the main diagonal and 0's elsewhere. For addition on the real numbers, this construct equals 0, and for multiplication, it equals 1 except for the (*) zero case. For the points, what construct for a binary operation does not change the element it acts on?

Identity (accept Multiplicative Identity; or Additive Identity)

(29) Cylinders have a value of zero, and spheres have a negative value for this man's namesake curvature. This man's proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra was created to refute D'Alembert's [[dah-lem-BEHRS]] false proof. This man names a (+) theorem relating the electric field to the charge distribution, and this man also names a distribution shaped like a bell (*) curve. For the point, name this German mathematician who names the normal distribution.

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (accept Gaussian curve or curvature; accept Gauss's law or flux theorem; accept Gaussian distribution or Gauss's distribution; accept Laplace-Gauss distribution)

(7) These numbers have the form "two to the p minus one times two to the quantity p minus one," leading to their one-to-one correspondence with Mersenne primes. These numbers are neither deficient nor abundant and are only known to be even. Examples of these numbers include six, twenty-eight, and 496. For the point, name these numbers which are the sum of their own prime factors.

Perfect numbers

(24) The largest of these structures in the Western hemisphere is named for Jennifer Chalsty and can be found in Jersey City. Other notable American examples of these structures include the Hayden in New York and the Adler in Chicago. Archimedes is crediting with creating, for the point, what usually dome-shaped structures in which viewers can watch the projected movement of the solar system?

Planetarium (accept Jennifer Chalsty Planetarium; accept Hayden Planetarium; accept Adler Planetarium)

(16) The cloverleaf form of a certain macromolecule binds to the e-site of these structures. These structures are composed of "small" and "large" subunits, and can come in free and membrane-bound varieties. The biogenesis of these structures occurs in the nucleolus. Smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum are distinguished by the presence of these structures, which serve as the site of RNA translation. For the point, name these macromolecular machines that synthesize proteins.

Ribosomes (accept Small or Large Ribosomal subunit; accept Free ribosome; accept Membrane-bound ribosome; accept Attached ribosome)

(19) The predecessors of these rocks undergo diagenesis. Arkose is a feldspar-rich variant of one example of these rocks, while another example of these rocks is primarily composed of calcite and aragonite. Sandstone and limestone are examples of these rocks. For the point, name these rocks that are formed from cementation of particles and are contrasted with igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Sedimentary rocks (prompt on "sandstone" or "limestone" before mentioned)

(27) Alfasols and gelisols [[JEH-lih-sahls]] are examples of this substance, and pedogenesis is the formation of this material. Humus [[HYOO-muss]] is organic material deposited on this substance, which is divided into horizons including O, A, and B. Loam [[LOW-um]] is a type of this substance, and clay, silt, and sand are components of this material, as shown on a texture triangle diagram. Hydroponics does not use, for the point, what substance to which roots anchor plants?

Soil (accept reasonable equivalents such as Dirt)

(19) Exceeding this quantity in a certain medium results in the emission of Cherenkov [[che-REN-kof]] radiation. Particles that can hypothetically exceed this quantity in a vacuum are known as tachyons [[TAK-ee-ons]]. Mass energy equivalence is established by a formula that sets energy equal to mass times this quantity squared. Represented as "c" in Einstein's formula "e equals mc squared," for the point, what is this rate at which photons move?

Speed of Light (or Lightspeed; prompt on "c")

(8) The surface of a location where this process occurs is an arc-trench complex. A shallow angle is present in the "flat slab" form of this process. Earthquakes are generated in Wadati-Benioff zones, in which this process is frequent. Many regions in which this process occurs are found in the Pacific Ocean's Ring of Fire. For the point, name this process which happens when one tectonic plate goes below another at a namesake "zone."

Subduction (accept Flat slab subduction; accept Subduction zone(s))

(22) This body moves in the direction of the Cygnus constellation and contains features that can be predicted by Spörer's law. NASA's Pioneer program engineered the first satellites for long-term observation of this object, which caused a geomagnetic storm during the Carrington Event. This entity, which is classified as G-type main-sequence, contains an outermost layer made of plasma known as the corona. For the point, name this star at the center of our solar system.

Sun (accept Sol)

(23) Half of this object was first directly seen by Jim Lovell and two other crewmembers. This site of the Sea of Tranquility was first visited when Michael Collins stayed in orbit while his two colleagues used a module known as The Eagle. In 1969, Buzz Aldrin and Neal Armstrong became the first two people to reach, for the point, what heavenly body?

The Moon (accept Luna)

(30) A CME which originated from this entity caused a powerful event which was recorded in 1859 by British astronomer Richard Carrington. In this structure's core, pressure is sufficient for hydrogen to fuse into helium, providing most of this structure's energy. This structure's atmosphere or "corona" can be seen during times of an eclipse. For the point, name this star found at the center of our solar system.

The Sun (or Sol)

(14) In a wheel and axle system with equal wheel and axle mass, this quantity for the wheel is equal to mass times radius squared. For a belt and pulley system, this quantity is equal to the (+) axial force on the belt multiplied by the radius of the drive pulley. This quantity, symbolized tau, is the time derivative of angular (*) momentum. For the point, name this rotational analogue of linear force.

Torque (accept Moment, Moment of force, Rotational force, or Turning effect)

(7) The Kozak and Shine Dalgarno sequences are important for initiating this process in eukaryotes and prokaryotes respectively. Molecules bind to the A, P, E sites of an organelle in this process, which begins with the recognition of the start codon AUG or methionine. Initiation, elongation, and termination are the three steps of, for the point, what process in which ribosomes synthesize a protein from an mRNA sequence?

Translation

(3) In dermatology, this word refers to a break in otherwise continuous skin, as seen in the feet of diabetes patients. This word is the proper name for the aphthae of the mouth, which are also known as canker sores. The fundic mucosa and duodenum are usually the site of the stress and peptic forms of these things. For the point, identify these sores, the gastric type of which can be caused by the bacteria H. pylori.

Ulcers (accept Aphthae before mentioned; accept Peptic Ulcer or Stress Ulcer or Gastric Ulcer)

(30) Ophthalmologists utilize the A-scan biometry of this technique during routine exams to determine a person's eye length. The damping block and matching layer are parts of the transducer, a hand-held probe that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy during this technique. This technique is used during a fetal echocardiography which provides an image to determine if a baby has a heart defect. For the point, name this form of imaging technique that uses high frequency sound waves and its echoes to produce pictures inside a body.

Ultrasounds (or Sonography; accept Ultrasonography)

(4) Most researchers agree that these entities require exotic matter in order to stabilize themselves. According to "Polchinski's paradox," a billiard ball traveling through these entities can knock itself off course. The Schwarzschild type of these entities are thought to contain an "Einstein-Rosen bridge," which is a tube connecting two exterior regions together. For the point, name these theoretical structures that connect two points of the universe, whose existence may prove the feasibility of time travel.

Wormholes (or Einstein-Rosen [/a]Wormhole[/a]s; accept Wormhole[/a]s; accept s; accept Einstein-Rosen Bridges)

(18) Lenski et al.'s ongoing evolution experiment with this species observed them spontaneously developing the ability to metabolize citrate [[SIT-"rate"]]. In (+) humans, beneficial strains of this species are involved in producing vitamin K in the intestines. (*) For the point, name this rod-shaped gram negative gut bacteria, a common model organism.

E. coli (or Escherichia coli)

(7) This shape's namesake numbers are generated by the formula "n times 3n minus 1 all over 2." This shape contains as many diagonals as it does sides. Each internal angle of a regular one of this polygon measures 108 degrees. For the point, name this type of polygon which has five sides.

Pentagon

(18) Flank vents are peripherals to this type of landform that may form from a cinder cone. Calderas are formed on these landforms as the result of the collapse of a magma chamber. For the point, name these landforms that are prone to eruption and include examples such as Mt. Saint Helens.

Volcano (accept Caldera before mentioned; accept specific types of Volcano)

(12) A Scholander bomb is a device used to measure the water potential in this structure that likely originated from the Ordovician period. The development of this structure is split into "proto" and "meta" phases, and the Casparian strip helps regulate the entry of substances into this structure. Pressure flow and cohesion-tension theories explain water transport through this tissue that contains four types of cells, including tracheids and parenchyma. For the point, identify this vascular plant tissue that helps transport water upward, contrasted with phloem.

Xylem

(7) Unlike a similar tissue, this particular tissue in plants follows Murray's law, and the cohesion-tension theory is explained via hydrostatic pressure in this tissue. The "meta" variety of this tissue is distinguished from the "proto" variety by the presence of wider tracheids [[TRAY-kyids]]. Water and nutrients are transported upward through this tissue from the roots to the stem and leaves. For the point, name this plant tissue contrasted with the phloem.

Xylem (accept Metaxylem; or Protoxylem; or Primary Xylem; or Secondary Xylem)

(23) At fertilization, there is a spike in the concentration of this element in the cytosol, known as its namesake "bomb" or "wave." This element's plus 2 cation [[KAT-eye-on]] is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells. Sunlight helps the body produce vitamin D, which helps absorb this element. For the point, name this element which is found in bones and has symbol Ca. [[SEE-AY]]

calcium (or Ca+2)

(12) During mitosis, chromosomes condense within these organelles which are surrounded by a double membrane known as their "envelope." Pore complexes allow RNA to travel in and out of these organelles, and these organelles are sometimes called the "control center" of the cell. For the point, name these organelles, which contain the cell's genetic information.

cell nucleus

(1) When these structures are "cultured," they can be in suspension or adherent. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann developed a theory of these structures which has three tenets. A "cycle" named for these structures includes steps like G2, S, and M. These structures possess an outer "wall" and membrane in plants but only a membrane in animals. For the point, name these building blocks of life which contain organelles.

cells

(27) As these objects break up, they can make their namesake "seltzer" hiss by releasing trapped CO2 [[SEE-OH-TWO]]. The two most common shapes for these objects are called tabular and non-tabular. These objects are formed by calving or the breakup of glaciers at the shore. For the point, name these floating objects found in the ocean which are composed of frozen water and can cause shipwrecks such as the Titanic.

iceberg (prompt on "sea ice")

(22) Stephen Kleene [[KLAY-nee]] names a type of this symbol that returns a set of strings closed under concatenation. A forward slash and this symbol are used to delimit block comments in (+) JavaScript and CSS. In languages like C++, this symbol is used to de-reference a pointer variable. This symbol denotes required fields in web forms written in (*) HTML. For the points, name this computer programming symbol that also typically represents multiplication.

ANSWER: asterisk (or star; accept Kleene star)

(1) In the G protein-coupled signal transduction pathway, this molecule is used by adenylyl cyclase to synthesize secondary messenger (+) cAMP. Large amounts of this molecule are synthesized during oxidative phosphorylation via a namesake synthase enzyme located in the (*) mitochondria. For the points, name this "energy currency" of the cell, a molecule consisting of adenine, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.

ATP (or Adenosine Triphosphate)

(24) This scientist developed the processing program FLOW-MATIC, and their ideas inspired the creation of the programming language COBOL. This scientist created the A-0 to teach computers how to translate English into machine code. This woman who attained the rank of rear admiral was the oldest officer in the U.S. armed forces at the time of her retirement. For the point, identify this Navy programmer who made major contributions to the MARK I computer and created the first compiler.

Admiral Grace Hopper (or Grace Brewster Murray Hopper; accept either underlined portion)

(6) A 1,2-diaryl [[DI-AYR-ull]] one of these compounds is formed in the Fritsch- Buttenberg-Wiechell rearrangement. Aldehydes are converted into these compounds in that aforementioned rearrangement, which is the second step in a type of substitution reaction. The Sonogashira reaction creates a bond between an aryl halide and one of these compounds that are created in the Corey-Fuchs reaction. The sinplest form of these compounds with formula C2H2 acetylene. For the point, name these hydrocarbons characterized by at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.

Alkynes

(15) Extractions of the Burmese variety of this substance have been in high demand, although its sale has caused controversy for helping fund the internal conflict in Myanmar. In 2020, scientists were able to extract ancient DNA from this substance, which stabilized the organisms inside, although the extraction of dinosaur blood from this substance is not as feasible as seen in the film Jurassic Park. Insects are commonly preserved in, for the point, what yellow-orange resin that comes from fossilized trees?

Amber (accept Burmese Amber; accept Resinite; prompt on "Resin" before mentioned)

(9) Two enzymes and three of these compounds synthesize creatine. Residues of one type of these compounds make up about one-third of collagen, and the side chain of that type of these compounds is a single hydrogen atom. These compounds are the precursor to proteins, and 21 of them are known. For the point, identify these compounds of which methionine and lysine are essential types.

Amino Acids (prompt on partial answers; accept Glycine)

(20) These objects can be classified as carbonaceous, silicate, or metal-rich. The Late Heavy Bombardment was marked by a large number of collisions involving planets and these objects. In 2014, water vapor was detected on one of these objects named Ceres, while other examples in the same location include Vesta. For the point, name these bodies that exist between Mars and Jupiter in a namesake "belt."

Asteroids (accept Asteroid Belt)

(8) The left recurrent laryngeal [[luh-RIN-jeel]] nerve loops under part of this structure. The incorrect positioning of this structure is one of the defects that make up the tetralogy of Fallot [[fuh-LOH]]. The wall of this structure often "bulges out" in people with Marfan syndrome. The ascending and descending parts of this vessel are connected by its namesake arch. The semilunar valve named for this blood vessel connects it to the left ventricle. Blood is carried away from the heart by, for the point, what largest artery in humans?

Aorta (accept Ascending aorta; or Descending aorta; accept Aortic arch; accept Aortic valve; prompt on "artery")

(13) Ernst Werner von Siemens financed a museum's sale of a fossil of this genus, which had originally been sold by a farmer in exchange for a cow. The aforementioned Berlin Specimen was a fossil of this genus, which was preceded by the Aurornis genus. The "type species" of this genus is referred to as (+) lithographica, and hyperextensible toes and frond-tail plumage were characteristics of this Late Jurassic genus of the (*) Avialae clade, which was confirmed to have feathers. For the point, name this genus of dinosaurs that are considered the forerunner to modern birds.

Archaeopteryx (accept Urvogel)

(11) This thinker was the first to note the color-changing camouflage of octopuses in his book History of Animals. In On the Heavenly Spheres, this thinker claimed that the stars were (+) suspended in an imperishable aether [[AY-ther]]. This thinker posited the prime mover in his (*) Physics. For the point, name this Greek philosopher who wrote the Nichomachean [[nih-koh-mah-KEE-an]] Ethics and tutored Alexander the Great.

Aristotle (or Aristoteles)

(22) Extant varieties of these animals include the screaming hairy and pink fairy types. In the southern United States, the nine-banded variety of these animals always give birth to identical quadruplets, and that species is the primary vector for leprosy. For the point, name these armored mammals, some of which can roll into a ball when scared.

Armadillos

(15) The strong form of this concept is refuted in the Chinese room argument. A test for this concept evaluating indistinguishability from human conversation is named for Alan Turing. For the point, name this concept that refers to a computer's ability to think like a human brain.

Artificial Intelligence (or A.I.)

(7) The Torino or Palermo scales are used to assess the risks posed by some of these objects. Some of these objects that orbit in the L4 and L6 points of Jupiter and Neptune are known as Trojans. The largest and first-discovered example of these objects was predicted to exist by the debunked Bode's [[BOADS]] Law and is named Ceres [[SEE-rees]]. For the point, name these large, rocky masses that orbit the sun in a namesake "belt."

Asteroids (accept Asteroid belt; prompt on "minor planet" or "planetoid")

(30) An experiment on these subjects utilized a checkered carpet, a transparent glass table, and a ramp. That Visual Cliff experiment was conducted on these subjects, and another researcher hid toys from these subjects using a blanket to demonstrate their lack of object permanence. For the point, name these young humans used as research subjects by developmental psychologists.

Babies (or Infants; prompt on "Children" or similar answers)

(14) Along with yttrium and copper, this metal names a type of high-temperature superconductor. This element gives fireworks their green color, and its most common isotope has a mass number of (+) 138. Patients consume a drink containing a sulfate of this element as a contrasting agent before undergoing radiographic (*) examination. For the points, name this Group Two element symbolized Ba.

Barium (accept yttrium barium copper oxide; or YBCO; accept Barium Sulfate; accept Ba alone before mentioned)

(7) Dissolved electrons in liquid ammonia attack this molecule in the simplest form of the Birch reduction. Functional groups are added to this molecule in most EAS reactions, such as the Friedel-Crafts alkylation. The methylation of this molecule produces toluene. When it serves as a functional group, this molecule is called "phenyl," and August Kekule proposed the structure for this molecule, whose aromaticity is represented using a hexagon containing a circle. For the point, name this organic molecule with formula C6H6.

Benzene (accept C6H6 before mentioned)

(28) Mergez is a third magnitude star in this entity, and in Malaysia and Indonesia, this constellation is identified as a boat or canoe. A technique involving drawing an imaginary line through this entity's stars of Merak and Dubne is used to find Polaris. For the point, name this pattern of stars that look like a bowl with a handle, comprising seven bright stars of the Ursa Major constellation.

Big Dipper (accept the Plough; prompt on "Ursa Major" before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "Little Dipper")

(29) These warm-blooded animals are the closest living relatives to crocodilians, and the respiratory tract of these animals flows in a single direction. Some of these animals swallow stones to store in the gizzard which help with breaking down food. Many of these warmblooded animals possess hollow bones to reduce their body weight. For the point, name these feathered animals, most of which can fly.

Birds (or Aves)

(2) These objects from from precursor stars that exceed the Tolman-OppenheimerVolkoff limit. The Reissner-Nordstrom variety of these objects are non-rotating, and one of these objects is predicted to vanish, as described by Hawking radiation. For the point, name these regions of supermassive gravity from which light cannot escape.

Black Holes (accept Reissner-Nordstrom Black Holes)

(26) The no-hair theorem states that these entities can be characterized by just their mass, charge, and angular momentum. These objects are bound by the Schwarzschild radius, and thermal radiation can be emitted by these entities in a mechanism proposed by Steven Hawking. The surface boundary of these objects is their event horizon, past which nothing can be observed. For the point, name these regions of spacetime with gravity so strong, even light cannot escape it.

Black holes

(29) These entities can be described using only mass, angular momentum, and charge, rendering them "hairless." An object approaching one of these entities will become increasingly redshifted and eventually stop moving, and the boundary of that occurrence with these objects is known as the event horizon. For the point, name these gravitational singularities from which even light cannot escape.

Black holes

(7) This compound can be artificially synthesized using dimethylurea [["die"-meh-thil-yoo-REE-ah]] and malonic [[mah-LAH-nik]] acid. This compound's primary metabolites are paraxanthine [["pair"-ah-ZAN-theen]] and theobromine [[thee-oh-BROH-meen]]. With theophylline [[thee-AH-fih-leen]], this compound is often used as a treatment for (+) sleep apnea among premature babies. This stimulant is often extracted using supercritical carbon dioxide. Due to being an adenosine [[ah-DEH-noh-seen]] antagonist, this alkaloid compound is commonly used to prevent (*) drowsiness. For the point, name this stimulant found in tea and coffee.

Caffeine (accept Guaranine; accept Methyltheobromine)

(13) The transition between minerals rich in sodium and minerals rich in this element make up the continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series. Along with magnesium, this metal is present in dolomite, and it is also found in aragonite and calcite. This element's carbonate makes up the shells of many marine animals. A metal found in limestone, this is, for the point, what element, the main constituent of bone?

Calcium (or Ca)

(11) Healthy examples of this tissue exclusively have chondrocyte [[KON-dro-site]] cells. The amount of proteoglycan and collagen in this tissue determines if it is hyaline, fibro, or elastic. Along with bone tissue, this tissue is destroyed in osteoarthritis. This tissue makes up the skeletons of skates, rays, and sharks. For the point, name this flexible structural tissue that lines joints and makes up the nose and ear.

Cartilage (accept Cartilaginous tissue)

(3) A supernova remnant in this constellation, formally known as 3C 10, is also referred to as "Tycho Supernova Remnant" since the astronomer discovered the object in 1572. The five brightest (+) stars of this constellation — Segin, Ruchbah, Gamma Cas, Schedar, and Caph — make up its most prominent feature, which resembles a queen sitting on her (*) throne. For the points, name this constellation that can be recognized by the naked eye in the shapes of an "M" or "W", named after a mythological queen of Ethiopia.

Cassiopeia (or Cassiopeiae)

(4) A volcano plot depicts how these substances bind according to the Sabatier principle. The number of active sites in the heterogenous type of these substances are lowered by "Poisoning," and these substances provide an alternate reaction pathway by stabilizing the transition state and lowering the activation energy. For the point, name these substances that speed up chemical reactions.

Catalysts (accept Heterogeneous Catalysts)

(18) Access to these areas were limited in one location after soil samples found inside were positive for a fungus known to cause the white-nose syndrome. Within these areas are formations made of nodes of calcite, aragonite, or gypsum known as "popcorn", and another formation within these areas are made from sheets of calcium carbonates known as flowstones. The erosion of limestone forms, for the point, what natural, underground voids that contain stalactites and stalagmites, a place where spelunkers explore?

Caves (accept Caverns)

(6) One member of this order produces ambergris [[AM-ber-gree]] as a byproduct of their digestion. Filter-feeding members of this order possess keratin plates called baleen [[BAY-leen]]. (+) Many members of this order contain a structure called a melon, which houses the spermaceti [[sper-mah-SEH-tee]] organ used in echolocation. Members of this order breathe through a specialized (*) nostril on their backs called a blowhole. For the point, name this order of marine mammals that includes porpoises, dolphins, and whales.

Cetaceans [[see-TAY-shuns]] (accept Whales before mentioned; prompt on "dolphin" or "porpoise" before mentioned)

(15) During the Crimean War, this English scientist broke Vigenère's [[veezh-NEHRS]] autokey cipher. Ada Lovelace is best known for developing punch cards for a proposed invention made by this scientist. In 1991, the Science Museum in London created a replica of the difference engine based on this man's notes. For the point, name this British mathematician and early computer scientist, the inventor of the analytical engine.

Charles Babbage (accept Babbage's difference engine, Babbage's analytical engine, or Babbage's engine)

(18) In fruit flies, these phenomena involve the PER/TIM loop. Environmental cues called zeitgebers [[ZITE-geh-buhs]] entrain these phenomena which are triggered by the release of melatonin from the pineal [[pih-NEE-ahl]] gland. Exposure to artificial blue light can disrupt these phenomena, which are controlled by the suprachiasmatic [[soo-prah-kai-ahs-MAH-tik]] nucleus. For the point, name this phenomenon, the body's natural sleep-wake cycle.

Circadian Rhythm (or Circadian Clock; or Circadian Cycle)

(23) This phenomenon is responsible for the Ekman spiral, and its vertical analogue is known as the Eötvös [[OHT-vohs]] effect. The National (+) Geographic tested this phenomenon in an experiment where a person throws a ball to the person in front of them while on a roundabout. Contrary to popular opinion, this effect does not have an impact on the direction of toilet (*) flushing in different hemispheres. For the points, name this effect that deflects objects while rotating, an effect caused by a fictitious namesake force.

