NDFS 1020 Exam 2 (Carbohydrates, Lipids, Protein)
Oleic Acid
18-carbon monounsaturated fatty acid
Stearic Acid
18-carbon saturated fatty acid
Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose all contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of __ carbon:__ hydrogen: __ oxygen.
1;2;1
Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes
Actions, such as avoiding excess body fat, exercising daily, and improving the diet, that promote health and reduce risk for chronic disease
Sugar Alcohols
Alternative sweeteners used to replace sucrose in some sugar-free foods; Sorbitol, xylitol, and mannitol; Provide 2 kcal of energy due to incomplete digestion (Can cause diarrhea); Does not promote dental decay
Hemocysteine
Amino acid that may play a role in the development of atherosclerosis
Nitrogen balance (equilibrium)
Balancing nitrogen intake with nitrogen losses
What are some rich food sources of Starch?
Bread Cereal products: Wheat, rice, barley, and oats Vegetables: Corn, squash, beans, and peas Tubers: Potatoes, yams, taro, cassava, and jicama
Hydrolysis Reaction
Breaks bonds; H2O needed
Protein Turnover
Cellular process of breaking down proteins and recycling their amino acids
What type of cholesterol is often called "bad" cholesterol? Why?
Cholesterol carried by LDL (LDL cholesterol); Because LDL conveys the lipid to tissues, including cells in the arterial walls that make atherosclerotic plaques.
Disaccharides form as a result of ______ reactions.
Condensation
What can excess amino acid or protein intake lead to? Why?
Dehydration; kidneys need more water to dilute and eliminate the toxic waste products of amino acid metabolism in urine
Carbohydrate Counting
Diabetes management tool in which an individual tracks his or her daily carbohydrate intake; 45 to 60 grams/meal of carbohydrate recommended
What does treatment for Diabetes include?
Diet, exercise, insulin injections, oral medications
What is formed when 2 amino acids bond? What is released in the process?
Dipeptide; Water
Sucrose
Disaccharide composed of a glucose and a fructose molecule; "table sugar"
Lactose
Disaccharide composed of a glucose and a galactose molecule; "milk sugar"
Lipids will ______ in organic solvents such as alcohol and acetone, but most lipids are insoluble in water.
Dissolve
What does the Dietary Guidelines recommendation to obtain beneficial long-chain omega-3 fatty acids?
Eat at least 8 ounces of seafood (fish and shellfish) a week
What can people with lactose-intolerance do to achieve a nutritionally adequate diet without drinking milk?
Eat hard cheeses and yogurt
What are some foods that are rich sources of the phospholipid Lecithin?
Egg yolks, liver, wheat germ, peanut butter, soybeans
Omega (methly) End
End of a fatty acid containing a methyl (—CH3) group
Lactase
Enzyme in Small Intestine; Splits lactose molecule into glucose and galactose
Lipases
Enzymes that break down lipids
Limiting Amino Acid
Essential amino acid found in the lowest concentration in a protein source
What are the 5 end products of lipid digestion?
Glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipid fragments
Nonnutritive Sweeteners
Group of synthetic compounds that are intensely sweet tasting compared to sugar; No energy; Can help control energy intake
It is healthier to have higher levels of ___ cholesterol, compared to normal ranges, than to have higher levels of ___ cholesterol, compared to normal ranges.
HDL; LDL
Glycogen
Highly branched storage polysaccharide in animals
What is the primary sign of Diabetes?
Hyperglycemia (elevated blood glucose levels)
Fat Malabsorption
Impaired fat absorption; Symptoms include diarrhea, steatorrhea (excretion of increased fat), rapid weight loss
What are some signs of an essential fatty acid deficiency?
Improper growth, scaly skin, hair loss, poor wound healing
Emulsification
Keeps lipids dispersed in small particles, increasing their surface area
What is the only form of Fiber that is not a carbohydrate?
Lignin
What are the 2 Essential Fatty Acids
Linoleic Acid, Alpha-linolenic acid
Omega-6 Fatty Acid
Linoleic Acid; Type of polyunsaturated fatty acid with the first double bond at the sixth carbon from the omega end of the molecule
What do triglycerides and phospholipids need to be broken down by before they can be absorbed?