Coriolis Effect (or Coriolis Force)

(17) In marsupials, this structure's function is fulfilled by the anterior commissure. Patients who fail to develop this structure may develop Probst bundles to compensate. Damage to this structure can result in alien hand syndrome or Dr. Strangelove (+) syndrome. This structure has a Latin name meaning "tough body." This structure is severed in patients who undergo a split (*) brain procedure, which is sometimes used to treat epilepsy. For the point, name this structure that links the two hemispheres of the brain.

Corpus Callosum (or Callosal Commissure)

(16) The dot product of two vectors multiplies their magnitudes by this function of the angle between them. This function names a law that is a generalized form of the Pythagorean theorem. This trigonometric function is obtained by dividing the adjacent side of a right triangle by its hypotenuse. The secant function is the reciprocal of, for the point, what mathematical function, the co-function of sine?

Cosine (accept Law of Cosines)

(25) A molybdenum foil from one of these devices resulted in the first isolation of isotopes of technetium. Isochronous and spiral-sector types of these devices maximize the potential energy generated by its beams, and the first of these devices was installed at the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. The synchrotron largely supplanted, for the point, what type of particle accelerator with a circular trajectory that was developed by Ernest O. Lawrence?

Cyclotron (accept Isochronous Cyclotron; accept Spiral-Sector Cyclotron)

(13) Up-regulation of cytochrome P450 conveys resistance to this organo-chlorine compound, which prevents sodium channels from closing. This chemical was (+) implicated in declining peregrine falcon and bald eagle populations as it accumulated in their prey. (*) For the point, name this pesticide that was largely banned following the revelation that it thinned eggshells after the release of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring.

DDT (or Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

(27) This entity is theorized to primarily exist within a namesake "halo." This entity can be indirectly observed through anomalies in galactic rotation curves. Candidates for the composition of this entity include GIMPS, WIMPS, and sterile neutrinos. This entity gets its name from interacting with gravity but not electromagnetic radiation, making it hard to detect. For the point, name this form of matter which is believed to make up 80 percent of the known mass in the universe.

Dark Matter (accept Dark Matter halo; do not accept or prompt on "dark energy")

(6) Early implementations of this computational concept include one researched by C. Chapin Cutler at Bell Labs in 1950, known as the Differential Pulse-Code Modulation. This process is often dubbed "lossy" or "lossless" depending on how much information is lost. For the point, identify this computational process that reduces the size of transmissions or files, such as .MP3 and .MPEG, by encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation.

Data Compression (accept Source Coding; accept Bit-Rate Reduction

(7) Due to exhibiting this phenomenon, an experiment carried out by Thomas Young helped prove the wave nature of light. The Davisson-Germer experiment used scattering and this phenomenon to demonstrate the wave-particle duality of electrons. An Airy disk is a type of this phenomenon's patterns caused by a circular aperture. For the point, identify this phenomenon in which a light beam bends after encountering a barrier or opening.

Diffraction

(2) The destructive type of this process is used for thermal cracking of coal to form coal tar and coke. Refluxing can be used to improve the output of this process. Azeotropes [[AYzee-oh-tropes]] such as ethanol and water cannot be separated using the fractional form of this technique. Selective condensation is used in, for the point, what technique which separates mixtures based on differences in boiling point?

Distillation (accept Distilling; accept Destructive distillation; accept Fractional distillation)

(10) Brunhes and Mutayama name an event in which this entity last underwent a radical change. The origin of this entity can be explained by the dynamo effect, and reversals in this entity correspond to stripes on the ocean floor. The interaction of charged particles with this entity creates the aurora borealis, or the "Northern Lights." For the point, name this entity which causes compasses on the Blue Planet to align with the poles.

Earth's Magnetic Field (or Geomagnetic Field; accept Earth's Magnetic Poles; prompt on partial answers)

(28) This body's 1600-mile Aitken basin is one of the largest craters in the solar system. This body was likely formed in the "Big Splash," a collision with a Mars-sized object. This object contains a favorable landing spot called the Sea of Tranquility, and the gravitational pull of this object is responsible for tides. For the point, name this celestial body that waxes and wanes as it orbits the Earth.

Earth's Moon (or Luna)

(19) Michael Brown discovered the second-largest known object in this region that is named after a god from the mythology of the Easter Islanders. Predictions have failed to explain the lack of large objects beyond this region's 1:2 resonance, and Methane and ammonia are among the "ices" that make up bodies in this region which is closer than the Oort Cloud to the sun. Other bodies within this region include Haumea and Makemake, as well as a reclassified body discovered by Clyde Tombaugh. Pluto can be found within, for the point, what disc-shaped region of the Solar System named for a Dutch astronomer

Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt

(1) In organophosphorus chemistry, Kabachnik parameters can represent this quantity for functional groups. Germanium's heightened value for this quantity relative to silicon can be explained by d-block contraction. A type of this quantity that focuses on the surface of certain entities is named for A. Louis Allred and Eugene G. Rochow. Symbolized chi, this quantity's strength is heavily correlated with ionization energy and can be measured in Pauling units. Fluorine has the highest value of, for the point, what measure of an atom's ability to attract a certain negatively charged particle?

Electronegativity (accept word forms; prompt on "Chi" before mentioned)

(1) This particle names a technique for which the 2017 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded. Photons cause the emission of these particles in the photoelectric effect. The charge of these subatomic particles was determined by the Millikan oil drop experiment. J.J. Thomson described these particles floating in a positively-charged medium in his "plum pudding" model of the atom. For the point, name these negatively charged particles which orbit the nucleus.

Electrons (accept Cryo-electron microscopy)

(4) When one of these organelles is broken up, microsomes are formed. Proteins tagged with the retention motifs KKXX and KDEL are unable to leave the membrane of this organelle. COPII [["COP"-"TWO"]] is used to tag proteins being transported from this organelle to the Golgi [["GOAL"-jee]] apparatus. For the point, name this organelle that serves as a cell's main transportation system and surrounds the nucleus.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (or ER; accept Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum or Rough ER; accept Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum or Smooth ER)

(28) One type of this quantity named for Gibbs is equal to a heat engine variety defined as SQ over T. This quantity is conserved in microscopic reversible processes, but is monotonic [[mah-noh-TAH-nik]] in macroscopic processes. According to the Boltzmann-Planck equation, this quantity is equal to k log W. For a perfect crystal at absolute zero, this quantity equals zero. For the point, name this quantity, the measure of total disorder in a system.

Entropy (accept Gibbs entropy; prompt on "S")

(9) These land features' location qualifies them as ecotones between river and maritime environments. One (+) of these bodies of water drains into the Atlantic Ocean, and it was formed at the Punta Gorda by the confluence of the Uruguay and (*) Parana Rivers. For the points, name this body of water with a direct connection to the ocean and with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it.

Estuary

(2) Grignard [[green-YARD]] reagents are commonly stored in a ring-shaped solvent with this functional group called THF. This functional group is made by reacting an alkyl halide with an alcohol in a synthesis reaction named for Williamson. Three-atom cyclic examples of these molecules are called epoxides. For the point, name this functional group consisting of two carbon chains bonded to a single oxygen atom, whose "diethyl" type was formerly a common anesthetic.

Ethers (accept Diethyl Ether)

(16) Among the incohesive types of rock that form at these regions are its namesake breccia and gouge. The collapse of calderas can lead to the creation of the ring type of these features, which are the subject of a theory developed by Ernest Anderson. One type of these regions that occurs underwater can form a characteristic zigzag pattern and terminate at a subduction zone. These planar regions can undergo a type of displacement called creep in the absence of seismic activity. For the point, name these regions that can cause earthquakes, such as one named for San Andreas.

Faults (accept Fault Line; accept Fault Trace; accept Fault Zone)

(1) In the fatigue form of this process, repeated application of force causes the spread of striations. For ductile materials, this process occurs after strain hardening and necking at the end point of a stress-strain curve. In highly brittle materials, this process occurs without plastic deformation. This process occurs with the propagation of cracks. For the point, name this process that occurs when stress causes solid objects to break in two.

Fracture (accept word forms; accept Cracking or Fatigue Crack before mentioned)

(27) Tin hydride or PTOC thiol are used to calibrate clocks named for these species, and AIBN is heated to serve to initiate production of these species. A form of polymerization (+) using these species experiences steps of initiation via homolytic cleavage, propagation, and termination. Mechanisms containing these species are drawn using fishhook arrows, and they are thwarted by (*) antioxidants. For the points, name these chemical species with an unpaired electron.

Free Radicals (prompt on "radical")

(16) This scientist collected his ideas in the books The Two Chief Sciences and Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. This scientist proved that bodies can orbit objects besides the Earth by observing his namesake moons of Jupiter. This scientist tested the universal acceleration of gravity by dropping different weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For the point, name this Italian scientist who was condemned by the Inquisition for supporting heliocentrism.

Galileo Galilei (accept Galilei)

(1) This man's final book was a discourse on the study of motion and the study of materials titled Two New Sciences. The publication of this man's (+) Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems led to him being (*) condemned by the inquisition for his heliocentrism. For the point, name this scientist who observed a group of namesake moons of Jupiter.

Galileo Galilei (or Galileo Galilei)

(25) Ferdinando II was the dedicatee of a work by this man which labels one character as Sagredo. Robert Bellarmine questioned the accuracy of the findings of this man who names a spacecraft launched in 1989 that studied Gaspra and other asteroids near Jupiter. The quotation "Eppur si muove," meaning "And yet, it moves" is often attributed to this man who lived in Pisa and earned the ire of Pope Urban VIII [[THE EIGHTH]]. For the point, name this Italian scientist who was tried in the 17th century for expounding the theory of heliocentrism.

Galileo [di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de'] Galilei (accept either underlined answer)

(9) Manhattan plots can represent "association studies" named for these things, which link nucleotide variation to disease traits. The first complete map of one of these things for a eukaryote was created for Baker's yeast. James Watson led a project that used highthroughput sequencing to map these things for Homo sapiens. For the point, what term refers to the entire genetic sequence of an organism?

Genome (accept Human Genome Project; accept Genome-wide Association Studies; prompt on "genes" or "DNA")

(9) Along with zinc and copper, this element can be extracted with the Albion [[AL-bee-un]] process. Common ores of this element include nagyágite [[nahg-YAH-gite]], petzite and krennerite, from which this element can be extracted through (+) cyanide leaching. Iron pyrite superficially resembles this element, lending it the nickname (*) "fool's" this element. For the point, name this highly conductive precious metal known for its yellow color.

Gold (accept Au)

(7) Fragmentations of this organelle has been associated with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Molecules tagged with mannose-6-phosphate are directed to the lysosome from this organelle that receives COPII [[cop-two]] transported proteins at its cis face. Membrane-enclosed discs called cisternae are found in, for the point, what organelle that packages protein and lipid molecules into membrane-bound vesicles, often described as the "post office" of a eukaryotic cell?

Golgi Apparatus (or Golgi Complex; or Golgi Body)

(17) This man names a rule for differentiating under the integral sign. The alternating series test in series (+) convergence is alternately named for this mathematician. This man, whose philosophical works include Discourse on Metaphysics, also published a text which presented a formulation of a subject that another mathematician explained with (*) fluxions. For the points, name this mathematician who invented calculus independently of Isaac Newton.

Gottfried Leibniz (or Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

(9) This man studied gardening and beekeeping as a child, but turned his focus to philosophy and physics, studying under Christian Doppler. Unable to pass his oral exams to become a teacher, the financial strain of his education led this man to join the Augustinian abbey in Brno [[BUR-noh]]. Although he was a physics teacher, this man's background in gardening had the greatest impact on his legacy. For the point, name this friar whose work with pea plants established the science of genetics.

Gregor Mendel

(23) Ronald Fisher analyzed this man's data using statistics and determined that it was "too good to be true." One law named after this man states that alleles for separate traits are passed independently of one another. This scientist coined the terms "dominant" and "recessive" for the expression of traits and developed the laws of segregation and independent assortment. For the point, name this scientist whose experiments on pea plants provided the foundation of genetics.

Gregor Mendel (or Gregor Johann Mendel)

(1) The title of a book by Leon M. Lederman inspired one name for this entity, which was the subject of the "central problem." François Englert received the 2013 Nobel Prize for Physics for his work at CERN that was thought to involve the discovery of this entity. This entity was sought in order to prove an unexplained gap in the Standard Model, and this particle possesses even parity and lacks color, charge, and spin. Produced by it's namesake's field, this is, for the point, what particle, a boson sometimes called the "God Particle?"

Higgs Boson (accept Higgs Particle; prompt on "Boson;" prompt on "Higgs" field by asking "What particle is associated with it?;" prompt on the "God Particle")

(19) This substance induces dysentery in its creators when produced from an aphid byproduct. This substance's low moisture content makes it inhospitable to microorganisms, which makes it the only known foodstuff to never spoil. Produced from stomach enzymes and stored in hexagonal wax combs, this is, for the point, what natural sweetener produced from nectar by bees?

Honey

(12) Due to this law, stress-strain curves have straight lines. This law can be generalized as strain is proportional to stress in elastic materials. This law predicts that (+) distance from equilibrium is negatively and directly proportional to the restoring force. (*) For the point, name this law relating force to displacement, which models the behavior of springs as "F equals negative kx."

Hooke's law

(26) A hyperfine transition in this element leads to a form of radiation called the 21- centimeter line. This element's alpha emission line is dark red as part of its Balmer series. This element makes up 75 percent of the baryonic mass of the universe. This element is fused by main sequence stars to produce helium. For the point, name this lightest and most abundant element in the universe.

Hydrogen

(1) This compound is industrially produced in the anthra-quinone [[an-thrahKWY-nohn]] process. A solution of ferrous iron and this compound is used to treat drinking water as (+) Fenton's reagent. Within eukaryotic [[yoo-"care"-ee-AH-tik]] cells, specialized vacuoles use catalase [[KAT-ah-"lace"]] to break down this compound into water and (*) oxygen. For the points, name this compound with formula H2O2 which, like isopropyl alcohol, is commonly used as a first aid antiseptic.

Hydrogen Peroxide (accept H2O2 before mentioned; prompt on "peroxide")

(8) This compound is industrially produced in the anthra-quinone [[an-thrah-KWIH-nohn]] process. A solution of ferrous iron and this compound is used to treat drinking water as Fenton's reagent. Within eukaryotic [[yoo-"care"-ee-AH-tik]] cells, specialized (+) vacuoles use catalase [[KAT-ah-"lace"]] to break down this compound into water and (*) oxygen. For the point, name this compound with formula H2O2 which, like isopropyl alcohol, is commonly used as a first aid antiseptic.

Hydrogen Peroxide (accept H2O2 before mentioned; prompt on "peroxide")

(9) Along with ambient visible light, this is the primary radiation converted into electrons in night vision goggles. This radiation names a form of (+) spectroscopy that measures a molecule's vibrational transition. This radiation has wavelengths from 700 millimeters to 1 centimeter. (*) For the point, name this radiation range with wavelengths longer than that of visible light.

Infrared light (or IR)

(12) This region's outer boundary is sometimes called the Lehmann-Bullen discontinuity. Due to having temperatures near the surface of the sun, this region passes the Curie temperature (+) and is not ferromagnetic. This layer, whose existence is demonstrated by PKiKP waves, is composed of a solid iron-nickel (*) alloy. For the point, name this solid metal layer of the Earth, which is surrounded by the liquid outer core.

Inner Core (prompt on "core"; do not accept or prompt on "outer core")

(13) The Bessemer process removes impurities from this element's "Pig" form. With cobalt and nickel, this element is naturally ferromagnetic, and this element oxidizes to form a red compound called rust. For the point, name this transition metal with symbol Fe [[F-E]] that alloys with carbon to make steel.

Iron (or Fe)

(26) This scientist controversially refused to give her subjects numbers, instead opting for names like "Goliath." This scientist observed one animal population using twigs and grass to "fish" for termites. (+) This scientist observed a nonhuman "war" between the Kasakela and Kahama communities of Gombe [[GOHM-beh]] (*) National Park. For the point, name this English anthropologist and primatologist, a woman best known for studying Tanzanian chimpanzees.

Jane Goodall (or Valerie Jane Morris-Goodall; or Baroness Jane van Lawick-Goodall)

(2) An object known as SN 1604 is named after this man, who described it in his De Stella Nova. Astronomiae Pars Optica is a work by this scientist who wrote an essay to Ferdinand II in which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar motion. For the point, name this polymath who published three laws of planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler

(20) This scientist's predictions regarding the motion of Mars came to be known as the Vicarious Hypothesis. This scientist developed a model in which Platonic solids circumscribed and inscribed by orbs could characterize the relationships between planets in the solar system. This scientist collected a set of data to help compute planetary positions known as the Rudolphine Tables and found that the length of the semimajor axis is proportional to planetary orbital period. For the point, name this German astronomer who developed three laws of planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler

(11) Leopold von Buch divided this period into three categories called the Black, Brown, and White. Remnants (+) of limestone from this geological era were first identified in the French-Swiss mountain range after which this period was named. Constituting the middle of the (*) Mesozoic Era, this is, for the points, what geological period preceded by the Triassic and succeeded by the Cretaceous?

Jurassic Period

(17) These entities are classified based on their thermal stratification into either holomictic or meromictic. These bodies of water become enriched with nutrients during eutrophication. When a river meander is cut off, the "oxbow" varieties of these bodies of water can form. For the point, name these bodies of water that come in glacial and fluvial varieties, examples of which include Michigan and Superior.

Lakes (accept Oxbow Lakes; accept glacial lakes; accept fluvial lakes)

(3) These constructs are unrolled during compilation, and vectorization obviates the need for these constructs. Retry statements can be used to exit these structures using the break command. For, while, and do are keywords that declare these constructs, which can run infinitely if left unsatisfied. For the point, name these blocks of code that are executed repeatedly until a particular condition is met.

Loops

(1) A 1999 mission to study the climate of this body was lost due to a miscommunication regarding Imperial and metric units. Extensive soil tests were performed on this body by the Viking landers. The Spirit and Opportunity rovers transmitted extensive data from, for the point, what fourth planet from the sun?

Mars

(26) The term for this computing technique was coined by David Michie in 1968. Related to caching [["CASH"-ing]], this technique is often used in compilers (+) for functional programming languages, where a "call by name" strategy is employed. With the goal of "turning a function into something to be (*) remembered," for the points, what is this computing technique that stores the results of function calls to be returned from a cache at a later time, also called tabling?

Memoization [["memo"-"EYE"-zay-shun]] (accept Tabling before mentioned; prompt on "Memo" or "Memorandum"; prompt on "Caching" before mentioned)

(23) This planet's slow perihelion precession served as an early confirmation of Einstein's theory of general relativity. This planet was explored by the Mariner 10 and Messenger missions. This planet experiences the widest day-to-night temperature swings of any body in the solar system, ranging from negative 280 to positive 800 degrees fahrenheit. For the point, name this smallest planet, which is also the closest planet to the Sun.

Mercury

(17) This element is most commonly mined from the mineral cinnabar. When bonded to a methyl group, this element forms a biotoxin which commonly accumulates in seafood. Alloys formed with this element are known as amalgams, and atmospheric pressure can be measured in "millimeters of" this element. For the point, name this element, a metal that is liquid at room temperature.

Mercury (accept Hg; accept Quicksilver)

(28) Most of these objects are classified as chondrites, and these objects concentrate in the Transantarctic Mountains after striking glaciers. Particularly bright examples of these objects are known as bolides, but they get another name after striking the ground. Found inside impact craters, these are, for the point, what fallen space rocks?

Meteorites (prompt on "Asteroids;" prompt on "Meteoroids")

(11) This molecule and water are produced in the Sabatier process, and this molecule and carbon dioxide are the main components of biogas [[BIO-gas]]. This molecule is the main constituent of natural gas, and it is emitted from volcanoes and swamps. For the point, identify this simplest alkane with formula CH4.

Methane (accept CH4 before mentioned)

(24) Unlike addition, this operation is not commutative for matrices in general. The use of numerous instances of this operation upon one number is called exponentiation. Often thought of as a form of repeated addition, this is, for the point, what operation that when applied to 2 and 3 yields 6?

Multiplication

(21) This set of numbers is not bounded above in the reals by the Archimedean property. Peano's axioms are a set of rules governing these numbers. The sum of the reciprocal of these numbers is equivalent to the harmonic series. This set of numbers is the intersection of the positive numbers with the integers. For the point, what set of numbers includes 1, 2, 3, and so on?

Natural numbers (accept Positive integers; accept non-negative integers; accept whole numbers; or counting numbers)

(10) Locations such as Haua Fteah and Atapuerca contained stone tools from this species' Mousterian culture. A 2013 study found that the discovery of a hyoid bone from the Kebara Cave did not provide evidence for this species' ability to speak. This species, which interbred with the closely related Denisovan group, became extinct roughly 30,000 years ago. For the point, name these hominids with heavy brows, named for the German valley where their remains were discovered.

Neanderthals (accept Homo sapiens neanderthalensis)

(9) These events occur when the sun and moon are separated by ninety degrees as viewed from Earth. These events are predicted by measuring the rise of (+) sea levels, and a small range of heights indicates these events whereas a large range indicates the spring type. Sometimes referred to as a quadrature (*) tide, for the points, what is this tide that occurs when there's a difference between high and low water?

Neap Tide (or Quadrature Tide before mentioned; prompt on "Tide")

(30) The conductivity of these cells is improved by being coated in myelin by Schwann cells. These cells are supported by glial [[GLEE-ull]] cells, which include oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. These cells demonstrate "plasticity" through pruning and long-term potentiation. These cells connect to each other through axons and dendrites and communicate with chemicals such as dopamine and serotonin across their synapses. For the point, name these cells which make up the nervous system.

Neurons (accept Nerve cell before "nervous system")

(26) Clumps of rough endoplasmic reticulum in these cells are known as Nissl bodies, and these cells are supported by oligodendrocytes, a type of glial cell. The Law of Dynamic Polarization in these cells was formulated by Santiago Cajal [[kah-HALL]], who advanced the idea that these cells are the functional units of the nervous system. Schwann cells, axons, and dendrites are parts of, for the point, what cells in the body that send and receive electrical and chemical signals?

Neurons (or Nerve Cells)

(12) These particles consist of one up quark and two down quarks, and stars named for these particles are supported by their namesake degeneracy pressure. Uranium fission is initiated by the absorption of one of these particles, and after fission, more of these particles are released to sustain a chain reaction. For the point, name these uncharged subatomic particles which make up the atomic nucleus with protons.

Neutrons (accept Neutron star(s))

(7) The cuckoo is known as a "brood" type of these organisms, and Plasmodium is a protist which is also one of these organisms. A tropical fungus that acts as one of these organisms can alter the behavior of ants. It's not mutualism or commensalism, since organisms in a symbiotic relationship with these organisms are harmed. For the point, name these organisms which target hosts to gain benefits, examples of which include tapeworms and leeches.

Parasites

(1) This property is observed in materials without inversion symmetry. A sharp tip with this property is attached to a cantilever and dragged along the surface of a sample in atomic force microscopy. Ceramic capacitors often contain lead zirconate titanate, which exhibits a strong form of this property. Studies of Rochelle salts led Jacques and Pierre Curie to discover this property that is possessed by quartz. For the point, identify this property of materials that generate an electric voltage in response to applied mechanical stress.