Lipases
Cholesterol
Lipid found in animal foods; Precursor for steroid hormones, bile, and vitamin D
Diglyceride
Lipid that has two fatty acids attached to a three-carbon compound glycerol
Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)
Lipoprotein made in the liver that carries much of the triglycerides in the bloodstream
Where does the synthesis of amino acids primarily occur?
Liver
What are the major dietary Disaccharides?
Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose
Human digestive enzymes do not readily break down ________.
Oligosaccharides
Carboxylic Acid
Organic molecule with a carboxyl (—COOH) group
Who are at risk of Protein Deficiency?
People suffering from alcoholism, anorexia nervosa, certain intestinal tract disorders, individuals with low incomes, elderly
Aspartame contains ______, a nonnutritive sweetener.
Phenylalanine
Polypeptides
Proteins comprised of 50 or more amino acids
All amino acids have the same basic structure except for what group, which is different in each one?
R group
tRNA (Transfer RNA)
RNA molecule that conveys a particular amino acid to the ribosome
The ______ of a protein is important because it influences the compound's function in the body.
Shape
Where is the primary site of lipid digestion?
Small Intestine
Peptides
Small chains of amino acids (2 or more)
What is the biggest contributor to added sugar in the typical American's diet?
Soda
Starvation
State in which the body lacks food energy and/or protein
Positive Nitrogen Balance
State in which the body retains more nitrogen than it loses as proteins are being added to tissues
What class of medications can be taken to reduce elevated blood lipid levels? How do they work?
Statins; Interfere with the liver's metabolism of cholesterol, effectively reducing LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels
Where does protein digestion begin?
Stomach
Where is Salivary Lipase acitivated?
Stomach
High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)
Syrup (food additive) obtained from the processing of corn; Can contribute to greater risk of diabetes and heart disease
Nearly one in ______ adult Americans has hypertension.
Three
Body fat is largely composed of stored ______.
Triglycerides
At this time, there is no way to prevent Type 1 Diabetes. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Humans cannot digest dietary fiber. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
The carbohydrate "family" includes sugars, starch, and fiber. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
What pH does blood and tissue need to be in the body to function properly?
pH 7.35 to 7.45 (slightly basic)
Tuna fish, apples, eggs, and milk are all examples of complete protein sources. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
What are some Limiting Amino Acids in foods?
Tryptophan, threonine, lysine, methionine, cysteine
Choline
Water-soluble, vitamin-like compound; Component of lecithin
People who are trying to reduce their energy intake should recognize that fat-reduced and fat-free foods are not "______-free."
calorie
What transfers the information about the amino acid sequence from the cell nucleus to the ribosomes for protein synthesis (translation)?
mRNA
The body makes __ major types of lipoproteins, and each type carries different proportions of protein (density), cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids.
3
Glycerol
3-carbon alcohol that forms the "backbone" of fatty acids
What percentage of total energy intake does fat contribute in the "average" American's diet?
33%
What are the 3 most important dietary monosaccharides?
Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
Homocysteinuria
Group of conditions caused by gene mutations that cause homocysteine to accumulate in the blood
Carboxylic acid group
Carboxylic acid portion of a compound (amino acid)
Hypoglycemia
Condition that occurs when blood glucose level is too low (Below 70 mg/dL
Arteriosclerosis
Condition that results from atherosclerosis and is characterized by loss of arterial flexibility
What is the structure of a Phospholipid molecule?
Contains a phosphorous, fatty acid, and nitrogen-containing base
______ proteins in muscles allow movement.
Contractile
Myocardial Infarction
Heart attack
Intestinal cells absorb fructose by ______ ______.
Facilitated diffusion
Denaturation "kills" a protein. (TRUE/FALSE)
False; Proteins are not living, but does permanently alter shape and function
What are the major Non-modifiable risk factors of Atherosclerosis?
Family history of CVD Increasing age Race/ethnic background Male
Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA)
Fatty acid that has each carbon atom within the chain filled with hydrogen atoms
Monounsaturated Fatty Acid (MUFA)
Fatty acid that has only one double bond within the carbon chains
What individuals have a greater risk of developing Type 2 Diabetes?
Physically inactive (sedentary), overweight, genetically related to a close family member with type 2 diabetes, Hispanic, Native American, Asian, African, or Pacific Islander ancestry
Legumes
Plants that produce pods with a single row of seeds; Peas, peanuts, lentils, beans
Carbon Skeleton
Remains of an amino acid following deamination and removal of the nitrogen-containing component of the amino acid
At what point in digestion have the disaccharides and complex carbohydrates (except fiber) been broken down into monosaccharides?