Piezoelectricity (or Piezoelectric Effect)

(2) These are not mountains, but one type of these landforms is created due to slow convergence of tectonic plates and upward movement of the earth's crust. Another type of these landforms is formed due to the upwelling of magma and the accumulation of lava in layers. Dissected and volcanic are the two major types of, for the point, what features that are formed by thermal expansion and crustal shortening, and are elevated pieces of land with flat tops?

Plateaus (accept dissected plateaus; accept volcanic plateaus)

(12) This object was called Stella Maris in the medieval period, and this object was preceded in its role by Kochab and Pherkad. This object's southern counterpart is called Sigma Octantis, and in Lakota this celestial object is known as "The Star that Sits Still." For the point, name this brightest star of Ursa Minor, or the "Little Dipper," often called the "North Star."

Polaris (accept Alpha Ursae Minoris until mentioned; prompt on "North Star" or "Pole Star" until mentioned)

(1) Known in the 19th century as Heine-Medin disease, this disease remains active in the wild only in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Drinker and Shaw developed a negative pressure ventilator in 1928 in response to pervasive outbreaks of this disease. In 1921, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was diagnosed with this disease, leaving him confined to a wheelchair. For the point, name this disease, whose first vaccine was developed by Jonas Salk.

Poliomyelitis

(19) A rare, naturally occurring form of this substance is called prasiolite. One variation of this crystalline mineral is uniquely composed of colloidal ferric hydroxide impurities, and this variation is called a citrine. This mineral is naturally made of a continuous framework of tetrahedra, and this mineral defines the value of seven on the Mohs scale of hardness. For the point, identify this second-most abundant mineral in the Earth's crust after feldspar, a mineral composed of silicon dioxide?

Quartz

(5) A variety of this mineral, along with iridium, is found at the K-Pg boundary and provides evidence for the hypothesis that an asteroid impact killed the dinosaurs. This mineral is found at the bottom of Bowen's reaction series. The "shocked" variety of this mineral was found at the Chicxulub crater, and its chemical name is silicon dioxide. For the point, name this mineral that is a seven on the Mohs hardness scale.

Quartz (accept Shocked Quartz)

(29) This mineral is found at the bottom of the Goldich dissolution series, because it has high stability on Earth's surface. The shocked type of this mineral that has a varied microstructure is formed from meteor impacts. A crystal of this mineral is found in watches, because it is piezoelectric [[pee-eh-zoh-ee-LEK-trik]]. This mineral has a value of seven on the Mohs hardness scale. For the point, name this mineral composed of silicon dioxide, which is found in sand.

Quartz (accept Shocked quartz)

(16) One controversial method for carrying out this task involves depositing a certain substance into a subduction zone. (+) The primary method for carrying out this task is called deep geological (*) repository. For the point, identify this task of safely dealing with the waste products of fusion and fission.

Radioactive waste disposal (accept any answer indicating the disposal, storage, or management of waste products from nuclear power plants or weapons)

(2) This task commonly uses clay in the K-AR technique. Another technique for this task uses zircon to calculate a uranium-thorium-lead decay chain, and another method for this task uses the 12 and 14 isotopes of carbon. For the point, name this process that uses radioactive decay to find the age of an object.

Radiometric Dating (accept Radiocarbon Dating; accept Carbon Dating; accept Uranium-Lead Dating; accept descriptive terms referring to finding a Date or an Age of an object)

(35) The regressive typed of these features can be formed at the terminus of a gut, and differences in channel slopes can lead to avulsions, a type of switching that occurs along these features. The bird's foot is a variety of these features where fisheries often thrive, and the Ganges is home to the largest of these features, which can degrade due to a lack of sediment being deposited into them. Often forming where a sea and river meet, these are, for the point, what triangular-shaped hydrological features?

River Delta

(8) The Venice System uses this quantity to classify bodies of water, whose global average is 35 parts per thousand. This quantity and temperature drive (+) thermohaline flows, and this quantity increases from the tidal limit of a river to the mouth of an estuary. In comparision to freshwater, brackish (*) water has a higher value of, for the points, what quantity that measures the concentration of sodium and chloride ions in water?

Salinity (accept Salt Concentration; accept descriptive answers like the amount of salt in water)

(9) The surface of Mars is an example of the crescent-shape type of these topographical features known as Barchans [[bar-CANS]]. The removal of sediments cause surface depressions known as blowouts which are typically associated with the parabolic type of these topographical features, whose slip face is convex in shape. Draas are a large-scale version of, for the point, what topographical features that are mounds of sand formed by wind deposits?

Sand Dunes (accept Dune System; accept Dune Complex; accept Dune Field; accept Crescent Dunes; accept Barchan Dunes; accept Parabolic Dunes)

(22) The most remote portions of this region are primarily covered in hematite [[HEE-mah-"tight"]] rich "red clay." This region is home to formations such as black and white smokers. Cold seeps along this region can result in the formation of brine pools. Organisms that live near this region are collectively known as benthos, which often cluster around hydrothermal vents. For the point, name this rocky region at the bottom of the ocean.

Sea floor (or Ocean floor; accept Bed in place of Floor; accept Bottom in place of Floor before mentioned)

(2) Edwin Chadwick supported one of these systems with a velocity-augmenting design. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw the construction of one of these structures in London. The effluent type of these systems, often abbreviated STEG, have small diameter pipes, and items are transported through these systems to namesake treatment centers to remove contaminants. Septic Tank Effluent Pumping and Septic Tank Effluent Gravity are types of, for the point, what typically underground structures that carry wastewater?

Sewers (accept Sewer Systems; accept Sanitary Sewers; accept Septic Tank Effluent Pumping before mentioned; accept Septic Tank Effluent Gravity before mentioned)

(2) One condition that affects this body part is called stenosis, in which bone spurs appear due to the narrowing of the canal found in this body part. Another condition that affects this body part is spondylosis, while in another condition, curvatures resembling the letters "C" or "S" is used to diagnose scoliosis, an abnormal curvature of this body part. The cervical, thoracic, and lumbar are groups of vertebrae in, for the point, what part of the body, also called the backbone?

Spine (accept Backbone before mentioned)

(3) The Bajau people of Southeast Asia have enlarged forms of this organ as an adaptation for diving. Parts of this organ branch into arteries surrounded by PALS tissue. Damage to this organ can result in overwhelming sepsis from encapsulated organisms. Sickle cell anemia can sequester this organ that contains white and red pulp. For the point, name this abdominal organ that destroys old red blood cells.

Spleen

(3) Gerard de Lairesse was a congenital sufferer of this disease, symptoms of which include Hutchinson's teeth and saddle nose. John Charles Cutler orchestrated an unethical study of this disease on human test subjects in Guatemala, (+) and he directed another study of this disease that led to the creation of the Office for Human Research Protections. Caused by Treponema pallidum and possibly the only major disease brought from the (*) Americas to Europe is, for the points, what sexuallytransmitted disease which the Tuskegee Study victims were left untreated for?

Syphilis

(9) These devices can include a light-blocking component called a coronagraph, and protesters on Mauna Kea are trying to prevent a Thirty-Meter one of these devices from being built. NASA administrator James Webb is a namesake of, for the point, what type of devices, the most famous of which is named for Edwin Hubble?

Telescopes (accept Space Telescopes)

(18) A British chart that lists these phenomena is divided into three columns of thirteen rows that are marked by diamonds. Often occurring in a semi-diurnal fashion, the range of these entities is a measure of their peak-to-peak amplitude, or the difference between two varieties. Though the term quadrature can be used to characterize when these phenomena are at their lowest, the better known term is neap. Central to coast management, these are, for the point, what variations in sea level that can be "High" or "Low?"

Tides (accept Tidal Forces; accept Spring Tides; accept Neap Tides before mentioned; accept High or Low Tides before mentioned))

(20) The Carnian Pluvial Episode occurred during this period which saw the first known appearance of stony corals. Conodonts were entirely wiped out during the one of the "Big Five" extinction events during this period (+) in which archosaurs were dominant. Pangaea began to split during this period that saw the evolution of the earliest true mammals (*) and was preceded by an event known as the Great Dying. The mass extinction at the end of the Permian was followed by, for the point, what geological period that preceded the Jurassic?

Triassic Period

(10) The Leviathan Patera is a large cryovolcanic system on this celestial body, which was discovered in 1846 by William Lassell. This moon has the lowest average temperature of all known objects in the Solar System. Due to its retrograde orbit, it is believed this moon may have once been a Pluto-like dwarf planet made of mostly frozen nitrogen. For the point, name this largest moon of Neptune.

Triton

(27) The film The Magnificent Seven inspired the name of an isolated neutron star within this constellation named Calvera. One star in this constellation was, along with another constellation's star of Mizar, referred to as one of the so-called Indestructibles. Pherkad can be found in this constellation whose beta star is Kochab, and this constellation is located east of Draco and contains the smaller of two features made up of seven stars that appear as a ladle. Containing the Little Dipper, this is, for the point, what constellation that contains the North Star with a name translating as "Little Bear?"

Ursa Minor (prompt on "Little Bear;" prompt on "Lesser Bear;" prompt on "Ursa;" do not accept or prompt on "Ursa Major")

(24) Following groundwater intrusion, these objects can release maars. When formed under an ice sheet, these objects can form tuyas. Most of the destruction caused by these objects is the result of pyroclastic flows. When releasing low viscosity material, these objects can form their "shield" variety. Commonly forming over hot spots and magma chambers, for the point, what are these mountains that can erupt and release lava?

Volcanoes (accept Shield volcano; prompt on "mountains")

(10) The residual strong force prevents the breakdown of these structures by overcoming electromagnetic repulsion. These structures were proven to exist in an experiment in which alpha particles were fired at a gold foil. The existence of these structures was proven by Ernst Rutherford. For the point, name this collection of neutrons and protons at the center of an atom.

atomic nucleus

(22) Beta-blockers are now less preferable to lower this quantity than ACE inhibitors, which act by causing vasodilation. A sphygmomanometer is used to measure this quantity whose systolic and diastolic components can be determined manually using a stethoscope and an inflatable cuff which wraps around the arm. A normal value of 120 over 80 millimeters mercury characterizes, for the point, what cardiovascular quantity?

blood pressure (accept BP)

(1) In 1940, one of these structures in Tacoma, Washington collapsed after high wind speeds induced resonance. When held up with horizontal supports, these structures are known as cantilever. The longest and strongest examples of these structures are typically the suspension type, while early types of these structures were held up with stone arches. For the point, name these structures used to cross rivers, which include one named Golden Gate in San Francisco.

bridge (accept suspension bridge or Tacoma Narrows Bridge before "horizontal")

(5) Common types of these things use the molecule Tris along with EDTA, and include the TAE and TBE varieties, which are often used during gel electrophoresis. In the human body, a mixture of carbonic acid and bicarbonate form a system used to maintain the quality of blood that acts as one of these entities. The pH of these solutions can be estimated via the Henderson-Hasselbach equation. A weak acid and its conjugate base make up, for the point, what solutions that can resist changes in pH level?

buffers (or buffer solution/agent)

(22) Description acceptable. Spreiten formations preserve evidence of this behavior which is performed by insects with fossorial legs. The only eusocial mammal lives in homes built by this activity, for which the wombat's backward-facing pouch is an adaptation. Ferrets specialize in hunting prey that hides by this behavior, such as prairie dogs. Badgers and moles engage in, for the point, what behavior of digging underground chambers?

burrowing (or tunneling; accept digging before it is read; accept any answer that describes making passages underground or homes in the soil)

(18) When this element is present, a three-to-one ratio is displayed in mass spectrometry. Aqua regia includes nitric acid and an acid with this anion [[AN-eye-on]]. Stomach acid contains the acid of this element, two atoms of which are found in mustard gas. The diatomic form of this element is a green gas while another form is used to disinfect swimming pools. For the point, name this halogen with chemical symbol Cl [[SEE-ELL]].

chlorine (accept Cl before mentioned)

(29) In 2004, the EU-manufactured Rosetta spacecraft made the first successful landing on one of these objects. In 1994, one of these objects named Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided with Jupiter, leaving temporary scars on the surface. The dirty-snowball theory describes the composition of these objects, and solar wind makes the namesake tails of these objects always point away from the sun. For the point, name these orbiting icy bodies, which include ones named Halle-Bopp and Halley's.

comets

(13) Like chromium, this element leaves its 4s [[FOUR-ESS]] subshell half full in violation of the Aufbau principle. This element gives crustaceans blue blood due to its presence in hemocyanin. When combined with tin, this element forms bronze and when combined with zinc it forms brass. As this element oxidizes, it turns blue-green. This is the most commonly used element in electrical wires. For the point, name this transition metal element, symbolized Cu [[SEE-YOO]].

copper

(19) When two of these structures symmetrically overlap, they can undergo namesake "twinning." 2-d changes in these structures can form grain boundaries. These structures are composed of several unit cells arranged into a namesake lattice, and disruptions to the longrange order of these structures create their namesake defects. For the point, name this type of solid, composed of regular, repeating ordered units of atoms, exemplified by gemstones such as diamonds.

crystals

(21) The trailing suction method of this task involves filling hoppers with material and unloading it once full, while another method involves use of a suction device and a specialized augur. Leonardo (+) Da Vinci developed a schematic for a "drag" tool to perform this task, which was done in ancient times to construct harbors along the Eastern Mediterranean. Sometimes used to recycle sand for "beach (*) nourishment," for the points, what is the term for excavating material from beneath the water?

dredging (or dredge; prompt on "excavation"; prompt on descriptions like "digging underneath water" before mentioned)

(1) Inside this body part, calcium carbonate crystals called otoliths float in a viscous fluid within sacs called the utricle and saccule. The ossicles of this organ consist of the malleus, incus, and stapes [[STAY-pees]], which are collectively the smallest bones in the body. Tinnitus can result from damage to this organ's tympanic membrane, which focuses vibrational waves towards the cochlea. For the point, name this organ which perceives sound.

ears (accept inner ear; accept middle ear)

(23) A poem written after one of these events states "one thing at least is certain, light has weight." That poem was written by Arthur Eddington, who tested the theory of general relativity during one of these events. Jules Janssen and Norman Lockyer discovered helium in a spectral line during one of these events. For the point, "solar" and "lunar" are types of what celestial events in which light from the sun is blocked?

eclipses

(2) On the periodic table, this quantity tends to increase when moving from the bottom left to the top right, excluding the noble gases. Cesium has the lowest value of this quantity, and fluorine has the highest value for this quantity of any element. This quantity is measured on the Pauling scale. For the point, name this measurement of an atom's ability to attract electrons.

electronegativity

(29) One form of this quantity is calculated as effective nuclear charge over the covalent radius squared when using the Allred-Rochow (+) scale. Differences in this quantity between atoms give rise to inductive effects. Cesium has the lowest value for this quantity on the Pauling scale, which ranges from 0.8 (*) to 4.0 and increases towards the top right of the periodic table. For the points, name this quantity, the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.

electronegativity (accept word forms)

(3) The transfer of these particles is the central mechanism of redox reactions. A Lewis acid is defined by its ability to form a covalent bond with one of these particles. The addition of these particles can lead to the formation of an anion [[AN-eye-on]]. These particles form a namesake "cloud" composed of orbitals. For the point, name these subatomic particles with a negative charge.

electrons

(5) The "Ping-Pong" mechanism can be used to describe the change of these molecules into intermediate forms. Michaelis-Menten[[mih-KAY-liss MEN-ten]] kinetics help explain the activity of these molecules that can be activated or inhibited at their allosteric site. The "lock and key" model fails to explain the transition state that these molecules obtain when binding to a substrate at their active site. For the point, name these biological catalysts that help speed up chemical reactions.

enzymes (prompt on "protein(s)"; do not accept or prompt on "catalysts")

(1) This organ is made up of three layers, with its spaces being filled with vitreous and aqueous humor. Diseases that affect this organ include conjunctivitis and cataracts, and it contains specialized photoreceptor cells called rods and cones. The lens, cornea, and iris are structures that are part of, for the point, what organ of the visual system that is responsible for helping us see?

eyes (accept eyeballs)

(26) A model generalizing this phenomenon was solved in two dimensions by Lars Onsager as a lattice of interacting plus-one and minus-one spins; that model is the (+) Ising model. This property persists even after a change in the applied field due to its hysteresis. Materials lose this property if heated past the Curie (*) temperature. For the points, name this form of magnetism exhibited by nickel, cobalt, and its namesake, iron.

ferromagnetism (prompt on "magnet(ism)"; do not accept or prompt on "paramagnetism")

(26) Similar proteins produced by two parts of this structure lead to self-incompatibility, and the largest of these structures, from the genus Rafflesia, emit an odor of rotting flesh. In monocots, the parts of this structure are arranged in multiples of three. A calyx protects a developing one of these structures, whose perfect examples contain both stamens and pistils. Pollinators gather nectar from, for the point, which reproductive plant structures with colorful petals?

flowers (or blooms; or blossoms)

(28) This quantity is minimized in binary mixtures at the eutectic point. For water compounds, this quantity can be found by multiplying the molality by 1.86 as part of a coligitive "depression" property. The addition of sodium chloride causes this point to lower for water, allowing it to be used to de-ice roads. For the point, name this temperature at which a phase change causes liquids to turn into solids.

freezing point (or melting point)

(1) Enhancer trapping is a gene expression technique commonly used in this organism that only has four chromosomes. Class 2 transposable elements called P-elements were discovered in the genome of this organism that contains recessive traits such as vestigial wings and ebony bodies. Thomas Hunt Morgan discovered the white-eyed mutation in, for the point, what insect model organism whose scientific name is Drosophila Melanogaster [[dro-SOH-fih-luh muh-LAN-noh-gah-ster]].

fruit fly (accept Drosophila Melanogaster before mention)

(10) A "disequilibrium" named for this phenomenon provides the basis for genome-wide association studies. The LOD score is a statistical test for this effect, which is measured in units of (+) centimorgans that correspond to one percent recombination. This effect provides an exception to Mendel's law of independent (*) assortment. For the points, name this phenomenon in which two genes located close together on a chromosome tend to be inherited together.

genetic linkage (accept word forms; accept linkage disequilibrium)

(20) The soda-lime type of this material can be made through the addition of sodium and calcium carbonate, while the volcanic type is naturally occurring. Boron trioxide is a major component of one form of this material used to make laboratory equipment. This amorphous solid is non-crystalline, and can be manufactured through a process known as "blowing". For the point, name this transparent material made of silica primarily found in windows.

glass (accept soda-lime glass; accept volcanic glass; accept glass blowing)

(2) Using previous studies from Otto Meyerhof and Edward Buchner, Gustav Embden proposed a detailed ten-step outline for this process that is parallel to the pentose phosphate pathway. This process, which is catalyzed by enzymes such as phosphofructokinase and hexokinase, is anaerobic and involves the input of two ATP molecules. For the point, name this first step of cellular respiration, which precedes the Kreb Cycle, and in which glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules.

glycolysis

(24) This element is extracted from ores by coordination with cyanide. This element scattered alpha particles in an experiment sometimes named for Geiger and Marsden that discovered the atomic nucleus. This most malleable metal can be dissolved by aqua regia. Iron pyrite resembles this element, leading it to be nicknamed "fool's [this element]." For the point, name this precious metal with chemical symbol Au.

gold (accept Au before mentioned)

(24) One theory suggests that this phenomenon is mediated by a massless, spin two boson. Observations of a solar eclipse proved that this phenomenon is capable of bending light as part of its namesake "lensing." This force is conceptualized as curvature of spacetime in relativity. On Earth, this force causes an acceleration of 9.8 meters per second squared. For the point. name this weakest of the fundamental forces, which causes objects to fall to the ground.

gravity

(1) After being given one of these body parts from a baboon, Baby Fae became the first person to successfully receive a non-human transplant. An EKG measures the electrical activity of this organ, and artificial pacemakers can be implanted to stabilize the rhythm of this organ. Along with the lungs, a defibrillator and CPR are utilized when this organ stops functioning. For the point, name this organ which pumps blood through the body.

heart

(23) This phenomenon is directly proportional to volume when pressure is held constant, according to Charles's law. This phenomenon is measured in chemical reactions by a calorimeter. Exothermic reactions are characterized by the release of this phenomenon. This type of energy is transferred through convection, conduction, and radiation. For the point, name this type of energy which is measured in degrees Fahrenheit.

heat (prompt on "energy" before mentioned)

(30) Some isotopes of this element, when cooled below the lambda point, form the only known superfluids. Named for the Greek personification of the sun, this element's nucleus is equivalent to the alpha particle. After hydrogen, this element is the second most abundant and lightest in the universe. For the point, name this lightest noble gas, which is often used to inflate balloons.

helium

(1) This non-human animal is used to prepare tetanus antitoxin in much of the developing world. Nikolai Przewalski [[shuh-VAL-skee]] names one species of this animal whose leg length is a common textbook example of directional selection. Tiny Eohippus was an early ancestor of this animal, whose modern breeds include the Clydesdale. A close relative of zebras, for the point, what is this domesticated animal which can be saddled for riding?

horse (accept Equus or Equine)

(14) A strong intermolecular variety of these interactions causes water to have a high boiling point. Carbon is only capable of participating in these interactions when it is bounded to highly electronegative elements. These interactions typically occur with nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine and their namesake element. For the point, name these atomic dipole interactions named for the first element of the periodic table.

hydrogen bonds

(3) This law describes systems with a compressibility factor equal to one, which are modeled by kinetic molecular theory. This law is equivalent to setting the A and B terms equal to zero in the van der Waals equation, which disregards particle volume and intermolecular forces. It was created from a combination of Boyle's, Charles's, and Avogadro's laws. The statement "P V equals N R T" is, For the point, what law that models a hypothetical state of matter?

ideal gas law (accept general gas equation)

(12) The "line" and "surface" types of this operation are related by the generalized Stokes theorem. Partial fraction decomposition and u-substitution are used to evaluate this operation, whose "indefinite" form requires adding the constant "plus C." The trapezoidal rule or Riemann sums can be used to approximate this operation. Differentiation is the inverse of, for the point, what calculus operation which finds the area under a curve?

integration (or finding the integral; accept antiderivative; accept antidifferentiation)

(6) At all input values with this property, the Dirichlet [[dee-ree-SHLAY]] function equals zero. All infinite continued fractions represent numbers with this property. The roots of a polynomial with leading coefficient one must be either integers or have this property, which is possessed by numbers whose decimal expansions do not repeat or terminate. The golden ratio and pi have, for the point, what property of numbers that cannot be represented as the quotient of two integers?

irrational numbers (do not accept or prompt on "rational")

(3) On Saturn, one of these phenomena formed a hexagon shape at the north pole. On Earth, these phenomena typically contain the polar vortices. The subtropical variety of these weather phenomena forms along Hadley Cells. Flights from East Asia to North America can reduce fuel usage by utilizing these phenomena. For the point, name these rapidly moving bands of air located in the upper atmosphere.

jet stream (prompt on "wind, "air movement," and similar answers)

(18) In children, these organs can be impacted by a type of cancer called Wilms' tumor. These organs maintain a concentration gradient using the loop of Henle [[HEN-lee]]. The functional units of these organs are known as nephrons, and these organs are linked to the bladder by the ureters. When these organs fail, patients may be placed on dialysis. For the point, name this pair of organs which filter blood and produce urine.

kidneys

(1) The namesake "overturning" of these locations can result in the release of deadly Mazuku, fast-moving clouds of carbon dioxide. Two of these locations in Cameroon are the only ones known to have experienced limnic eruptions. These locations can become extremely saline when they are endorheic, or lack outflows. For the point, name these nonflowing bodies of water which include examples named Superior, Michigan, and Huron.

lakes

(9) These devices can emit pulses through Q-switching, and in order to operate, these devices require more particles to be in an excited state than a ground state, a condition known as population inversion. The first one of these devices was made by Theodore Maiman using a ruby crystal. These devices operate through stimulated emission of their gain medium. For the point, name these devices which emit a coherent beam of light.

lasers (or light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)

(29) Extremely viscous types of this substance can form coulées. Common forms of this substance include ʻaʻā [[AH-AH]] and pahoehoe [[pah-HOE-ay-HOE-ay]]. When released underwater, this substance can form its "pillow" variety. Extrusive igneous rocks such as pumice are formed by the cooling of this substance. Prior to being ejected, this substance is known as magma. For the point, name this molten rock which is ejected by volcanoes.

lava (do not accept or prompt on "magma")

(15) The namesake "law of" these devices states that the torque applied to both sides of these devices must be equivalent. These devices are divided into Classes 1, 2, and 3 based on the location of the fulcrum. These devices derive more mechanical advantage from having longer arms, which reduce the amount of force needed to be applied over a longer distance. For the point, name these simple machines exemplified by a seesaw.

levers

(19) If this rock undergoes metamorphosis, it becomes marble. Compressed plankton can be formed into a type of this rock called chalk. This rock can be created through the deposition of mollusk shells. Because this rock is easily dissolved in acidic water, most caves are found in bedrock made of this rock. For the point, name this sedimentary rock which is primarily formed from calcium carbonate.

limestone (prompt on "calcite"; prompt on "calcium carbonate" before read)

(15) This type of relationship can be characterized by a Pearson correlation coefficient value of one or a negative one. Cramer's rule can be used to find a solution to a system of these types of equations, which can also be solved via Gauss-Jordan elimination or substitution. For the point, name this term that describes polynomials with degree one that have constant slope, examples of which include the line y equals three x plus one.

linear (accept linear equations)

(2) This word describes a type of crystalline substance that exists in either smectic or nematic phases while in its thermotropic variety. The HPLC-type of chromatography uses a highly pressurized solvent in this state, which is also bypassed by substances that undergo deposition and sublimation. At negative 196 degrees Celsius, nitrogen exists in this state. For the point, name this state of matter formed when substances melt.

liquid (accept liquid crystal; accept liquid nitrogen)

(8) With copper, this element forms Gilman reagents. When combined with aluminum hydride, this element forms a powerful reducing agent used in organic synthesis. As does strontium, this element burns crimson during flame tests. This element is the base of a common bipolar medication, and ions of this element are frequently used in rechargeable batteries. For the point, name this lightest alkali metal with atomic number 3.

lithium

(6) This substance is found in specialized capillaries called lacteals. Lipid particles called chylomicrons [[kye-LOH-mee-krons]] transport fats from the intestines to the body using this substance, which drains into the left subclavian (+) vein from the thoracic duct. This clear to white substance consists mainly of interstitial fluid and cells such as T cells (*) and B cells. For the points, name this fluid found in namesake nodes in the head and neck that swell during infection.

lymph (accept lymphatic fluid; accept chyle)

(11) Because it lacks a differentiated core, this phenomenon on the moon is concentrated in the crust. Rocks that naturally exhibit this phenomenon are called lodestones. The geodynamo theory proposes that this phenomenon in the Earth is created by the liquid outer core, causing compasses to point north. For the point, name this phenomenon which attracts metals like nickel and iron.

magnetism (accept word forms like magnetic or magnets)

(14) This region's lower part contains the D-double-prime layer while peridotite and olivine are prevalent in its upper part. The boundary between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is in this region. P waves can pass through this region but not the layer beneath it. "Plumes" in this region may drive its convection which causes seafloor spreading. For the point, name this layer of the earth above the outer core and below the crust.

mantle

(30) A semi-empirical formula for this quantity named for Bethe [[BEH-tuh]] and Weizsäcker [[VAIT-seh-kuh]] can also be used to calculate nuclear binding energy using its namesake "defect." The Higgs boson gives particles this property, which also equals energy divided by the speed of light squared according to a formula proposed by Albert Einstein. For the point, name this quantity symbolized "m" and measured in kilograms.

mass (accept m before mentioned)

(15) A precursor to this technique produces a Taylor cone from a sample that is dispersed by electrospray. The "tandem" form of this technique is used to sequence proteins. Gas (+) chromatography is often paired with this technique, which produces sizable M and M+2 isotope peaks when the sample contains bromine or chlorine. The m-to-z (*) ratio is measured by, for the points, what spectroscopic technique that separates ions by their weight?

mass spectrometry (or mass spectroscopy; or MS; accept tandem mass spectrometry; accept GC-MS)

(9) The rank-nullity theorem is used on these objects, and local curvature is described by the "Hessian" type of these objects. The equation A v equals lambda v describes the eigenvector and eigenvalue of these objects. Expansion by minors is used to find the determinant of these objects, which can be used to invert them. For the point, name these mathematical objects which are arrays of numbers in rows and columns.

matrix (or matrices)

(16) To carry out the inertial confinement version of this process, deuterium-tritium pellets are rapidly heated and compressed. A theoretical type of this process would occur at room temperature and is known as its "cold" type. Heavier elements are formed from this process via the CNO cycle. This process forms helium via the proton-proton chain in the center of stars. For the point, name this process in which atomic nuclei are combined, often contrasted with fission.

nuclear fusion

(12) This quantity for a matrix's column space is known as its "rank." The cardinality, or number of vectors in the basis of a vector space, equals this quantity, which is also represented by the variable "n" in a topological n-manifold. A tesseract has a value of four for this quantity, which is the minimum number of coordinates required to specify a point in space. For the point, name this quantity which equals three for a cube and one for a line.

number of dimensions

(18) An organic chemistry reaction that cleaves alkenes and alkynes uses "lysis" by this molecule. Elastomers such as rubber can be "cracked" by this molecule. The amount of this substance is measured from a vertical column using Dobson units. Chlorofluorocarbons deplete a "layer" containing this protective molecule which absorbs ultraviolet radiation. For the point, name this triatomic molecule present in the atmosphere with chemical formula O3 [[OH-THREE]].

ozone (accept O3 before mentioned)

(12) This quantity is plotted on the X-axis of a Pourbaix diagram. During the first step of 2D gel electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing is used to separate proteins along a gradient of this quantity. Both glass electrodes and Hydrion paper are used to measure this quantity, which mediates the color change of phenolphthalein. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation relates a system's pKa to this quantity, which is found by taking the negative log of H-plus concentration. A scale ranging from 0 to 14 gauges, for the point, what measure of relative acidity?

pH (accept Power of Hydrogen)

(15) This quantity can be replaced with Hammett's function in very concentrated solutions. The value of this quantity is low for systems containing an abundance of hydronium ions. The isoelectric point of a molecule is this quantity when the net charge is zero. When this quantity is low for a solution, litmus paper turns red, and blood usually has a value of about 7.4 for this quantity. For the point, name this measure of the acidity of a solution.

pH (accept Power of hydrogen)

(10) A preliminary step for making this product involves treating its ingredients with water, sodium hydroxide, and sodium sulfide in the Kraft process. The bleaching of this product with elemental chlorine produces toxic chlorine dioxin compounds. After being introduced to the Islamic world, this product began to replace parchment and papyrus. For the point, name this product which is made from wood pulp and is commonly written on with pencils.

paper

(8) Synthesis reactions of these molecules are described as "living" if they cannot terminate or have a low polydispersity index. The size of these molecules is often reported as a molecular weight. A free radical initiator can begin synthesis of these molecules through a chain-growth mechanism, which forms examples of them like PVC and Nylon. For the point, what long molecules are made of repeating subunits called monomers?

polymers

(17) The earliest variety of this technology involved injecting mice or rabbits with the subject's bodily fluids. Another early example of this technology was based on observing whether Xenopus [[ZEN-uh-puhs]] frogs ovulated after receiving an injection. This technology works by measuring human chorionic gonadotropin in a urine sample. For the point, name these devices which indicate whether a woman is carrying a fetus.

pregnancy tests

(29) This order is subdivided into strepsirrhines and haplorhines, meaning "twisted nostril" and "simple noses" respectively. Unusually, most members of this order cannot synthesize vitamin C. The colugo is the closest relative of this order, whose members include galagos, tarsiers, and lorises. For the point, name this taxonomic order which includes lemurs, monkeys, and apes and is defined by having opposable thumbs.

primates (do not accept "primata" or "primatamorpha")

(10) Telescopes based on this process were created to fix the problem of chromatic aberration. The angle where polarized light does not undergo this process is named after David Brewster and comes in specular and diffuse forms. At the critical angle, the "total internal" type of this process occurs, which is used in fiber-optic cables. The angle of incidence equals the angle of, for the point, what process in which light bounces off of surfaces like mirrors?

reflection (accept word forms; do not accept "refraction")

(14) A population's standard deviation is divided by the square root of this quantity to give the standard error of the mean. The distribution of sample means approaches a (+) normal distribution as this quantity increases according to the central limit theorem. The mean of a set equals the sum of the values (*) divided by this quantity. For the points, name this quantity symbolized n, which is the number of data points in a set.

sample size (or population size; accept n before mention; prompt on answers such as "how many there are" or "the number of values there are")

(13) The nucleolus is known for its synthesis of these organelles. Mitochondria have their own versions of these organelles which have an A, P, and E site. A nucleic acid with a clover leaf structure brings amino acids to this organelle, and the rough endoplasmic reticulum has these organelles attached to it. tRNA and mRNA are involved in translation, a process that happens in, for the point, what organelles which manufacture cellular proteins?

ribosomes

(26) In these structures, water is forced into the symplast by the suberin-containing Casparian strip. It's not the shoot, but these structures grow at their "apical meristem" and are positively geotropic. Cytokinins regulate the growth of these structures, which are "aerial" in mangroves. Rutabagas and carrots are examples of these organs. For the point, name these plant structures which draw up water and nutrients from the ground.

roots

(19) A company that runs one of these software systems named Ecosia claims to be environmentally friendly and plants trees with its profits. Information will no longer be displayed by these programs following de-listing. These programs identify potential matches for queries using web crawling. For the point, name these web programs used to find information on the internet, the most popular of which are Bing and Google.

search engines

(26) Hyperhidrosis of this organ can be treated with the microwave MiraDry technique. An early symptom of leprosy is loss of pain sensation in this organ. The urticating hairs of some caterpillars irritate the eyes as well as this organ. Scabies mites attack the epidermal layers of this organ in which bacterial infection of sebaceous glands causes acne. The pigment melanin gives color to, for the point, what exterior human organ which produces sweat?

skin (accept epidermis before "epidermal" is mentioned)

(18) The properties of this substance control the composition of organisms in edaphic communities. High precipitation can cause eluviation, or leaching, within this substance. Pedogenesis is the process of forming this substance, which is arranged into O, A, B, and C horizons. Decayed organic matter within this substance is called humus. Clay, sand, and silt make up, for the point, what material in which plants grow?

soil (accept dirt; accept earth; accept topsoil)

(1) The process of forming one of these substances is described by the COSMO model and the Born equation. The K-sp (+) value quantifies an equilibrium observed in these substances. Molality is often used to measure the concentration of these substances, which can form a solid precipitate if they are (*) supersaturated. For the points, name these homogeneous mixtures that consist of a solute dissolved in a solvent.

solution (accept solvation; prompt on "mixtures")

(6) Objects that exceed this quantity emit Cherenkov radiation. Velocity divided by this quantity equals relativistic beta, which is found in the denominator of the Lorentz factor. This value is constant in all inertial reference frames according to Einstein's theory of special relativity. For the point, name this quantity symbolized "c" which is about 300 million meters per second and represents the maximum speed at which objects can travel.

speed of light (accept c before mentioned)

(13) This function can be estimated via the Babylonian method, and its graph makes up half a parabola with a vertical directrix. Applications of this function include determining the length of vectors and the geometric mean. This function appears above 5 in the numerator of the Golden Ratio and can be expressed as the one-half power in exponential notation. For the point, name this function, which when applied to negative one is i and when applied to 9 is 3.

square root

(11) This quantity appears squared in the denominator of Chebyshev's inequality. Calculating the Z-score requires dividing by this quantity, which is also divided by the square root of the sample size to find standard error. The 68-95-99.7 rule for a normal distribution is defined using multiples of this quantity, which is the square root of the variance. For the point, name this quantity symbolized "sigma" which represents how spread out a set of data is from the mean.

standard deviation

(21) An ester linkage of this element makes up the "high-energy" bond of acetyl-CoA [[uh-SEE-til KOH-ay]]. Mitochondrial proteins with clusters of iron and this element transport electrons. Proteins contain namesake "bridges" of this element which are only found in the amino acids methionine and cysteine. The prefixes "mercapto-" and "thio-" refer to this bright yellow element. Rotten eggs release a gas containing, for the point, what element with chemical symbol S?

sulfur (accept S before mentioned)

(2) The SI unit for this quantity was redefined in terms of the Boltzmann constant in 2019. The inputs of Planck's Law are frequency and this quantity. According to Charles' law, this quantity varies directly with volume in a gas. Materials lose superconductivity above this quantity's critical value. This quantity is measured on the Rankine scale, which starts at absolute zero but uses Fahrenheit units. For the point, name this quantity measured by a thermometer.

temperature (prompt on "degrees")

(25) An assumption of this theory is that differential fitness is heritable, and the main proponent of this theory was influenced by Malthus. Analogous structures are created in the convergent form of this process, and genetic variation is a pre-requisite for this process to occur. Theorized to occur via natural selection, for the point, what is this theory about inherited changes in populations over time which was put forward by Charles Darwin?

theory of evolution

(2) One type of this technique uses sulfur dioxide and iodine to quantify the presence of water and is named for Karl Fischer. Fast Sulphon Black and EDTA are used in the "complexometric" form of this technique. Bromophenol blue and phenolphthalein are used as color-changing pH indicators in this technique, which uses a burette to add solution to the analyte. For the point, name this technique used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution.

titration

(24) These structures can be predicted by the appearance of a hook echo on PulseDoppler Radar. Powerful types of these structures can be formed by supercells. The strength of these structures is measured with the Fujita [[foo-JEE-tuh]] scale. Unlike hurricanes, these much smaller structures do not need warm water to form. For the point, name these rapidly spinning winds which typically form during severe thunderstorms.

tornadoes (prompt on "storms," "thunderstorms," or similar answers)

(4) This process is regulated by the methylation of cytosines at CpG sites, and proteins such as EGR1 and ETS2. The TATAAT sequence or Pribnow Box initiates this process in prokaryotes, while for eukaryotes, it is initiated at the TATA box. Following this process, a five prime cap and poly-A tail are added to its end product. RNA polymerase is the key enzyme of, for the point, what process in which a strand of template DNA is copied into messenger RNA?

transcription

(3) The Sleeping Beauty system uses one of these sequences to splice genes into vertebrate chromosomes. LINEs, SINEs, and Alu elements are examples of the (+) "retro" type of these sequences, which act though a "copy and paste" mechanism with an RNA intermediate. Barbara McClintock's studies of corn led to the discovery of these "jumping (*) genes." For the points, name these DNA sequences which can change their position within the genome.

transposons (or transposable elements; or TEs; accept retrotransposons; accept jumping genes before mention but prompt afterwards)

(15) A "threshold" value for this quantity controls carrier concentration in a MOSFET. A conductor's impedance can be used to calculate the namesake "drop" in this quantity between the source and load. Kirchoff's [[KEERCH-hoffs]] loop rule states that the sum of this quantity around any closed loop is zero. This quantity is the product of current and resistance according to Ohm's law. Batteries are used as a source of, for the point, what measure of electrical potential?

voltage (or EMF; or electromotive force; accept electric potential before mentioned; accept scalar potential before mentioned; accept voltage drop)

(4) Replacing one atom in this compound with deuterium gives its "heavy" form. Microwave ovens primarily work by heating this compound in food due to its large dipole moment. The presence of a lone pair on this compound's oxygen atom gives it a bent geometry. This polar compound is known as the "universal solvent." For the point, name this compound composed of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms.

water (or H2O)

(3) These bodies are prevented from collapsing by electron degeneracy pressure. The Chandrasekar [[chan-druh-SEH-kar]] limit is the upper bound to the mass of these bodies. Sirius B is one of these bodies which orbits a larger star. These bodies are the most common endpoint for main-sequence stars. For the point, name these small stellar remnants which are less massive than a neutron star or black hole.

white dwarfs

(12) Objects from this region are disrupted by a dwarf star every 27 million years, according to the Nemesis hypothesis. The inner part of this location is sometimes called the Hills cloud, and the dwarf planet Sedna is located in this region beyond the Kuiper [[KYper]] Belt. For the point, name this proposed location for the source of long-period comets, named for a Dutch astronomer.

Ӧpik-Oort Cloud

(20) The highest point on this body is Ahuna [[ah-HOO-nah]] Mons, which is covered in bright salt deposits left by cryo-volcanism. Along with Uranus, this body's existence was predicted by the now-debunked Titius-Bode [[TIH-tee-us BOAD]] law. Along with Vesta, this sole dwarf planet of the inner Solar System was visited by the Dawn spacecraft. For the point, name this largest asteroid, which is named for the Roman goddess of the harvest.

1 Ceres

(14) S, I, A, and M are classifications of this type of rock devised by Chappell and White. The QAPF classification characterizes the components of these rocks. Yosemite National Park's Half Dome is made of this type of rock, which is similar to diorite. Rhyolite is the extrusive equivalent of this type of rock. For the point, name this type of coarse-grained rock which is the main component of continental crust and is often pink, white, or black when used in countertops.

ANSWER: Granite

(17) While working on the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study, Gene Likens discovered this phenomenon for the first time in North America and linked it to a certain human-created cause. Numerous studies have connected the increased prevalence of this phenomenon in certain ecosystems with the decline in sugar maple populations. Nitrogen oxide emissions can cause this form of precipitation that causes steel buildings to corrode. Containing increased quantities of hydrogen ions, this is, for the point, what form of precipitation characterized by a low pH?

Acid Rain (prompt on "Rain;" prompt on "Snow;" prompt on "Hail;" prompt on "Precipitation" before mentioned)

(29) This substance may have been inspired by one of the same name that appeared 28 years earlier in Malcolm Jameson's story "Devil's Powder." Kenji Oyama created a bonding process with this substance, which was employed by his daughter, Lady Deathstrike. Apocalypse extracts this substance from Sabretooth in one story and gives it to a character who first appeared in The Incredible Hulk and sometimes goes by the name Logan. Found in both the skeleton and claws of Wolverine, this is, for the point, what metal alloy from the XMen universe known for its hardness?

Adamantium

(4) An ion in its lowest possible energy state is produced in a type of ionization process with this property. The heat capacity ratio is often known as this property's index. This property is usually only possible in insulated systems, because it only occurs when the change in internal energy equals work. Along with reversibility, isentropic processes possess this property. For the point, name this property of processes that have zero heat transfer.

Adiabatic [[ah-dee-ah-BAH-tik]] (accept Adiabatic index)

(21) This substance is composed of equal parts dichlorophenoxyacetic [["die"-klo-ro-feh-NAHK-see-ah-SEH-tik]] acid and trichlorophenoxyacetic [["try"-klo-ro-feh-NAHK-see-ah-SET-tik]] acid. The first use of this substance occurred during the Malaysian Emergency. This substance is the best known of the so-called Rainbow Herbicides. For the point, name this defoliant used to clear out forests during the Vietnam War.

Agent orange

(23) A paper by this scientist proposed a new calculation for mean squared displacement of particles. That paper on Brownian motion and another on mass-energy equivalence were half of this man's 1905 "Annus Mirabilis." For the point, name this scientist who, in that same year, published explanations of the photoelectric effect and special relativity.

Albert Einstein

(2) Vanillin is a phenolic example of this functional group, which can be reduced by an acyl chloride in the Rosenmund reaction. A drug used to treat alcoholism known as disulfiram can inhibit the dehydrogenase of one member of this functional group, which catalyzes a reaction that converts acetic acid. The simplest member of this functional group is named for its similarity to formic acid. Containing a formyl group, this is, for the point, what functional group often contrasted with ketones whose simplest member is used to preserve bodies and other specimens?

Aldehydes (accept Acetaldehyde; accept Ethanal; accept Formaldehyde)

(11) A procedure known as CABG [["Cabbage"]] is used to remove blockages in these structures. Most of these structures carry oxygenated blood, and the largest one of these structures is the aorta. A person's pulse can be detected by feeling, for the point, what blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart?

Arteries (or Artery)

(6) This quantity of a chemical element is correlated with the frequency of X-rays it emits by Moseley's law, and neutronium (+) has a value of zero for this quantity. When a chemical element has an equal number of electrons to this quantity, it is electrically neutral. Denoted as the symbol (*) "Z", this is, for the points, what property of a chemical element that equals the number of protons it has, which is one for hydrogen?

Atomic Number (accept Number of Protons before mentioned; prompt on "Z" before mentioned)

(28) This country's Hamelin Pool hosts the most abundant examples of living stromatolites in the world. The extremely rare ant genus Nothomyrmecia lives in the south of this country, and the devil facial tumor disease has affected a carnivorous marsupial, Sarcophilus harrisii, from this country. Animals such as the kookaburra and wallaby are native to, for the point, what country, whose researchers often study the Tasmanian devil?

Australia (or Commonwealth of Australia)

(4) Historically, females diagnosed with Rett syndrome were considered to have a variety of this disorder. Children with this disorder typically fail the Sally-Anne test, (+) demonstrating a lack of theory of mind. The DSM Five reclassified this disorder as a spectrum, (*) subsuming the previous diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome. For the point, name this neurodevelopmental condition characterized by low social interest and communication struggles.

Autism (or Autism Spectrum Disorder; accept ASD; accept answers relating to being Autistic; prompt on "on the spectrum" and similar answers)

(2) Simon Baron-Cohen conducted the "Sally-Anne test" on children with this condition and proposed that people with it have "extreme male brain." Researchers have mostly rejected the theory that this condition is caused by "broken" mirror neurons. People with this disorder often struggle to respond to cues for joint attention and can be non-verbal. For the point, name this disorder characterized by difficulty in communication, whose forms include Asperger's.

Autism spectrum disorder (accept ASD; accept Kanner Autism; or Classic Autism; prompt on "Asperger's")

(23) Signals from these devices provide the basis for the shock pulse method of condition monitoring. A metric often specified in these components is known as the "L10" life, and that metric gives the length of time before 10% of these components will fail (+) within a particular group. The journal of these components lacks one type of element in thee plain variety, and rolling-elements of (*) these components characterize their "ball" variety. For the point, identify these circular mechanical components that restrict motion.

Bearings (accept Ball Bearings)

(20) In Tierra del Fuego, these structures have resulted in major losses in fauna life. These structures are often designed to protect shelters called (+) lodges using moats. These structures, which often result in excess nutrient removal, are anchored by branches pointing (*) upstream, making the animals that make them keystone species. For the points, name these structures created on streams by large rodents.

Beaver dams (accept Beaver ponds; prompt on "Dams")

(6) Some protists engage in this process in a transversal or longitudinal fashion. When this process occurs in some higher organisms like tapeworms, it is called strobilation. Enzymes begin this process at the origin of replication. Once this process has begun, the cell will begin to elongate to make room for the duplicated material. This process is completed after that duplicated material separates. For the point, identify this type of cell division which takes place in most bacteria?

Binary fission

(6) In materials exhibiting this property, a quantity symbolized capital D is calculated by multiplying a different quantity by the 3×3 permittivity tensor, rather than a scalar. Optical rotation is sometimes known as the circular variety of (+) this property, which is produced by one phenomenon in the Pockels effect. Waveplates are made out of material that exhibits this property that was first observed in (*) calcite. Commonly occurring in crystals, this is, for the point, what quality in which the polarization of a material determines its refractive index?

Birefringence

(13) The cascade causing this process activates several tissue factors, and infants are often given shots of vitamin K to enhance this process. Drugs such as heparin [[HEP-ah-rin]] and warfarin [[WOHR-fuh-rin]] inhibit this process. When this process occurs inside the body it is known as thrombosis. The inability to induce this process characterizes hemophilia. For the point, name this process which stops bleeding using platelets.

Blood clotting (or Coagulation; or Coagulating)

(14) It's not palladium, but this hetero-atom is found in an organo-metallic species in the Suzuki reaction. This second-row element is used to yield an alcohol in an anti-Markovnikov reaction from an alkene. This element usually only forms three bonds to other elements, resulting in an empty p-orbital. The lightest metalloid is, for the point, what element with atomic symbolized B?

Boron (accept B before mentioned)

(3) To create this statistical tool, order the numbers of a data set from smallest to largest before finding the median. The next step in this tool's creation is to find the median of each half of the data set and thus, the first and third quartiles. Finally, this tool requires finding the minimum and maximum values of the set as well as the median and quartiles, enclosing them in a rectangle. For the point, you have created what analytical graph which shows the distribution of data?

Box and whisker plot (accept similar answers for "plot" such as "diagram" or "graph")

(7) The Tupolev Tu-144 is the Soviet analog of a type of aircraft that can accomplish this feat, and that aircraft, the Concorde, was primarily operated by Air France and British Airways for three-hour transatlantic flights to New York. Chuck Yeager flew in an X-1 rocket plane to accomplish, for the point, what feat in which a vehicle travels faster than Mach 1?

Breaking the Sound Barrier (accept Breaking Mach 1; accept Supersonic; accept Concorde before mentioned)

(1) The closest one of these objects to Earth is the Luhman-16 system, which is also where the iron rain of these objects was first observed. (+) Rafael Rebolo [[reh-BOH-loh]] pioneered the lithium test for identifying these bodies, which do not undergo sustained hydrogen (*) fusion. For the point, name these cool, very low luminosity stellar objects, commonly called failed stars.

Brown dwarfs (prompt on "star(s)")

(14) For an object to be in static equilibrium, this force's metacenter must be above the center of gravity. This force, which equals density times gravity times volume, is opposed by the (+) hydrostatic pressure gradient. This force equals the weight of the fluid that is displaced according to the Archimedes (*) principle. For the point, identify this force that allows objects to float in a liquid.

Buoyant force (or Buoyancy; accept Upthrust)

(16) The term 'syllable' was once used in place of this modern unit of measurement. Conflicts have arisen over whether the binary or decimal system should be used for this unit of measurement. The most common type of this unit is referred to by the Internet Protocol as an octet. For the point, name this unit of measurement for data size most commonly consisting of eight bits and expressed in kilo, mega and giga variants.

Bytes (accept kilobyte; accept megabyte; accept gigabyte; accept terabyte; accept petabyte)

(29) A distinguishing feature of this disease is the presence of a polybasic site cleaved by furin that helps enhance its virulence. Methods for detecting this disease involve the use of lateral flow strips, the RT-LAMP method, or a real-time reverse transcription PCR reaction. The first confirmed case of this disease occurred in Wuhan and resulted in widespread lockdowns in China. Delta and Omicron are variants of, for the point, what infectious disease that has caused the ongoing pandemic?

COVID-19 (accept SARS‑CoV‑2; accept Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2; accept Coronavirus; prompt on "Corona")

(8) Friedrich Stromeyer and K.S.L Hermann are both credited with discovering this element, which Hermann found while studying zinc oxide. A form of mass poisoning caused by this element in Japan was known as Itai-itai disease. (+) Photovoltaics that provide a cheaper alternative to solar cells make use of this element's crystalline compound form telluride. Partly due to its toxicity, lithium-ion batteries (*) are increasingly replacing batteries made up of nickel and this silvery-white element with atomic number 48. For the point, name this chemical element with symbol Cd.

Cadmium (accept Cd)

(4) The "isothermal titration" form of this technique encloses samples in an adiabatic jacket. A polymer's phase change is marked by a sharp peak on a plot produced by this technique's "differential scanning" type, and the equation "Q equals MC delta-T" is used alongside this analytical technique. The constant-volume "bomb" form of this technique maintains very high pressure, though a simpler type can be performed using a thermometer and two Styrofoam cups. For the point, name this technique that measures the heat produced by a chemical reaction.

Calorimetry (accept Calorimeter; accept Bomb Calorimetry; accept Differential Scanning Calorimetry; accept Isothermal Titration Calorimetry)

(7) This organelle's semi-permeable structure allows smaller molecules to pass through without assistance through either osmosis or diffusion. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells contain this organelle in a phospholipid bilayer form. For the point, name this organelle, the cellular boundary that protects the inner organelles.

Cell Membrane (prompt on "Membrane" alone)

(11) Inventors in this country developed an earthquake detector which featured dragons dropping metal balls into the mouths of frogs. This country was home to the first rockets, which were used to propel arrows. Historical inventions from this country include the compass, paper, and gunpowder. For the point, name this country whose military technological developments occurred during dynasties such as the Han and Ming.

China (or Zhongguo)

(6) In most oocytes, these structures can be seen in their "lampbrush" form. In humans, these structures are numbered roughly in order of descending length, and two of them are the "Sex" type. Karyotypes are used to arrange and display these structures made of chromatin. Human genetic information is carried by, for the point, what cells that generally have 23 pairs?

Chromosomes (accept Lampbrush Chromosomes; accept Sex Chromosomes)

(27) This substance is turned into more useable forms through fluid catalytic cracking. The Bakken formation contains this substance's namesake kind of shale. In Alberta, Canada, this substance is extracted in the form of bitumen [[BIT-yoo-men]] from a namesake kind of sand. This substance can be fractionally distilled into substances such as asphalt, kerosene, or gasoline. For the point, name this liquid fossil which is mined by drilling at namesake wells.

Crude oil (or petroleum; accept crude)

(11) This adjective and the word "cold" refers to an entity that may be explained by particles called WIMPs. Fritz Zwicky proposed an entity named for this adjective after observing the Coma Cluster. Phantom energy, a type of one quantity named for this adjective, may explain the Big Rip hypothesis. About 68 percent of the universe may be made of an "energy" described by this word. For the point, name this word that describes an unobservable form of matter.

Dark (accept Dark energy; accept Dark matter; accept Cold Dark Matter)

(31) Event occurrences on the view of one of these constructs can lead to their namesake trigger. Amazon Aurora is an engine on which these constructs can run, and Redis is used within these constructs whose desktop variety can be created by Microsoft Access. Codd's 12 rules govern these constructs that can take the form of lakes or warehouses. Coming in relational and non-relational varieties, these constructs often make use of SQL. For the point, identify this structures collection of data in which files are often stored data.

Databases (accept Relational Databases; accept Non-relational Databases)

(30) Sulfonylureas [[suhl-fah-neel-LUH-ree-us]] are a class of organic compounds used to treat this disease, which is caused by the loss of beta cells in some patients. One form of this disease involves the inability of cells to respond to insulin, and is often caused by a lack of physical activity or poor diet. For the point, name this disease characterized by high blood sugar levels that can be classified into Type 1 and Type 2 varieties.

Diabetes Mellitus (accept Type 1 Diabetes; accept Type 2 Diabetes)

(28) After helping develop the M26 Pershing and the M4 Sherman, Gladeon Barnes helped oversee the creation of this entity whose operators were chosen by Herman Goldstine. ABC and Z3 were among the competitors to this entity developed by (+) John W. Mauchly and a student at the Moore School of Engineering in Pennsylvania. Originally built for artillery table calculations, this device was made out of (*) vacuum tubes and was referred to as the "Giant Brain" by media outlets. For the point, identify this Turing-complete device, a general-purpose digital computer that served as a forerunner to UNIVAC.

ENIAC (accept Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

Practice Question B - According to ancient Greek-Egyptian scientist Ptolomy, this object was the center of the universe. This object's only moon likely occurred when another object, Theia, collided with this planet. For the point, name this third planet from the sun, where we are right now.

Earth (prompt on "Geocentric Model" or "Geocentricity")

(4) Components within this cellular structure include two calcium ion release channels inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptors and ryanodine receptors. One form of these cellular structures is connected by helical sheets called Terasaki ramps, and these structures are composed of flatted sacs called cisternae. Connected with the nuclear envelope, this is, for the point, what organelle that is responsible for the regulation of protein synthesis, whose "smooth" type is characterized by its lack of ribosomes?

Endoplasmic Reticulum (or ER; accept Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum; accept Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum; accept Sarcoplasmic Reticulum)

(15) The sarcoplasmic type of this organelle releases calcium ions during muscle contraction. It's not the Golgi apparatus, but flattened sacs called cisternae are found in this organelle. This organelle folds proteins, and its types are distinguished by the presence or absence of studded ribosomes. For the point, name this organelle that comes in smooth and rough types.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (or ER; accept Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum or ER; accept Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum or ER; prompt on "Reticulum" or "Endoplasmic")

(5) This quantity is determined for monatomic gases using the Sackur-Tetrode equation and remains constant in reversible processes. According to the third law of thermodynamics, this quantity for a perfect crystal is zero at absolute zero, and according to the second law, this quantity does not decrease over time. For the point, name this quantity, symbolized S, which quantifies the amount of disorder in a system.

Entropy (accept S before mentioned)

(29) This scientist posited the existence of an "aperiodic crystal" in the book What is Life?, which later inspired the discovery of DNA. This scientist's namesake equation governs the wave function of a quantum-mechanical system. This scientist created a thought experiment involving a Geiger counter, a hammer, and poison to illustrate flaws with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. For the point, name this Austrian physicist who is best remembered for theorizing a cat who is both dead and alive.

Erwin Schrödinger (or Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger; accept Schrödinger's Cat; accept Schrödinger equation)

(10) This operation describes the runtime for the fastest known algorithm that solves the traveling salesman problem. This operation is performed on "cos(x) + i sin(x)" in De Moivre's [[deh MWAHVS]] formula. This operation's second input is nt in the compound interest formula. When this operation has a base of two, it is the same as doubling. For the point, name this operation that multiplies a number by itself.

Exponentiation (or Exponential; accept Power)

(3) This many carbon atoms are found in the simplest antiaromatic molecule, cyclobutadiene [["sigh"-kloh-byoo-tah-"DIE"-een]]. Steroids such as cholesterol (+) contain this many fused rings, which is also the number of bonds to the central atom in molecules with see-saw and square planar geometries. (*) For the point, give this number of hydrogen atoms found in methane, the simplest tetrahedral alkane.

Four

(18) This Loss of Coolant Accident was rated a level seven on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event scale, and was triggered by an earthquake. This nuclear (+) disaster released roughly ten times less radiation than the accident at Chernobyl and resulted in a full closure of an island (*) facility. For the points, name this 2011 nuclear reactor accident that took place in Japan after the Tōhoku tsunami and earthquake.

Fukushima Daiichi accident (accept synonymous answers for "Accident" such as "Disaster")

(9) Instabilities in these objects can become swing-amplified, and these objects may be formed via Lindblad resonances. One type of these objects has a flattened rotation curve and appears in the upper part of the Hubble tuning fork. Spiral, elliptical, and irregular are major types of, for the point, what type of galactic objects exemplified by Andromeda and the Milky Way?

Galaxy (or Galaxies; accept specific types of Galaxies before mentioned)

(24) This organ can be affected by cholesterolosis [[koh-leh-steh-RAH-loh-sis]], which is also known as "strawberry" [this organ]. This organ can be (+) removed when it accumulates painful amounts of calcium salts and cholesterol, forming this organ's namesake (*) stones. For the point, name this organ that receives and stores bile from the liver.

Gallbladder (accept Cholecyst; prompt on "gallstone")

(34) One form of this technique capitalizes on the use of osmotic flow and is occasionally combined with mass spectroscopy. In order to maintain a constant pH value, buffers like TAE or TBE are used in this technique that occurs before a Western blot. DNA can be stained using ethidium bromide to visualize results from this technique that involves the migration of particles from electrodes. Agarose and PAGE are forms of, for the point, what technique used to separate molecules based on their size and charge by applying an electric field to a gel?

Gel Electrophoresis (accept SDS-PAGE; accept Agarose Electrophoresis; accept PAGE Electrophoresis)

(8) Some of these natural structures in Rotomahana field were destroyed by the eruption of New Zealand's Mount Tarawera. An example of these natural formations is located beside the Hvítá River of Iceland. That formation of this type. known as the Strokkur, has a clear conduit and has been erupting constantly since 1969. For the point, name this type of spring that intermittently ejects steam and boiling water.

Geyser

(28) The reaction of serine and tetrahydrofolate produces this amino acid, along with 5,10-CH2-THF, and water. 5ALA is a compound produced from succinyl-CoA and this amino acid, which can be formed by the amination of MCA and ammonia. The toxin tetanospasmin inhibits GABA and this amino acid, which can act as a neurotransmitter. Notably achiral, this is the most abundant amino acid in the skin of mammals and in the triple helices of collagen. Containing a lone hydrogen atom side chain, this is, for the point, what amino acid symbolized G?

Glycine (accept Aminoacetic Acid; prompt on "G;" prompt on "Gly")

(10) This desert is the alleged home of a "Death Worm," which may be the Tartar sand boa. This desert was formed by the rain shadow of the Tibetan Plateau, and it is the native habitat of the Bactrian camel. China constructed a "Green Wall" to contain, for the point, what large Asian desert that covers southern Mongolia?

Gobi Desert

(1) This phenomenon was the subject of the Cavendish experiment, which was the first to yield an accurate value for a physical constant used in a calculation involving Newton's universal law of this phenomenon. Galileo dropped balls from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, showing that acceleration due to this phenomenon is the same for all objects. For the point, name this force of attraction between masses governed by Einstein's theory of general relativity.

Gravity (or Gravitation)

(5) When cooled to the lambda point, this element forms a superfluid Rollin film that appears to creep out of its container. Alpha particles are the nuclei of this element, which is the second-most abundant in the universe. Two hydrogen atoms combine to form, for the point, what lightest noble gas that makes balloons float?

Helium or (He)

(28) This concept was incorrectly understood by Aristotle, but the Chinese philosopher Mozi showed a better understanding of this concept in the same time period. Islamic scientists demonstrated an understanding of this concept five centuries before Galileo and Copernicus began to describe it in relation to planetary motion. Kepler first used this term, but Newton never used the term even though he is most associated with this concept. For the point, what is this resistance to change in an object's motion, often explained as "An object in motion will stay in motion."

Inertia

(30) This man's claim that intent is never manifest is used to undermine what he calls the "conspiracy theory of society." One notion developed by this man claims that propositions can differ in their degree of truth, a concept he called verisimilitude. (+) This man criticized Hegel and Marx for contributing to the existence of modern totalitarianism in a work that argues against history's determination by universal laws. This man championed (*) falsifiability instead of inductive reasoning in his examination of the scientific method. For the point, name this analytic British-Austrian philosopher who wrote The Logic of Scientific Discovery.

Karl Popper

(25) The human genome contains 54 genes of this protein in which mutations of its gene expression may cause Ichthyosis [[ik-thee-OH-sis]] bollusa of Siemens or Steatocystoma multiplex. The alpha type of this protein is characterized into two types, type I and type II, both of which make up a subunit dimer called the coiled coil. Claws, feathers, and scales are made of, for the point, what fibrous protein that also make up human fingernails and hair?

Keratin (accept Alpha-Keratin; prompt on "Scleroprotein")

(19) Increases in the frequency of this phenomenon can be used to predict microbursts. The Miller-Urey experiment tested whether this phenomenon led to the first organic compounds on earth. St. Elmo's fire can be produced by this phenomenon, whose "ball" variety may be explained by the soliton hypothesis. This phenomenon occurs when the atmospheric field strength exceeds three million volts per meter. For the point, name this phenomenon seen during thunderstorms.

Lightning (accept ball lightning)

(6) Yttrium barium copper oxide was the first material discovered that could superconduct above the boiling point of this substance at nearly 92 Kelvin. The handling of this substance requires it to be slowly boiled to 77 Kelvin and stored and transported in vacuum flasks. This substance's low boiling point is caused by the weak van der Waals interaction between its diatomic molecules. For the point, name this incredibly cold liquid used in cryotherapy and cryogenics.

Liquid Nitrogen (accept LN2; accept Liquid N2)

(20) This scientist expanded upon Henri Becquerel's work on uranium salts emitting rays, and to do so, used the electrometer, which was invented by her husband. While investigating ore pitchblende, this scientist discovered an element, polonium, which she named after her country of birth. This woman also discovered radium with her husband, Pierre. For the point, name this Polish scientist who coined the term "radioactivity."

Marie Curie

(34) One form of this technique uses a reflectron to measure a sample's time-of-flight. In this technique, fragmented benzyl groups rearrange to form stable tropylium cations. "Soft" ionization techniques such as ESI and MALDI prepare samples for this process, which is often coupled with gas chromatography. On spectra produced by this technique, the "base peak" represents the most abundant ion. For the point, name this analytic technique that separates fragments based on their mass-to-charge ratio.

Mass Spectrometry (or Mass Spectroscopy; or MS; accept Time-of-flight Mass Spectrometry; accept GC-MS)

(21) One of the oldest treatises on this profession was written by the Indian thinker Sushruta [[soo-SHROO-tah]], which forms the basis of the Ayurveda [[ah-yoor-VEH-dah]] form of this profession. Much modern knowledge of the historical western practice of this profession derives from the works of Galen [[GAY-len]]. The code of ethics governing this profession is often written to include the phrase "first, do no harm." For the point, name this profession which is governed by the Hippocratic oath.

Medicine (accept Medical; accept Doctors; accept Healing; accept Surgery; accept synonymous answers)

(4) Hagfish release a highly fibrous variety of this substance to help escape from predators. This substance can be expelled from the body with the help of drugs like Guaifenesin [[gwy-FEN-eh-sin]] and other expectorants. People suffering from cystic fibrosis experience a buildup of this substance in the lungs and digestive tract. For the point, name this biological substance which is emitted from namesake membranes in the nose by people with allergies.

Mucus (accept Phlegm, Snot, etc. before "namesake")

(11) Common causes of these events, the largest of which occurred in Washington in 1980, include increases in pore pressure and hydrostatic pressure in surface cracks. The field of predicting these events is called (+) slope stability analysis. These events, which are a form of mass wasting, are often preceded by heavy rains destabilizing the (*) surface layer. For the point, name these potentially catastrophic movements of rock and sediment down a slope.

Mudslides (accept Landslides; accept Mudflows; accept Rockslides; accept Flow Slides; prompt on "mass wasting" before mentioned)

(5) The Bordes [[BOR-dess]]-Binford debate centered on the existence of ethnicities among this species. Ralph Solecki controversially claimed that the presence of flower pollen with a buried member of this species was evidence of (+) ritual burial. This species is believed to have frequently interbred with the closely related Denisovans [[deh-NEE-soh-vins]]. The 1983 discovery of this species's hyoid bone suggests they had the (*) ability to talk. For the point, name this close relative of modern humans, whose remains were first discovered in a namesake German valley.

Neanderthals (or Homo Neanderthalis; accept pronunciations which replace the "TH" with a "T" sound; prompt on "Neander Valley")

(20) Examples of these objects include the North America type and the Westerhout Five, the latter of which is often paired with the neighboring Heart type of these objects as the "Heart and Soul." Subclasses of these objects include the emission and reflection types, and the Crab type found in Taurus is an example of the supernova remnant subclass of these objects. For the point, name these massive cosmic clouds primarily made of gas and dust.

Nebulae (accept Emission Nebulae; accept Reflection Nebulae; accept Dark Nebulae; accept Planetary Nebulae; accept Supernova Remnant before mentioned)

(24) The Hartree-Fock method is a process for approximating these entities of more complex systems. The molecular variety of these entities can be calculated from the LCAO method. The simplest type of these entities is spherical and contains no radial nodes, and a singular one of these constructs can only hold two electrons. For the point, name these atomic regions that come in s, p, d, and f varieties.

Orbitals (accept Wavefunctions before "Molecular" is mentioned; accept specific orbital types such as S, P, D, or F Orbitals before mentioned)

(24) This constellation's lower left contains the Horsehead Nebula. This constellation's namesake nebula contains the Trapezium [[trah-PEE-zee-um]] Cluster. This constellation contains the Amazon Star, Bellatrix [[BEH-lah-triks]]. The stars Alnitak [[al-nih-TAHK]], Alnilam [[al-nee-LAHM]], and Mintaka [[min-TAH-kah]] make up this constellation's namesake "belt." This constellation's brightest stars are Rigel [["RYE"-jel]] and Betelgeuse [[BEH-tel-"juice"]]. For the point, name this constellation depicting a hunter from Greek mythology.

Orion (accept Orion nebula or Great Orion nebula; accept Orion's belt)

(1) The phlogiston [[FLAH-jih-stun]] theory was debunked following discoveries about the role of this element in combustion. Chlorofluorocarbons have damaged a layer of the Earth's atmosphere comprised of an allotrope of this element. That allotrope, ozone, is made up of three instead of two atoms of this element. For the point, name this gas which comprises about 20% of the Earth's atmosphere and is necessary for aerobic respiration.

Oxygen (accept O)

(5) This organization's YouTube channel produces the Eons series, which covers evolution and ancient life forms. This organization also distributes the Nova pop-science series. Chris and Martin Kratt have starred in two animal science programs for this organization, starting with Zoboombafoo. The television counterpart of NPR, for the point, what is this educational television non-profit, which airs shows such as Sesame Street and Arthur?

PBS (or Public Broadcasting Service)

(17) Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing is a therapy developed for this condition that was formerly known as shell shock. Flashbacks and recurring nightmares are characteristic symptoms of this condition. For the point, name this psychological condition caused by experiencing horrible events, commonly associated with soldiers.

PTSD (or Post-traumatic Stress Disorder; prompt on "Shell Shock" before mentioned)

(1) The limit of this concept is being tested in the VIP2 experiment by a laboratory below the Gran Sasso Mountain. A quantum number in this concept must be opposite half-integers of either +1/2 or -1/2. The application of Hund's rule to this concept dictates that all orbitals must be filled with electrons with parallel spins before being paired with an opposite spin, while the Aufbau [[OWF-bow]] principle states that electrons occupy subshells with lowest available energy first. For the point, name this principle that states that no two electrons in an atom can have identical quantum numbers.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

(9) This body contains the Tombaugh Region, which resembles a large, white heart. A large, dark region on this body is known as Cthulhu Macula [[kuh-THOO-loo MAK-yoo-luh]]. Minor moons orbiting this body include Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. This body is the largest object in the Kuiper [[KIGH-per]] belt. This body is sometimes considered to be a double planet with its largest moon, Charon [[KAIR-on]]. For the point, name this dwarf planet, which was formerly classified as the ninth planet from the sun.

Pluto

(25) This plant commonly grows alongside, and is often mistaken for, the Virginia creeper. This plant contains a resin called urushiol that induces a form of contact dermatitis, and "black-spot" deposits caused by this plant can be treated with topical corticosteroids. The phrase "Leaves of three, let it be" applies to, for the point, what plant of the genus Toxicodendron that is closely related to other species named "oak" and "sumac", whose sap causes an itchy rash?

Poison Ivy (accept Poison Oak; accept Poison Sumac; accept Toxicodendron radicans)

(13) A matrix's eigenvalues can be calculated using the "characteristic" type of these mathematical objects. The Abel-Ruffini theorem says it is impossible to find algebraic solutions to these objects when their degree is greater than four. The power rule can be used to differentiate these objects, which can be divided using synthetic division. For the point, name these functions consisting of sums of the powers of variables.

Polynomials

(21) These expressions are classified as analytic because they are a finite power series. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that every one of these expressions with degree n and complex coefficients has n complex roots. For the point, name these expressions that contain coefficients and variables, like x squared minus one.

Polynomials (prompt on "Quadratic" by asking "What larger class do quadratics belong to?")

(24) Abnormalities in the millisecond variety of these objects provide indirect evidence of gravitational waves. When originally discovered, these objects were nicknamed "LGM," or little (+) green men. These bodies are only detectable if one of their poles points toward the (*) Earth. For the point, name these rapidly rotating neutron stars that are named for periodically emitting bursts of radio waves.

Pulsar (accept Pulsating Radio Source; prompt on "Little Green Men" or "LGM" before mentioned; prompt on "Neutron Star" before mentioned)

(11) A form of this event that glows red in the dark is called nuée ardente. A variation of this event occurred on Mount Unzen in Japan, killing Harry Glicken alongside Katia and Maurice (+) Krafft. That type of variation occurs when this event is composed of more rock than gas. This natural disaster is often caused by fountain collapses, which prompted this type of event's destruction of (*) Herculaneum. For the points, name this fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter, collectively known as tephra, that destroyed the ancient city of Pompeii.

Pyroclastic flow (or Pyroclastic density current or Pyroclastic cloud)

(25) The side lengths and diagonals of one type of these shapes can be related by Ptolemy's theorem. Points within the plane that form the cyclic type of these shapes must satisfy the intersecting chords theorem. Tetragon is another name for these types of shapes whose simple or planar forms must have interior angles that sum to 360 degrees. For the point, name these four-sided polygons.

Quadrilaterals

(29) In the topological variety of these systems, the world lines of anyons create braids, which serve as one of their key components. Daniel Loss and David P. DiVincenzo developed the concept of one of these systems that relied on the control of (+) electron spin in one of their components. The states of these systems are difficult to sustain due to state fidelity and decoherence, and the logic gates (*) of these devices run on qubits. For the point, name these devices that perform calculations using principles from a non-classical theory of physics.

Quantum Computer (accept word forms such as Quantum Computing; prompt on partial answers; accept Topological Quantum Computer)

(1) Severo Ochoa won the 1959 Nobel Prize in Medicine for discovering an enzyme that could synthesize this molecule. Recent studies have shown that the "micro" variety of this molecule plays a role in regulating cancer metabolism. Examples of this molecule include its "heterogenous nuclear", "transfer", and "messenger" varieties. Uracil replaces thymine in, for the point, what nucleic acid, that, unlike DNA, is single-stranded and made up of a ribose sugar?

RNA (or ribonucleic acid; accept microRNA; or miRNA; accept transferRNA; or tRNA; accept messengerRNA; or mRNA; accept heterogenous nuclear RNA; or hnRNA; prompt on "nucleic acid")

(10) These were the first animals used in Richard G. Morris's spatial memory water navigation tasks. These animals ran into a wall to make the namesake sound of Harvey Carr's "kerplunk" experiment. This was the first animal that Little Albert was conditioned to fear by John Watson. For the point, name these rodents who are often put through namesake "races" in mazes as part of learning studies.

Rats (accept Ratrace; prompt on "rodent"; do not accept or prompt on "mice" or "mouse")

(24) Classification algorithms in machine learning employ this technique's logistic form, which requires a categorical dependent variable. In this technique, the source of variation in a data set is quantified by the coefficient of determination (+), which is symbolized "R-squared." The sum of the squared residuals is minimized in the "ordinary least squares" approach (*) to this technique's linear form. For the point, name this statistical technique that models the relationship between two variables by fitting a line to a set of data.

Regression (accept Linear Regression; accept Logistic Regression)

(5) This scientist's lectures were collected in the books Six Easy Pieces and Six Not So Easy Pieces. This scientist presaged the field of nanotechnology in the lecture "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom." The title of this scientist's autobiography starts with the phrase Surely You're Joking. This scientist developed the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics. For the point, name this Caltech physicist, whose namesake diagrams depict particle behavior with arrows and squiggly lines.

Richard Feynman (or Richard Phillips Feynman; accept Feynman diagram; accept Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!)

(2) Georg Cantor names one of these mathematical objects, which lacks density and contains only boundary points. The intersection of two disjointed forms of these objects yields the empty one of them. These objects, which are "null" when they have no elements, do not include any repeated elements. For the point, name these collections of elements typically written with curly brackets that can be depicted using Venn diagrams.

Sets (accept Cantor Sets; accept Empty Sets; accept Null Sets)

(25) Fat is stored in the subcutaneous layer of this organ that makes up the integumentary system. Exocrine glands secrete an oily substance called sebum to lubricate this organ, which is the largest in the human body. Th dermis and epidermis are layers of, for the point, what organ affected by eczema and acne?

Skin (accept Dermis before mentioned; accept Epidermis before mentioned)

(4) X-bracing has been used for some of these structures in Chicago, while the trussed tube concept was applied to examples of these structures like the Onterie Center. Tube framing superseded the steel frame design of these structures, which were pioneered by Fazlur Rahman Khan. These structures often make use of sky lobbies to expand service core via elevators. For the point, name these towering buildings that include the Burj Khalifa.

Skyscrapers (accept Supertalls; prompt on "High-rises"; prompt on "Buildings")

(25) Range contraction can cause the centrifugal [[sen-TRIH-foo-gul]] type of this process. The Theory of Punctuated Equilibrium posits that this process occurs in rapid bursts. When this process occurs over a single geographic range, it is termed "sympatric." Geographic (+) isolation causes the allopatric type of this process to occur, and new branches on phylogenetic [[FY-loh-"genetic"]] trees are formed by this (*) process. For the point, name this process which results in two populations being unable to breed with one another.

Speciation (accept Centrifugal Speciation; accept Sympatric Speciation; accept Allopatric Speciation; accept Peripatric Speciation; accept Parapatric Speciation; prompt on "Evolution")

(4) This scientist compiled selections from five classical texts of physics and astronomy in his book On the Shoulders of Giants. This scientist lends his name to the radiation that slowly decays black holes. This scientist wrote the pop-science books The Theory of Everything and A Brief History of Time. For the point, name this British astrophysicist, who was confined to a wheelchair due to ALS.

Stephen Hawking

(3) This fundamental force's mediating particles can be described by the Gell-Mann matrices. Hideki Yukawa proposed that this force existed due to the pion. This force binds quarks together to form hadrons, and it also keeps hadrons together in atomic nuclei. For the point, name this fundamental force responsible for keeping protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.

Strong Force (or Strong Nuclear Force; accept Strong Interaction)

(30) Rapidly cooling liquified forms of this element can produce its amorphous "plastic" allotrope. Lapis lazuli's [[LAH-pis LAHZ-yoo-lees]] blue color comes from this element's negatively charged thiozone [["THIGH"-oh-"zone"]] ion. This element is used to strengthen rubber through vulcanization. When bonded to two hydrogen atoms, this element makes a compound that smells like rotten eggs. For the point, name this chalcogen [[KAL-soh-jen]] with atomic number 16.

Sulfur (or S; accept Brimstone; accept Plastic sulfur)

(8) Description acceptable. Because of this potential outcome, the Union of Concerned Scientists officially opposed solar geo-engineering in 2020. This event will mark the end of the Anthropocene epoch, and Stephen Hawking thought it the most likely outcome of an AI takeover. Scenarios for this event include a three degree climate shift, a nuclear winter, and a large asteroid impact. For the point, name this final catastrophe that some scientists now believe will start with a global pandemic.

The End of the World (accept descriptions like the Apocalypse, the Collapse of civilization, the Extinction of humanity, etc.)

(12) The stomach slips through this structure in a condition known as a hiatal hernia. The phrenic nerve innervates this muscle, whose strength is tested by measuring the vital capacity in both the upright and supine positions. The flattening of this muscle on an X-ray can help diagnose COPD, and involuntary spasms of this muscle produce hiccups. The volume of the thoracic cavity is increased by, for the point, what sheet of skeletal muscle that contracts to draw air into the lungs during respiration and is used by professional singers to produce powerful notes?

Thoracic Diaphragm

(6) Frictional forces in this region cause zonal and meridional [[meh-RIH-dee-uh-nal]] flow regimes. This region can be depicted with the three-cell model, which includes the Hadley Cells. This layer extends for eleven miles above sea level at the equator, ending at its "pause." Most of the Earth's weather occurs in this layer, which also has the majority of the atmosphere's mass. For the point, name this lowest layer of the atmosphere.

Troposphere (prompt on "tropopause")

(11) Since 2010, this government agency has funded Innovation Hubs finding alternatives to rare earth magnets. This department's Office of Science oversees the Fermi, Brookhaven, and Oak Ridge National Laboratories. This department monitors both federal hydroelectric projects and radioactive waste disposal. In February 2021, Jennifer Granholm became Secretary of, for the point, what cabinet department which oversees the U.S. supply of power?

United States Department of Energy (prompt on "DOE")

(25) Bartlett's test, a type of F-test, compares two values for this quantity, which is also analyzed by a set of models developed by Ronald Fisher called ANOVA [[ah-NO-vah]]. (+) The parameter lambda for a Poisson [[pwa-SAHN]] distribution symbolizes both the expected value and this quantity, which is the square of the standard (*) deviation. For the point, name this measure of how spread out a data set is.

Variance (accept Analysis of variance)

(23) The cross product of this quantity and the magnetic field appears in the formula for the Lorentz force. This quantity's phase type is described as the rate at which a wave propagates in a medium. The time derivative of this quantity is acceleration, and the unit of this quantity is usually expressed in meters per second. Displacement divided by time equals, for the point, what vector quantity that consists of both speed and direction, denoted as "v"?

Velocity (accept Phase Velocity; accept v before mentioned; prompt on "Speed")

(15) Eighty-six of these structures were published by Robert Wiedersheim in the book The Structure of Man: An Index to His Past History, in which he mistakenly included the pineal gland, since melatonin had not yet been discovered. Douglas (+) Futuyma [[foo-TOY-muh]] argued that these structures are evidence of evolution, and some examples of them include the eyes of cave fish and the pelvic bones of snakes and whales. The wisdom teeth and tailbone (*) of humans are classic examples of, for the points, what "obsolete" parts of the body that no longer serve a purpose in its present form?

Vestigial Structures (or Vestigial Organs; accept Vestigiality; prompt on answers synonymous to "non-functioning body parts")

(2) The product of the linear dimension and flow speed is divided by this quantity to give the Reynolds number. This quantity's kinematic form is equal to its dynamic form divided by the density of the fluid. For the point, name this quantity, a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow.

Viscosity

(3) Methods that measure this quantity include the concentric cylinder geometry, which consists of a spindle, inner bob, and an outer cup and a similar apparatus that consists of a spindle, (+) cone, and plate. Air has the lowest value of the absolute type of this quantity while glass has the highest value. Glycerol has the value of (*) 1 Newton-second per square meter in, for the points, what quantity that comes in the dynamic and kinematic types and describes a fluid's resistance to flow?

Viscosity (accept Absolute Viscosity; accept Dynamic Viscosity; accept Kinematic Viscosity)

(20) A mariachi band played when the final example of these objects was produced in 2003 at a Puebla, Mexico factory. The Cal looker was a modified variant of this object which Béla Barényi engineered. Ivan Hirst helped open a factory for these vehicles which were made under Heinz Nordhoff's leadership. This car was called the "People's Car," and it was born from the ideas of Adolf Hitler and Ferdinand Porsche. For the point, name this distinctively-shaped Volkswagen car.

Volkswagen Beetle (accept Volkswagen Type 1; accept Bug in place of Beetle; accept Volkswagen Käfer)

(14) The smallest species of these animals ejects the nucleus from its nerve cells, allowing them to grow to sizes smaller than .15 [[POINT-ONE-FIVE]] millimeters. In addition to the world's smallest insect, the fairyfly, these animals include one that hunts large spiders, the tarantula hawk. Common varieties of these Hymenopterans include yellowjackets and hornets. For the point, name these insects which, unlike bees, do not make honey.

Wasps (accept Hornet before mentioned; accept Fairy wasps; accept Spider wasps; prompt on "Hymenoptera" before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "Bees")

(25) Slubice [[swoo-BEE-tseh]], Poland, created a monument to this organization in Frankfurt Square. In 2002, Rambot was used as an automated program that modified this organization's work. All of the pages on this website were blacked out for one day in 2012 to protest the SOPA law. This organization suffers from edit warring and reliability issues. Larry Sanger and Jimmy Wales founded, for the point, what online encyclopedia?

Wikipedia.org

(21) One class of these structures is named for the fact that its post is hollowed to make way for the drive shaft. The Zaan district was known for its heavy concentration of these structures, a variety of which Daniel Halladay designed in America to pump water. These sailcontaining structures that were historically associated with the Netherlands have largely been phased out in favor of similar turbines that generate electricity. For the point, name these structures that create rotational energy with their blades.

Windmills (accept Wind Engine; do not accept or prompt on "Turbine" or Wind "Turbine")

(22) Chinooks are an example of the foehn [[FANE]] type of these phenomena, other examples of which are called katabatic when they go downhill. Anemometers are used to measure this phenomenon, and calm examples of these phenomena are found in the horse latitudes. Gales are a strong type of these phenomena given a rating of seven to ten on the Beaufort scale, which characterizes their speed. For the point, name these phenomena in which air moves due to a change in atmospheric pressure.

Winds (accept Breezes; accept Foehn winds; accept Katabatic winds)

(3) Transfection is a technique used to introduce nucleic acids into these structures, which were first discovered by Robert Hooke while looking under a microscope. One (+) form of these structures is responsible for conducting impulses in the nervous system, while another helps transport oxygen around the body. These units are composed of (*) cytoplasm enclosed in a namesake membrane. For the points, name this smallest unit of biological life.

cells (accept neurons; or nerve cell; accept red blood cells; accept cell membrane)

(17) Under D'Alembert's [[dah-lem-BARES]] paradox, this force disappears within an incompressible and inviscid flow. At very low Reynolds numbers, the magnitude of this force on a spherical object is proportional to fluid velocity according to Stokes' law. Gravity balances this upward-acting force when a falling object reaches terminal velocity. For the point, name this force that opposes the motion of an object through a fluid.

drag force (accept air resistance; or fluid resistance; prompt on "friction")

(22) The last people to complete this task were Gene Cernan and Jack Schmitt. China's Chang'e [[CHAHNG-EH]] 3 and 4 missions were the first non-damaging completions of this task since 1976. The Tranquility base was created after the first completion of this task on the first mission to achieve this task, Apollo 11. For the point, name this task, which was first achieved by Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong.

moon landing (accept any answer indicating landing a person/ship/probe/rover/etc on the moon)

(6) This statement is an equivalent for one named for Proclus. This statement can be replaced by an "at most" statement called Playfair's axiom. Lobachevsky and Bolyai name a system in which this statement does not hold known as hyperbolic geometry. For the point, name this fifth of Euclid's postulates which states that there is a unique line through a point that does not intersect with another line.

parallel postulate (accept Euclid's fifth postulate before mentioned)

(26) The lever rule can be applied to these diagrams after drawing their tie lines. The Widom and Frenkel lines on these diagrams separate different parts of a (+) supercritical fluid. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation is used to measure the slope of the coexistence curves on these diagrams, which meet at the (*) triple point. For the points, name these diagrams that plot temperature against pressure to show where a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.

phase diagrams (or P-T diagrams)

(7) For humans, the longest wavelength cone primarily sees this color, and cells named after this color are called erythrocytes. Although they can vary greatly, algal blooms are sometimes called "tides" of this color. The first stage of a bruise is usually this color and inflammation can cause skin to turn this color. The iron atom in hemoglobin causes, for the point, mammalian blood cells to take on what namesake color?

red

(26) The retention of the structure of these objects at high rotational speeds led to the discovery of dark matter. These objects make up the right end of the "Hubble tuning fork" diagram. These objects are subclassified based on whether or not they are "barred." These objects have greater order than their lenticular, elliptical, or irregular counterparts. For the point, name this type of galaxy which includes the Andromeda and is shaped like a whirlpool.

spiral galaxies (or barred spiral galaxies; prompt on "galaxies")

(25) This technology was part of the Kyocera VP-210, the first cell phone equipped with this technology. In addition to audio connection, Securus Technology provides this service to prison inmates. Along with instant messaging, this is the primary service provided by Google Hangout. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, most schools have been forced to remotely operate over these services. For the point, name this service provided by Skype, Facetime, and Zoom.

video calling (or video conferencing; or videotelephony; accept similar answers referring to calls by video; do not accept or prompt on "phone calls")

(13) The reproductive cycles of these entities can be described as lytic or lysogenic. Surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid, examples of these entities that infect bacteria are often called "phages." Infections caused by these pathogens cannot be treated with antibiotics, and thus they are often countered with vaccines. Smallpox and measles are caused by, for the point, which pathogens, examples of which include HIV and influenza?

viruses

(1) These organisms contain the transcription factor Gal4, which is used in their namesake "two-hybrid screening" assay to detect protein interactions. The most common form of thrush is caused by infection with one of these organisms, Candida albicans. Both "a" and "alpha" mating types are found in the "baker's" type of these organisms. For the point, name these unicellular fungi used in making bread and beer.

yeasts (accept Saccharomyces; accept Saccharomyces cerevisiae; accept Candida albicans; prompt on "fungi")

(22) Urbain Le Verrier hypothesized this body which Percival Lowell called "Planet X." 11-year old Venetia Burney named this body which Clyde Tombaugh used a blink comparator to find. The IAU launched a debate on whether this body was properly categorized. This body has moons named Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Charon [[KAY-run]], and New Horizons did a flyby of this dwarf planet in the Kuiper Belt. For the point, name this former ninth planet of the solar system.

134340 Pluto

(12) The constellation Sagittarius is identified by this number in the Messier catalogue. This number is the smallest even two-digit number whose digits sum to 10. This number is the atomic number of Nickel, as well as the number of days in two fortnights. For the point, identify this number, the product of 4 times 7.

28

(13) Eigenvalues can be found by performing this operation on the original matrix minus lambda times the identity and setting the result equal to (+) zero. This operation on a matrix is zero if and only if the matrix is noninvertible, and taking a cross product is equivalent to performing this operation on a 3 by (*) 3 matrix. For the points, identify this operation, which for a 2 by 2 matrix equals a times d minus b times c.

ANSWER: Determinant

(17) Anvil cells that use this mineral enable the compression of small materials to extreme pressures. Kimberlite pipes are often used to mine this mineral, which is placed at the tip of an apparatus in the Vickers test. This material, which is ranked above corundum on the Mohs scale, is a carbon allotrope consisting of a tetrahedrally bonded covalent network lattice. For the point, name this precious mineral, the hardest naturally occurring material.

Diamond

(5) Two of these particles behave as a boson in a Cooper pair, and these particles name the most stable flavor of neutrino. These particles and stable leptons possess antiparticles called positrons, and these particles are the quanta and force carrier of the electromagnetic force. For the point, name these negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom.

Electrons

(14) The Clausius inequality relates this quantity to heat and temperature. Trouton's rule states that this value for liquids undergoing vaporization is fairly constant. By the second law of thermodynamics, this quantity in an isolated system must increase through spontaneous evolution to reach thermodynamic equilibrium. Changes in this quantity are denoted S. For the point, name this quantity, the measure of disorder in a system.

Entropy (accept S before mentioned; prompt on "chaos" or "disorder")

(26) Hygrometers are used to measure this property which can be reduced or maintained using air-conditioner devices. High levels of this property reduce the rate of heat evaporation from skin surfaces. For the point, name this property found in high levels in tropical countries that measures the concentration of water vapor in the air.

Humidity

(10) One of these places called Sudbury Basin was formed after the Nuna supercontinent was hit by a bolide. These places, the largest of which is the (+) Vredefort in South Africa, include one underneath Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula called Chicxulub [[chik-ZHOO-loob]]. These places typically have raised rims and floors lower in elevation than the surrounding (*) terrain. For the points, name these places created when meteorites hit the Earth's surface.

Impact craters (accept Astroblemes)

(6) Animals exhibiting this behavior only do so during a specific time span in what is termed as the "critical stage," which was determined by Konrad Lorenz as 32 hours after hatching. Lorenz, who coined the term for this behavior, observed it during an experiment after hatching graylag geese eggs from an incubator. A group of baby ducks following their mother displays the filial form of, for the point, what instinctive behavior exhibited when animals form an attachment to their first visual target?

Imprinting (accept Filial Imprinting before mentioned; accept Limbic Imprinting; accept Sexual Imprinting)

(12) This hormone is synthesized by removing C-peptide by PC1 and PC2. This hormone, which regulates GLUT4 transporters, was sequenced by Frederick Sanger. Ketoacidosis is caused by a lack of this hormone, which stimulates the production of glycogen. Secreted from beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans, this is, for the point, what hormone that opposes the effects of glucagon, whose deficiency leads to type 1 diabetes?

Insulin

(18) Under special relativity, this law is implied by the general form of the first law of thermodynamics and Albert Einstein's formula "E equals m c squared." With (+) the laws of definite and multiple proportions, this law underlies the principles of stoichiometry [[stoy-kee-YAH-meh-tree]], which is used to balance chemical reactions. Antoine (*) Lavoisier discovered, for the points, what law that states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed?

Law of Conservation of Mass (or Law of Conservation of Matter)

(11) The Quechua [[keh-CHWAH]] used the Cinchona [[SIN-chone-uh]] tree to fight this disease. An outbreak of this disease led to the founding of the CDC, and this disease was effectively ended in the U.S. by the introduction of DDT. American soldiers in the South Pacific contracted, for the point, what disease that is spread by mosquitoes and named for the Spanish for "Bad Air?"

Malaria

(26) Attaching this shape to the edge of a disk produces a surface called a crosscap. The real projective plane can be topologically constructed from this shape, which yields paradromic rings when repeatedly cut along the center line. (+) This shape is produced by splitting a Klein bottle along its plane of symmetry, and this shape with an Euler characteristic of zero is the (*) simplest non-orientable surface. For the point, identify this shape that is named for a German mathematician and formed by making a halftwist in a strip of paper and linking the ends together.

Möbius Strip (or Möbius Band)

(6) The two researchers who discovered this element erroneously thought that they had also discovered an element they called metargon, which was found to simply be contaminated argon. A commercial device that uses this element was preceded by a gas discharge tube named for Heinrich Geissler. This element, which is the first to fill up its p subshell, emits a red hue within an electrical field. For the point, identify this element and lightest of the noble gases, which is commonly used in bright electrical signs.

Neon (prompt on "Ne")

(20) This planet is the closest to Earth whose orbit is not predicted by the Titius-Bode law. Objects that are in 1:2 orbital resonance with this planet are called "twotinos." A triangular patch of clouds on this planet is known as the "Scooter," and a former series of storms on it was called the Great Dark Spot. A moon of this planet is the largest in the solar system to exhibit retrograde orbit, Triton. For the point, name this farthest planet from the sun.

Neptune

(30) An unnamed ring of this planet parallels the orbit of its moon Galatea. Objects in a 1:2 resonance with this planet are known as "twotinos," and a spinning storm on this planet is known as the Great Dark Spot. Triton is a moon of, for the point, what planet in the solar system, located farthest from the Sun?

Neptune

(2) These particles, first proposed by George Zweig and Murray Gell-Mann, are believed to be among the essential building blocks of matter and are considered a fundamental secondary group of elementary particles. These particles come in six forms, and they partner with other elementary particles to form protons and neutrons. For the point, name these charged particles with flavors such as top, charm, and strange.

Quarks (accept Quark Model; accept Up Quarks; accept Down Quarks; accept Charm Quarks; or Strange Quarks; accept Top Quarks; accept Bottom Quarks)

(16) Pedology is the scientific field concerned with the formation of this material that is grouped into layers called horizons. Along with water and gases, this material is primarily composed of sand, silt, and clay. For the point, identify this nutrient-rich mixture of organic material used to plant flowers and crops.

Soil (prompt on "Earth" or "Dirt")

(1) Unique phenomena observed in this region include polar plumes and helmet streamers. Solar wind originates from namesake "holes" found in this region. During this layer's namesake "mass ejections," solar flares become more common. Spectrographic analysis of this layer, which sits above the chromosphere, led to the discovery of helium. For the point, name this outermost layer of the Sun, the name for which is Latin for "crown."

Stellar Corona (or Solar Corona; accept Coronal holes; accept Coronal mass ejection)

(22) The approximation of this number is the simplest application of the Babylonian method. One plus "this value" equals the limiting ratio of consecutive Pell numbers, which is called the silver ratio. Because his followers first demonstrated its irrationality through studies of a square's diagonal, this value is also called Pythagoras's constant, and this number is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose legs each have a length of one unit. For the point, name this number approximately equal to 1.414.

The Square Root of 2 (or Root 2; or Radical 2; accept Pythagoras's Constant before mentioned)

(27) The term "exemplar" was introduced in the postscript of this work, which was criticized at an International Colloquium attended by such scholars as Imre Lakatos. It's not by Wittgenstein, but this book that uses an example of a duck-rabbit (+) was used to illustrate the change in one's perception of a given entity with new information. According to this work, periods of "puzzle-solving" (*) occur within existing frameworks characterized by the "normal" form of one study. Citing Copernicus' breakthroughs as an example of a "paradigm shift," this is, for the point, what landmark work in the history of science by Thomas Kuhn?

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

(24) In an attempt to discredit George Westinghouse, this scientist gave animals electric shocks from alternating and direct current as part of the "War of the Currents." This scientist created an early way to record sounds with his invention called a "phonograph." This inventor and rival of Nikola Tesla was known as the "Wizard of Menlo Park." For the point, name this American inventor, who developed the most popular incandescent light bulb.

Thomas Edison

(22) The geometric mean theorem relates the length of one of these segments in a triangle to the lengths of the segments it creates. The inverse (+) Pythagorean theorem relates the length of these segments. These segments of a triangle coincide at its orthocenter. The area of a triangle can be calculated by multiplying one-half (*) times a base times one of these segments. For the points, name these segments drawn from a vertex and perpendicular to the opposite side.

Triangle altitudes

(30) This constellation names the closest known moving group to Earth, being part of the Local Bubble. This constellation contains a notable binary system made of Mizar [["MY"-zar]] and Alcor. Major stars in this constellation include (+) Dubhe [[DOO-beh]] and Merak [[MEE-rak]], which can be used to locate Polaris (*) in another constellation. For the point, name this northern hemisphere constellation that contains the Big Dipper.

Ursa Major (or Great Bear; accept Ursa Major Moving Group or Ursa Major Association; prompt on the "Big Dipper" before read; prompt on "the Plough")

(4) This quantity that appears in the Fresnel number can be computed using the formula "h over mc". Radio waves are the weakest form of electromagnetic (+) radiation because they have the highest value for this quantity, which is measured by the distance between adjacent troughs. On a visible light spectrum, the color green has a value ranging between (*) 495 to 570 nanometers for, for the points, what quantity that describes the horizontal distance between two peaks of a wave, symbolized lambda?

Wavelength (accept Compton Wavelength; prompt of "Lambda" before MENTIONED)

(18) Cleveland Abbe was nicknamed "Old Probability" for his reliability in this task. J.M. Stagg performed this task in preparation for D-Day. Edward Lorenz believed that the longterm performance of this task was impossible due to the butterfly effect. Remote sensing and radiosondes [["radio"-sahndz]] are used in this task, which is performed pseudoscientifically on February 2nd with a groundhog. For the point, name this task commonly performed by a meteorologist, who might state that rain is likely tomorrow.

Weather forecasting (accept answers indicating Forecasting the weather; or Predicting the weather or Modeling the weather; prompt on partial answers; accept meteorology before "meteorologist")

(2) The gravitational definition of this quantity states it is the equivalent of an object's mass multiplied by its gravitational acceleration, whereas the operational definition states this quantity is equivalent to the amount of force exerted by an object. The newton is the SI unit that measures, for the point, what quantity, commonly measured in the U.S. in pounds?

Weight

(24) The dorsal face of this joint contains a triangular depression called the anatomical snuff box. The scaphoid, pisiform, and hamate are among the eight bones found in this ellipsoid joint, which attaches to both the ulnar and radial collateral ligaments. Repeated compression of the median nerve that passes through this joint causes carpal tunnel syndrome. For the point, name this joint that connects the arm to the hand.

Wrist (accept Radiocarpal Joint before "carpal" is mentioned)

(21) The earliest evidence for the controlled use of this phenomenon is at the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa. Homo erectus was likely the first species to directly initiate use of this phenomenon. Early methods for manually inducing this phenomenon included bow drills and striking metal on flint. For the point, name this phenomenon often used historically as a heat source to cook food.

fire (accept burning, flames, or equivalents; prompt on "cooking")

(12) A specific class of these compounds is named for Gilbert Lewis. The Bronsted-Lowry definition of these compounds involves the donation of hydrogen ions in solution. The acetic form of these compounds is found in vinegar. For the point, name these compounds which exhibit a pH below 7, contrasted with bases.

Acids (accept Superacid; accept Lewis Acid)

(21) The boundary between part of this region and its upper neighbor is sometimes named for Keith Bullen or Inge Lehmann. Analysis of seismic waves and the magnetic field have determined the outer portion of this layer is likely a solid ball composed of a nickel-iron alloy. For the point, identify this innermost geologic layer of Earth.

Earth's Core (accept Inner Core; accept Outer Core)

(12) When k equals set size, the total number of combinations can be found by dividing this function of n over this function of k times this function of the difference between n and k. Applying this function to n gives the number of permutations for n unique objects. For the point, name this function symbolized by an exclamation point, which is equal to the product of all positive integers below a certain value.

Factorial

(28) The largest unit of this measurement is a yotta, although a bronto has been proposed. This computer component is supported by secondary forms, including cards, external hard drives, and the Cloud. For the point, identify this computer component that comes in Random Access and Read-Only types.

Memory (accept Random Access Memory or Read-Only Memory before mentioned)

(15) Cancer of this structure often involves a mutation of the KRAS gene and can be identified through the tumor marker CA19-9. A structure known as the ampulla of Vater is formed when the sphincter of Boyden helps join this organ to the gallbladder via their common bile ducts. This organ is divided into endocrine and exocrine portions, and Delta cells found in the Islets of Langerhans help this organ to secrete the hormone somatostatin. Blood sugar levels are regulated by, for the point, what digestive organ that secretes glucagon and insulin?

Pancreas

(21) A type of chromatography named after this material separates colored chemicals. A wooden frame called a "deckle" is used in the manufacturing of this material. Machines that produce this material have sections termed "wet end" and "dry end." Litmus stains this material in a common acid-base indicator. For the point, name this material made of pulp, which comes in sizes like legal and A4.

Paper (accept paper chromatography; accept litmus paper; accept copy paper)

(25) The formation of these molecules from alpha-olefins is facilitated by Ziegler-Natta catalysts. The "dispersity" of these molecules describes their mass distribution. These molecules can be formed by step-growth or chain growth, and common examples of these molecules include rubber and plastic. For the point, name these macromolecules formed by repeating units called monomers.

Polymers

(27) This compound has the lowest melting point of any alkane. This molecule is both the lightest and most major constituent of liquid (+) petroleum gas. The combustion of this compound results in four molecules of water and three molecules of carbon dioxide. This molecule contains one less carbon than (*) butane. For the points, what compound with chemical formula C3H8 is commonly used in portable stoves?

Propane

(22) This stage of a star's life involves the contraction of its helium core and the expansion of its outer hydrogen layers, and this stage precedes the white and black dwarf stages. Low and intermediate-mass stars will become this type, and our Sun is expected to engulf Venus and possibly Earth when it becomes this type of star in five billion years. For the point, name these large, highly luminous stars.

Red Giants (prompt on "star(s)")

(16) After her death in 1958, the work of this scientist was continued by Aaron Klug, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982. Raymond Gosling, one of this scientist's students at King's College in London, was responsible for taking Photo 51, an Xray diffraction image of a paracrystalline gel composed of DNA fiber. For the point, name this chemist whose influence and uncredited work on the structure of DNA led to her being called the "wronged heroine."

Rosalind Franklin (Rosalind Elsie Franklin)

(18) The Dongfanghong I was the first of this kind of object launched by China as part of its "Two Bombs, One [this object]" campaign. Celestial bodies like Europa and Ganymede are considered the "natural" kind of this object and surround Jupiter. Artificial examples of these objects include the Soviet Sputnik 1. For the point, name these objects that orbit larger bodies.

Satellites (accept natural satellites; or artificial satellites)

(28) This phenomenon was corroborated by the Vines-Matthew-Morley hypothesis, where a series of magnetic stripes were observed. Convection (+) currents in the asthenosphere cause this phenomenon, which was first proposed by Harry Hess. Basaltic crust is created at (*) mid-ocean ridges as a result of this process. For the points, name this process where new oceanic crust is formed as a result of older crust moving apart.

Seafloor spreading

(19) In quantum computers, this task can be accomplished by using Grover's algorithm. This task follows "pruning" in a notable solution to optimization problems. This task can be performed in depth-first or breadth-first ways in graphs, and a common demonstration of divide-and-conquer is the "binary" form of this task. For the point, name this task of finding a certain value in a given input.

Searching (accept depth-first search; accept breadth-first search; accept binary search)

(22) Along with Procyon and Betelgeuse, this star forms one of the angles of the Winter Triangle. This star is part of a binary system with a white dwarf with a diameter approximately the same size as Earth, and this star's apparent magnitude is approximately twice as great as Canopus. For the point, identify this star in Canis Major, the brightest in the night sky.

Sirius A (or The Dog Star; accept Alpha Canis Majoris; do not accept or prompt on "Sirius B")

(7) Prior to a 2020 revision, the World Health Organization used this number to characterize different pandemic phases to develop a global preparedness plan. This number is a solution to the two-dimensional kissing problem, and this value is also the Messier number for the Butterfly Cluster. This even, perfect number that was first traced from the Edicts of Ashoka gives the number of varieties of both quarks and leptons. For the point, identify this number, the atomic number of carbon, as well as the total sides in a hexagon.

Six

(8) These structures were found to have eighty shapes according to a classification system devised by Ching Woo Lee and Choji Magono. Another classification of these structures is outlined in the (+) Nakaya diagram, which suggests that its various formations are dependent on supersaturation and temperature. Formed through the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen (*) process, these are, for the points, what single ice crystals that come in columns, dendrites, and needles varieties, in which a common adage says that "no two are alike"?

Snowflakes (accept Ice Crystals or Snow Crystals before "crystals" is mentioned; prompt on "Crystals" before mentioned)

(18) Umbraphiles are people who travel around the world to observe these events. The change in the expected position of two stars during one of these events helped prove the existence of gravitational lensing. Baily's Beads are formed by light shining through the Moon's valleys during these events. For the point, name these events, whose total variety occurs when the Moon almost entirely blocks out the Sun.

Solar Eclipse (accept Eclipse of the Sun; accept Total Solar Eclipse; prompt on "eclipse"; do not accept or prompt on "Lunar Eclipse")

(14) Harvests of this crop can be devastated by outbreaks of Ramu stunt. Bagasse [[bah-GAHSS]] is a potential energy source produced as a byproduct of this crop, of which Brazil is the world's leading producer. Production of this crop in the Caribbean is the largest driving force in deforestation in the region. Molasses is a valuable byproduct from processing this crop. For the point, name this perennial grass, a crop grown to produce a namesake sweet substance.

Sugarcane (prompt on "Sugar")

(11) One of these compounds reacts with a carboxylic acid in the Fischer esterification. In IR spectroscopy, these compounds show a broad peak at 3300 inverse centimeters due to their hydrogen bonding. Permanent blindness can result from consuming the "wood" type of these compounds. For the point, name these compounds with a hydroxyl group, which include ethanol and an isopropyl type used as a disinfectant.

alcohols

(6) Because the model organism Chlamydomonas has a single, large one of these organelles, mutants lacking carotenoids are easy to spot. Mesophyll tissue is rich in this organelle whose stroma contains rubisco enzyme for the Calvin cycle, and whose thylakoid membranes are the location of light-dependent reactions. Oxygen gas is released from, for the point, which green organelles of plant cells, the sites of photosynthesis?

Chloroplasts

(5) The hyperbolic form of this function defines a catenary curve. A law named for this function states that "c squared equals a squared plus b squared minus two times a times b times this function of angle C." This function of "x" is the reciprocal of secant of "x." This function of "x squared plus sine of x squared" is always equal to one. For a triangle, this function is equal to adjacent over hypotenuse. For the point, name this trigonometric function contrasted with sine of "x."

Cosine of x

(21) The first of two B-modes was conjectured to have originated during this process, which is explained by a scalar field descending an energy hill in the slow-roll model. The theory regarding this process was furthered by the proposal of a form of vacuum decay (+) that would solve the monopole problem, which was a subtype of the horizon problem. Alan Guth was among the pioneers of this theory, which is said to have begun (*) 10 to the negative 36 seconds after the Big Bang. For the point, name this proposed process for the rapid expansion of the early universe.

Cosmic Inflation (accept Cosmological Inflation)

(24) A porous material known as coke is an example of a type of fuel that undergoes this process' destructive variety. One type of this process is necessary for converting crude oil into a form that can be stored in atmospheric tanks, and that variety of this technique is known as stabilization. This process can follow fermentation in a technique in which alcoholic beverages become liquor. Coming in partial and fractional forms, this is, for the point, what laboratory process that separates components of a liquid mixture?

Distillation (accept Fractional Distillation; accept Partial Distillation; accept Destructive Distillation)

(11) This mathematical concept has a double type that only involves odd numbers, and a hyper type that form the discriminants of Hermite polynomials. This mathematical function increases faster than exponential growth, but slower than a double exponential function. For the point, name this mathematical function that is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to the input of the function.

Factorial (accept double factorial; accept hyper factorial)

(11) This scientist argued that ionic and covalent [[koh-VAY-lent]] bonds existed on a single continuum. In his book How to Live Longer and Feel Better, this scientist advocated for taking megadoses of (+) vitamin C to prevent the common cold. This scientist outlined the modern understanding of an atom's tendency to attract shared electrons in his book (*) The Nature of the Chemical Bond. For the point, name this American scientist who won Nobel Prizes in both Peace and Chemistry.

Linus Pauling (or Linus Carl Pauling)

(6) This software's original name was Freax, a portmanteau of "free", "freak", and "x". Debian and Ubuntu are popular distributions of this software. This software originally employed the EXT File System, though most modern distributions use EXT4. For the point, name this Open-Source operating system, originally developed by Linus Torvalds, whose mascot is a penguin named Tux.

Linux (accept GNU/Linux; prompt on "Unix")

(10) These biomes are the predominant environment in which the European chamois [[sham-WAH]] goat-antelope is found. The pika [["PIE"-kah]] is a close rabbit relative found in these biomes. Guanacos [[gwah-NAH-kohs]] and vicuñas [[vih-KOO-nyahs]] (+) are two South American camelids [[KAM-eh-lids]] noted for living in these biomes. Plant-life on these biomes typically stops (*) above the snow line. For the point, name these high-altitude biomes found in places such as the Himalayas.

Mountains (accept Alpine; accept Mountain range; accept Highlands; accept Himalayan Mountains)

(17) This organelle contains the proteins fibrillarin and nucleophosmin. Proteins are detained and immobilized in this organelle, a process known as its namesake detention. RNA polymerases one and three transcribe ribosomal RNA inside this organelle. The assembly of ribosomes begins in, for the point, what dense structure, the largest spherical component of the nucleus?

Nucleolus (accept Nucleolar Detention; prompt on "Nucleus")

(7) The carbon atom in a Grignard reagent serves as this type of species during its attack on a carbonyl group. Curved arrows are drawn pointing away from one of these species in the "arrow-pushing" method. One of these species inverts a chiral center (+) when it performs backside attack during an SN2 reaction, which is a substitution reaction named for these species. These compounds can be classified as (*) Lewis bases because they often have a free lone pair. For the point, name these electronrich species, which are contrasted with electrophiles.

Nucleophiles (accept Lewis Bases; accept Nucleophilic Substitution; prompt on "Bases")

(20) Western people may be more susceptible to the Sander type of these phenomena due to living in more regularly-shaped homes. One of these phenomena caused by lateral neural inhibition is named for Ernst Mach [[MOCK]]. Many of these phenomena originate from a confused figure-ground distinction. The autokinetic effect is one of these phenomena that suggests movement. For the point, name these phenomena, which trick the brain into processing visual data incorrectly.

Optical illusions (accept Visual illusions)

(10) The kinetic energy of the output of this effect is equal to the work function subtracted from Planck's constant times frequency. A coil with a spark gap was used to observe this effect by Heinrich Hertz. Robert Millikan verified that this effect's output is related to frequency but not intensity. Albert Einstein's 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics was for his work on this effect. For the point, name this effect in which electrons are emitted under light.

Photoelectric Effect

(13) The energy of these particles can be calculated by multiplying the Planck constant times frequency. Young's double-slit experiment showed that these particles can interfere with themselves. The collision of these particles with metals can release electrons as part of a certain "electric" effect. These bosons are the carrier of the electromagnetic force. For the point, name these massless particles, the quanta of light.

Photons

(5) Up until the late 1800s, the most common means of extracting this element from the ground was the Sicilian method, which eventually came to be replaced by another method relying on superheated water. A platinum catalyst was originally used to create a compound named for, and containing, this element in the contact process. Brimstone was an ancient name for this element which, when combined with hydrogen, produces a compound with a smell resembling rotten eggs. For the point, name this yellow-colored element with chemical symbol S.

Sulfur (accept S)

(17) The "fuming" form of this compound is also known as oleum. A vanadium [[vahNAY-dee-um]] pentoxide catalyst is used in the production of this compound in the contact process, which has largely supplanted the lead chamber process. This compound is used in lead acid batteries, and clouds on Venus have a high percentage of droplets of this compound, which is found with nitric acid in acid rain. For the point, name this strong, diprotic [[dai-PRAH-tik]] acid with chemical formula H2SO4.

Sulfuric acid (accept H2SO4 before mentioned; accept Fuming sulfuric acid; accept Oil of vitriol)

(16) These events are believed to be the source of all of the universe's heavy elements. One type of these events occur when the mass of an inert core overcomes degeneracy pressure, causing core collapse. The 1a type of these events are used as a standard candle and occur when a white dwarf exceeds the Chandrasekar [[chahn-drah-SEH-kar]] limit. For the point, name these extremely bright stellar events, the explosion of a star.

Supernova (accept Type 1A Supernova; prompt on "SN" or "SNe"; do not accept or prompt on "nova")

(14) Along with adhesive forces, this phenomenon is responsible for capillary [[KAP-ih-lay-ree]] action. This phenomenon is possible when a liquid's cohesion is greater than its adhesion. This phenomenon is used by water striders to walk on the surface of lakes and ponds. This phenomenon, which gives bubbles their shape, is weakened by surfactants like detergents. For the point, name this force that holds water into droplets.

Surface Tension (prompt on "tension")

(28) For two decades, Bushman was the most famous resident of one of these institutions in Chicago's Lincoln Park. Immersion exhibits at these places help reduce behaviors like pacing and head-bobbing. These sites saved the golden lion tamarin through captive breeding programs, and in 1972, the "National" example accepted two giant pandas from China. Outside Australia, most koalas live in the San Diego example of, for the point, what institutions which display wild animals to the public?

Zoos (accept Zoological Parks; accept Zoological Gardens; accept Lincoln Park Zoo; accept National Zoological Park; accept San Diego Zoo)

(22) Because they use these interactions, alpha helices and beta sheets are secondary structures. These interactions are found between pyrimidines [[pih-RIH-mih-deen]] and purines [[PYOO-reens]] in DNA, such as three of them formed between cytosine [[SAI-tohseen]] and guanine [[GWAH-neen]]. These interactions are responsible for the structure of water and its high surface tension and cohesion. For the point, name these interactions which form between fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen and its namesake element with atomic number one.

Hydrogen bonds

(1) Pebbles of this rock are nicknamed Apache tears. Gray spherulites at crystallization sites in this rock define its "snowflake" variety. This rock, which is often formed by (+) cooling polymerized felsic lava, contains few crystals due to its viscosity. This extrusive igneous rock has a conchoidal [[kon-KOY-dul]] fracture that makes it a common material for (*) scalpel blades. For the points, name this glossy black volcanic glass.

Obsidian

(10) Wind forces lead these entities to move at a 90-degree angle from the direction of the surface wind in Ekman transport, and the Coriolis effect plays a large role in developing the "surface" variety of these entities. "Deep" varieties of these entities are driven by thermohaline circulation. Gyres are rotating examples of these entities, which include the Gulf Stream. For the point, name these large flows of water in the ocean.

Ocean Currents (accept Gyres before mentioned)

(9) The development of this principle was introduced in a 1916 article titled The Atom and the Molecule. Because they possess a d-orbital, transition metals are an exception to this principle, while elements such as hydrogen and helium are exceptions, since both only need to fill their s^2 orbitals. The electron dot diagram is used to illustrate this principle by using lines to represent the bonding of atoms. Developed by Gilbert N. Lewis, this is, for the point, what rule that states that a chemical element is most stable when there are eight electrons in its valence shell?

Octet Rule

(20) This person was presented with one gram of a certain element by Warren Harding during a tour in the United States. Two countries declared 2011 to be the year of this person, who analyzed samples of pitchblende and torbernite in experiments that led her to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. Also the winner of the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics, this is, for the point, what Polish-French scientist who discovered polonium and radium, and conducted research on radioactivity with her husband, Pierre?

Marie Curie (or Marie Salomea Skłodowska-Curie; or Maria Salomea Skłodowska; prompt on "Curie")

(22) This quantity can be found by taking the square root of the product of vacuum permittivity and vacuum permeability. This quantity was shown to be the same in both directions in the Michelson-Morley experiment, disproving the existence of "aether wind." According to special relativity, this quantity is the same in all inertial reference frames. For the point, name this quantity symbolized c, the maximum speed at which matter in the universe can travel.

Speed of Light (accept c until mentioned)

(10) The sum of all values of this quantity in a circuit is governed by Kirchhoff's loop rule. This quantity is produced across a conductor in the Hall effect. Power equals this quantity times current. For a capacitor, charge is equal to capacitance times this quantity, and it is equal to current times resistance in Ohm's law. For the point, name this quantity, the difference in electric potential between two points, symbolized V.

Voltage (accept electric pressure; accept electric tension; accept electric potential difference before mentioned)

(6) This quantity is proportional to temperature, but inversely proportional to pressure from the combined gas law. This quantity has a value of 22.4 for one mole of an ideal gas. For the point, name this quantity describing the space occupied by a substance, usually expressed in liters.

Volume

(15) The centimorgan unit maps loci on these structures, consisting of p and q arms. Crossing over occurs between homologous pairs of these structures. A karyotype can show the diploid number of these, 46 in humans, as well as the presence of three of number 21 in a Down syndrome patient. Lining up along the equator during the metaphase of mitosis, for the point, what are these DNA structures?

chromosomes

(20) In polar coordinates, the equation "r equals the constant A" produces one of these shapes. The Cartesian product of two of these shapes gives a torus. This conic section defines an eccentricity of zero, and a square cannot be constructed with the same area as this shape with only a compass and straightedge. Pi times the radius squared gives the area of, for the point, what 2D shape consisting of all points equidistant from a fixed center?

circle

(2) Lyophilic types of these substances are more stable than lyophobic ones. Adding clarifying agents to these substances can cause flocculation. Solid foam and sols are examples of these substances, and the scattering of light by these substances is stronger for blue light than red light in the Tyndall effect. For the point, name these mixtures in which one substance is dispersed in another, exemplified by aerosols and milk.

colloids

(21) This specific process was the primary cause for the extinction of the Spix's macaw in the wild. A field called a "swidden" can be created when this process is done during "slashand-burn" agriculture. Habitat loss due to this process has endangered both the Sumatran orangutan and the pygmy sloth, which lives in red mangroves. Wildfires and logging efforts contribute to, for the point, what ecological problem which has caused the rapid shrinkage of the Amazon jungle?

deforestation (or clearance; or clearing; or clearcutting; accept cutting down trees or obvious equivalents; accept removing trees; accept forest degradation or equivalents; accept logging before mentioned; prompt on "habitat damage" or "habitat loss" or "habitat destruction"; prompt on "agriculture")

(1) Some plants in this biome have adapted to utilizing CAM photosynthesis or C4 carbon fixation to minimize the rate of transpiration. Features like ergs and oases can be found in this biome that can be formed by the rain shadow effect or weathering processes. The Gobi and Sahara are examples of, for the point, what type of biome characterized by little precipitation and arid climate?

deserts

(30) The "HPHT" and "CVD" types of this substance are created in a laboratory. The Vickers test uses a pyramid-shaped piece of this mineral to create indents. Pandanus candelabrum is used to detect this mineral from kimberlite pipes. High-leaded glass and cubic zirconia are common "simulants" for this mineral which has a Mohs hardness of ten. For the point, name this very hard mineral made of carbon.

diamond

(7) Ninety percent of the bacteria that live in this location come from the phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Microorganisms that live in this habitat form a biochemical signaling axis with the (+) brain. Barry Marshall found that ulcers can be caused by H. pylori bacteria living in this habitat, whose collective organismal community is called the flora or microbiota. The colon (*) contains the highest concentration of bacteria living in, for the points, what body system?

digestive system (accept digestive tract; accept gut; accept gastrointestinal tract; accept GI tract; accept stomach; accept small intestines; accept large intestines; accept intestines; accept colon before mention; prompt on "body" or "human body")

(4) Boundaries between p- and n-type semiconductors act as a simple one of these devices. These devices can change flow when their breakdown voltage is exceeded by their reverse bias. These devices are represented as triangles connecting straight lines on circuit diagrams. These devices typically only allow current to pass under forward bias conditions. For the point, name these devices which allow current to only flow in one direction and include a light-emitting variety.

diodes

(17) Binary types of this process are modeled on a McCabe-Thiele diagram. Refluxing is performed during this process to continually recondense vapors, and the "fractional" type of this process is often used to refine crude oil. Liquor is made by doing this process to fermented beverages. For the point, name this method of separating liquids based on their boiling points.

distillation (accept fractional distillation; accept pressure-swing distillation)

(20) A standard formula for calculating this quantity is "X of g plus energy." This quantity can be averaged with electron affinity to calculate electronegativity. This quantity, which increases from left to right and from bottom to top, is highest for helium. For the point, name this quantity representing the energy required to remove an electron from an atom.

first ionization energy

(28) Alpha-1 anti-trypsin is an inherited genetic disease that degrades the elasticity of this organ, which is surrounded by a pleural membrane. A spirometer can be used to measure the function of this organ, which receives deoxygenated blood via the pulmonary artery from the heart. Alveoli can be found in, for the point, what primary organ of the respiratory system that facilities gas exchange and helps us breathe?

lungs (do not accept or prompt on "alveoli")

(19) Types of this material that can be blown in the wind as dust are known as loess [[LOH-us]]. This material can be stripped of salt and nutrients through leaching with water. A variety of this material generally high in humus [[HYOO-mus]] is called loam. Strata of this material are known as horizons, and this material is classified by how much sand, silt, and clay it contains. For the point, name this material in which seeds are typically planted.

soil (or dirt)

(5) This object can be "grazed" by Krachts [[KRAHKTS]] and Marsdens. Prominences and spicules [[SPIK-yools]] arise from this body. Objects on this body follow an 11-year cycle, experience the Dalton minimum, and have lower temperatures than the surrounding surface. The chromosphere lies outside the photosphere of this body. The corona is part of, for the point, what star around which the Earth revolves?

sun (accept Sol)

(3) The hypothetical object Nemesis is said to pass by this region once every 26 million years, and the inner part of this region is named after Jack G. Hills. This region may be as much as four thousand times farther from Earth than the Kuiper [[KAI-per]] belt and is postulated to be the outermost edge of the solar system. For the point, name this region which is named after a Dutch astronomer, from which comets are thought to originate.

Öpik-Oort cloud

(15) This body was termed the "little cloud" in 905 by Persian astronomer Al-Sufi. This object was the main focus of the Shapley-Curtis (+) debate, which argued whether this object was an "island universe." This body is designated 31 in the Messier catalog, and it is predicted to collide with the Milky Way in about 4.5 (*) billion years. For the points, name this closest galaxy to the Milky Way, named after the daughter of Cassiopeia.

ANSWER: Andromeda galaxY

(32) A 2018 Nature article claimed that Munster researchers had used techniques similar to those of this program in chemical synthesis. The similar Darkforest was made public after an event involving this program, which uses both "policy networks" and "value networks." The (+) Zero version of this program was notably entirely selftaught and made use of reinforcement learning, and this 19x19 object was the subject of a 2015 event involving in which the (*) 9-dan Lee Sedol was defeated. For the point, name this DeepMind program specializing in a Chinese board game involving black and white stones.

AlphaGo (accept AlphaGo Zero)

(11) This element has the highest atomic number among the three elements in a popular reducing agent discovered by Finholt, Bond and Schlesinger. That reducing agent is a hydride consisting of this element and lithium, and it's not gallium, but the ore bauxite provides large quantities of this element, which is extracted in the Bayer Process. This metal is present along with silicon in all feldspars, and the 27 isotope is the only stable isotope of this element with atomic number 13. For the point, name this element used in little league bats and soda cans with the chemical symbol Al.

Aluminum (accept Aluminium; accept Al before mentioned)

(19) A fractal called the "Apollonian gasket" starts from three of these objects, which then fill in the space left. A shape that can be inscribed in one of these shapes is quantified using Brahmagupta's formula. In the power of a point, lines intersect or are tangent to these shapes. The area of these shapes is "pi times its radius squared." For the point, name these shapes which consist of points equidistant from a central point.

Circles

(23) These shapes are used to construct a fractal called the Apollonian gasket. Brahmagupta's formula is used to calculate the area of quadrilaterals that can be inscribed in these shapes. In polar coordinates, the equation "R equals a constant A" produces one of these shapes, and the Cartesian product of two of these two-dimensional shapes gives a torus. These shapes have an eccentricity of zero, making them the simplest conic sections. For the point, name this shape consisting of all points in a plane equidistant from a given center whose boundaries are described by the circumference.

Circles (do not accept or prompt on "Sphere")

(3) One of the namesakes of this experiment attempted to lower the vacuum of the apparatus involved after learning about failed attempts by Walter Elsasser and James Chadwick to generate one of the results of this experiment. George Thompson (+) independently produced the same result as this experiment, which confirmed Bragg's Law and involved the use of a crystal of nickel. (*) This experiment resulted in a diffraction pattern arising from the scattering of its central particles. For the point, name this experiment that confirmed de Broglie's predictions about wave-particle duality.

Davisson-Germer Experiment

(3) These regions can be home to a magnesium rich "varnish" that covers exposed rocks. Plantations of Jojoba [[hoh-HOH-bah]] trees have been used in India to stop the expansion of these places. Isolated fertile areas in these locations are called oases, and these places can form as a result of a rain shadow from mountain ranges. The Atacama and Sahara are examples of, for the point, what regions which experience little rainfall?

Deserts

(1) The lift-inducing variety of this force can be increased with a larger aspect ratio of an aerofoil. Lord Rayleigh [[RAY-lee]] devised the quadratic form of this force, which is proportional to the square of an object's velocity. This force's namesake coefficient is composed of the impact from the parasitic and skin-friction types of this force. For the point, name this force, the resistance to motion through a fluid.

Drag (accept Lift-induced, induced, or vortex drag; accept Drag due to lift; accept Quadratic drag; accept Drag coefficient; prompt on "friction" before mentioned)

(9) The Moho discontinuity forms the boundary between this region and what lies below it, and the brittle-ductile transition zone divides this region's upper and lower areas. This region forms the uppermost boundary of the lithosphere, and isostatic equilibrium is the process by which this region floats over the mantle. For the point, name this outermost layer of the Earth.

Earth's Crust

(15) Notation for fractions developed in this country includes fractional expansions for rational numbers of the form "two divided by n" and provides the solution to the ropeburner timing puzzle. This country used the ancient hekat unit of measurement, and the Rhind papyrus shows this country's mathematics using hieroglyphs. For the point, name this country in which the discredited Horus-eye fractions symbol originated.

Egypt

(33) A version of this phenomenon described by the Japanese word "Modoki" affects the central portion of one region. A transitional period brought by this phenomenon can contribute to the increase in tornadoes in the Midwest. A decrease or complete halting of Walker circulation can lead to this phenomenon, which results in declines in fish populations due to the upwelling of cold water. Variations in air pressure occur in different regions of the Pacific during this phase of the ENSO. For the point, name this period of warm temperatures off the coast of South America whose Spanish name means "the boy."

El Niño

(23) This quantity for a loop times its area is equal to the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of the loop. The total sum of this quantity flowing into a node must equal the total sum of this quantity flowing out of it, according to Kirchhoff's junction rule. Electrical power is the product of voltage and this quantity. For the point, name this quantity, equal to voltage over resistance by Ohm's law.

Electric Current (prompt on "I")

(5) According to the Joule-Lenz Law, the square of this quantity is proportional to the power of heating. A device named for Walter Rogowski measures one form of this quantity, which can also be found in a contact-free manner through the use of its namesake clamp. The positive form of this quantity can be denoted by an arrow symbolizing the reference direction, and a galvanometer can be used to measure this quantity, which in one formula is given by dividing V by R. For the point, name this quantity represented with a capital I and measured in amperes.

Electric Current (prompt on "I")

(3) One law describing this phenomenon gives the step up and step down voltage for a transformer. Faraday's Law of this phenomenon predicts the production of EMF through it. This phenomenon is used by circuit elements whose strength is measured in units named for Joseph Henry. This phenomenon is the primary mechanism for wireless charging. For the point, name this phenomenon in which a current is generated from a change in the magnetic field.

Electromagnetic Induction (or Magnetic Induction; accept Faraday's Law of Induction)

(6) An uncertainty relation exists between this quantity and time. One form of this quantity can be determined with the calculation "one half times mass times velocity squared" and another form of the same quantity can be determined with the calculation "mass times gravity times height." The first law of thermodynamics states that this property cannot be created or destroyed. For the point, name this "potential" or "kinetic" quantity which is measured in Joules.

Energy (accept Kinetic energy; accept Potential energy)

(20) An equation named for this scientist is solved by the Hartree-Fock and WKB approximations. The time-independent form of an equation named for this man is written as "H psi equals E psi". This man critiqued the Copenhagen interpretation by proposing a situation in which a radioactive source causes a hammer to break open a flask of poison. A thought experiment about a cat that is simultaneously alive and dead was proposed by, for the point, what Austrian physicist?

Erwin Schrödinger (accept Schrödinger's cat; accept Schrödinger equation)

(13) An outbreak of this organism linked to organic fenugreek sprouts killed 53 people in 2011 due to the acquisition of the Stx2 gene. Laboratory strains of these organisms include B and K-12 types, which were the subject of Richard Lenski's evolution studies and were used in the Messelsohn-Stahl experiments. Several strains of this bacterium used to study the lac operon can cause serious food poisoning. For the point, name this rod-shaped bacterium, an important model organism of molecular genetics found in the human gut.

Escherichia coli

(10) A pre-cancerous condition of this organ that changed stratified squamous epithelium to simple columnar epithelium is named for Norman Barrett. The formation of a Schatzki ring in this organ can lead to dysphagia [[dis-FAY-zhuh]]. The upper part of this organ runs parallel to the trachea, or wind pipe, and this organ can be damaged by the improper release of stomach acid into it, causing heartburn. For the point, name this organ which carries food from the mouth to the stomach.

Esophagus

(27) These objects are harvested to make beer by the Quidi Vidi Brewing Company in Newfoundland. The largest current one of these objects was first detected in the Weddell Sea and the largest one on record, B-15, broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf in March, 2000. Mostly found near Greenland and Antarctica is, for the point, what type of floating, frozen object that sunk the RMS Titanic?

Iceberg (accept Iceberg B-15)

(7) This region is the namesake of a hypothesis that predicts domal topographic uplift events. Post-perovskite (+) most likely exists in the bottom-most part of this region. The asthenosphere lies below the Moho discontinuity in this layer of Earth. The D-double prime layer marks the boundary between this layer and the (*) outer core. For the points, name this largest layer of Earth below the crust.

Mantle (accept Mantle plume hypothesis)

(21) The crusts of these objects are subject to frame dragging and strong magnetic dipole rotation that can cause starquakes. When these objects possess extreme magnetic fields they are called magnetars, and when these objects emit regular bursts of radiation they are known as pulsars. For the point, name these extremely dense stars composed of a namesake neutral particle.

Neutron Stars (accept Pulsars before mentioned)

(8) Some fluvial-dominated types of these locations are characterized by homopycnal flows, in which river water mixes with basin water. Hypercynal flows characterize these landforms, which are formed by river water depositing sedimentary rock as turbidites. The Tocantins river meets the Amazon at one of these landforms. For the point, name these features that form from deposited sediments in locations where rivers meet another body of water.

River Delta

(11) Graham's number uses this integer as a base for a hyperoperation, and there are this many Frenet-Serret [[freh-NEH-seh-REH]] formulas, which in total concern this many vectors. Apéry's [[ah-PEH-rees]] constant is the value of the Riemann zeta function with this integer as an input. The area of a polygon with this many sides can be calculated using Heron's formula. For the point, what number is the degree of a cubic polynomial?

Three

(12) The bites of these animals spread the malaria-like disease Babesiosis [[bah-bee-see-OH-sis]] to humans. One disease spread by these animals can be diagnosed by a bullseye rash. These animals are the primary vector for human infections of Rickettsia rickettsii [[rih-KET-see-uh rih-KET-see-"eye"]], the causative agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. For the point, name these parasitic arachnids, the primary carriers of Lyme disease.

Ticks (or Ixodida; accept American dog ticks; accept Rocky Mountain Wood Ticks; accept Brown dog ticks; accept Black-legged ticks; accept Bear ticks; accept Deer ticks; prompt on "arachnids" before mentioned)

(14) One inequality named for this figure is reversed in Minkowski space. The intersection of altitudes in this shape is known as its orthocenter, and its area can be computed using Heron's formula. The angles in any example of this polygon sum to 180 degrees in Euclidean [[yoo-KLIH-dee-un]] space. For the point, name this polygon with three sides.

Triangle

(2) One form of this property is caused by a mutated DD-transpeptidase enzyme. Genes that confer this property, such as the SCCmec cassette, can be spread through horizontal (+) gene transfer. The misuse of broad-spectrum drugs can cause cells to develop this property, which can be mediated by efflux pumps or beta-lactamases. The strain (*) MRSA [[murr-suh]] has, for the points, what property of bacteria that cannot be killed with drugs such as penicillin?

antibiotic resistance (or antimicrobial resistance; or AMR; or ABR; accept any answer with word forms of resistance that mentions specific antibiotics like penicillin, beta-lactam, or methicillin; prompt on just "resistance")

(3) The Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment identified the substance that was responsible for this process, which commonly involves the (+) pUC19 plasmid and recovery S.O.C. medium. Two common ways of performing this technique include the chemical heat shock and electroporation methods. It's not (*) transfection, but for the points, name this horizontal gene transfer technique used to introduce foreign DNA into bacterial or yeast cells.

bacterial transformation (accept genetic transformation; do not accept or prompt on "transfection" or "mutation")

(27) When these objects form on top of each other, they are known as "pileus." The term "nimbus" refers to examples of these objects associated with storms. At high altitudes, these objects are composed of ice crystals and are called "cirrus." Lower level varieties of these objects include stratus and cumulus. For the point, name these large masses of water vapor from which rain is released.

clouds

(18) Diatomaceous earth is frequently used in swimming pools as a medium for this process due to its high porosity. This process is the final step of hot recrystallization, which is sped up using a vacuum flask and a device named for Ernst Büchner. This physical process is used to separate sand and water. For the point, name this method of physical separation that isolates solids from liquids, which can use porous paper and a funnel.

filtration (or filtering)

(24) Homology-directed repair via CRISPR can be used to introduce these phenomena into a target sequence that can be prevented by Wobble-base pairing. Substitution of valine for glutamic acid is caused by one of these events and results in sickle cell anemia, while another type has no effect on phenotype. Point and frameshift are examples of, for the point, what process that results in the change of DNA sequence in an organism?

mutation (accept word forms)

(11) Underscattering is not used with these devices as part of the dark-field method. Probe varieties of these devices use a piezoelectric [[pee-YEH-zoh-"electric"]] actuator tip to map out surfaces. Extremely sensitive varieties of these devices include the atomic force and electron tunneling varieties. Samples examined with these devices are typically placed on a glass slide. For the point, name this lab device that is used to view small things.

Microscope (accept Dark-Field Microscope; accept Scanning Probe Microscope; accept Atomic Force Microscope; accept Electron Tunneling Microscope; accept Compound Microscope; accept Microscopy in place of Microscope)

(8) Due to a type of heating caused by these phenomena, volcanism is possible on Jupiter's moon Io [["EYE"-oh]]. The namesake "locking" of these phenomena occurs when a body's rotation and orbit become synchronized. On Earth, these phenomena are strongest at a syzygy [[SIH-zih-jee]] and are called "springs," while the weakest types of these phenomena are called "neaps." These phenomena are caused by the gravity of the Sun and Moon on the ocean. For the point, name this regular rising and falling of ocean water.

Ocean Tides (or Tidal Forces; accept Tidal locking; accept Tidal heating, working, or flexing; accept Spring tide; accept Neap tide)

(15) When cracks in this material are filled with a siliceous [[sih-LIH-see-yuss]] ironstone matrix, it is known as this material's "boulder" form. The Australian town of Lightning Ridge is famous for producing this material's "black" form. This material fluoresces UV light and can create rainbow-like reflections. For the point, name this hydrated, amorphous type of silica, whose gem grade varieties are noted for their iridescence.

Opal (accept Boulder opal; accept Black opal; prompt on "Silica" before mentioned)

(24) The transpose of a matrix with this property always equals its inverse. A triangle's circumcenter lies at the intersection of lines named for this property, which is also possessed by two vectors whose dot product equals zero. Two lines with opposite reciprocal slopes have this relative property. For the point, name this property of lines that meet at 90 degree angles.

Perpendicularity (accept Orthogonality; accept Normal; accept Orthonormal; accept Right angles or 90 degree angles before mentioned; prompt on "bisector" or "bisecting")

(16) In the Earth's atmosphere, the Birkeland currents are carried by these substances. These substances are confined with magnetic fields in a tokamak [[TOH-kah-mak]]. As in electrolyte solutions, the range of a particle's electrostatic effect in this state is given as the Debye [[deh-"BYE"]] length. Nuclear fusion is only possible if matter is in this state. For the point, name this fourth state of matter, a collection of highly energized gas atoms found in stars.

Plasma

(3) This high-level language utilizes "duck typing" to make variable type declaration unnecessary. Tim Peters wrote the "Zen of [this language]," a list of nineteen core principles of this language such as "readability counts." This language represents the Boolean [[BOO-lee-an]] operator with the word "and." For the point, name this dynamically-typed computer language, whose name references a British comedy troupe.

Python

(21) One theory of the weak force posits that these particles can absorb and release W bosons, causing color change. Due to the phenomenon of color confinement, these particles cannot exist on their own. These particles, which have negative one-third or positive two-thirds charges, come in six flavors, including top, bottom, and strange. For the point, name these fundamental particles which make up protons and neutrons.

Quarks (accept Top, Bottom, or Strange quarks)

(8) This compound form is divided into driving and driven varieties based on whether it has the potential to condense out of the atmosphere. This compound form is the most abundant and potent greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere. Suddenly exceeding the saturation point of this compound form in the atmosphere can lead to cloudburst precipitation. Concentration of this compound form is measured as humidity. For the point, name this greenhouse gas which condensates to form clouds.

Water Vapor (accept Aqueous vapor; prompt on "water"; prompt on "H20"; do not accept or prompt on "Steam")

(15) One of these organisms with both "a" and "alpha" mating types was the first eukaryote [[yoo-KAY-ree-oat]] to have its genome entirely sequenced. These organisms include Candida albicans and members of the genus Saccharomyces [[sah-kah-roh-"MY"-sees]], which can release carbon dioxide and ethanol during fermentation. For the point, name these single-celled fungi used during beer and bread making.

Yeasts (accept Saccharomyces before mentioned; accept Saccharomyces cerevisiae; prompt on "fungi")