Small Intestine
What is the main site of Carbohydrate (as monosaccharides) digestion and absorption?
Small Intestine
Consumers can reduce their intakes of trans fats by using ______ (tub) or liquid margarines, or trans fat-free spreads that resemble margarine, instead of stick margarine.
Soft
Resistant Starches
Starches found in seeds, legumes, whole grains, and some fruits and vegetables that resist digestion; Not broken down in the human GI tract
What must be present in a food labeled "Whole grain?"
Starchy endosperm, oily germ, and fiber-rich bran seed components in the same relative proportions as they exist in the intact grain
Negative Nitrogen Balance
State in which the body loses more nitrogen than it retains; Occurs during starvation, serious illnesses, severe injuries
Alternative Sweeteners
Substances that sweeten foods while providing few or no kilocalories; "Sugar substitutes" or "Artificial" sweeteners
Which nonnutritive sweetener is better for baking because it does not break down in the heat, Aspartame or Sucralose?
Sucralose
Type 1 Diabetes
Autoimmune disease that results in destruction of the beta cells (Insulin production) of the pancreas; as a result, insulin must be supplied to the affected person regularly through exogenous sources
What happens to extra amino acids consumed?
Body does not store; Deamination results in some excess NH2 being transported to the liver which forms ammonia (NH3). Liver uses NH3 to make urea that is released into the blood and filtered by the kidneys to be eliminated in urine
Carbohydrate is the exclusive energy source for what 3 cell types?
Brain cells, Nerve cells, and red blood cells (RBC).
Glycogenolysis
Breakdown of glycogen by glucagon to increase blood glucose levels
Polysaccharide
Carbohydrates comprised of 10 or more monosaccharides bonded together
Peptide Bond
Chemical attraction that connects two amino acids together; Between Amine and Acid groups
The food phospholipid Lecithin contains ______.
Choline
What are the most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, Cis or Trans?
Cis fatty acids
Prostaglandins
Class of eicosanoids that produce a variety of important effects on the body
Lipids
Class of nutrients that do not dissolve in water (insoluble); Include triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols (cholesterol)
Carbohydrates (w/examples)
Class of nutrients that is a major source of energy for the body
Stroke
Clot blocks an artery in the brain; brain cells that are nourished by the vessel die
What are 2 examples of structural protein? Where are they found?
Collagen: Cartilage, ligament, bone tissues Keratin: Hair, nails, skin
Bile Salts
Component of bile; aid in lipid digestion
Emulsifier
Compound that can suspend fat in water (helps water-soluble and water-insoluble compounds mix with each other); Phosopholipids are good emulsifiers
Tripeptides
Compounds that consist of three amino acids
Dipeptides
Compounds that consist of two amino acids
Pancreatic Lipase
Digestive enzyme that removes two fatty acids from each triglyceride molecule converting most triglycerides to monoglycerides and free fatty acids
Maltose
Disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules; Few foods contain Maltose; "malt sugar"
Most cells, including muscle cells, can metabolize fatty acids for ______.
Energy (The body cannot use fatty acids to make glucose)
Sucrase
Enzyme in Small Intestine; Splits sucrose molecule into glucose and fructose
Lipoprotein Lipases (LPL)
Enzyme in capillary walls that breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol after they have entered the blood stream via chylomicrons
Pancreatic Amylase
Enzyme secreted by pancreas that breaks down starch into maltose molecules
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
Fatty acid that is missing hydrogen atoms and has one or more double bonds within the carbon chain
Condensation Reaction
Forms bonds; H2O by-product
Soluble (Viscous) Fiber
Forms of dietary fiber that dissolve or swell in water; Delay Gastric Emptying, Slow Glucose Absorption, Lower Blood Cholesterol; Include Fruits (apples), Oats, Barley, Legumes (beans & peas) (pectins, gums, mucilages, and some hemicellulose)
Secretin
Hormone (SI) that stimulates bile production in the liver; Stimulates bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice secretion from pancreas
Epinephrine
Hormone produced by the adrenal glands; Secreted in response to declining blood glucose levels; Can cause person to be irritable, restless, shaky, and sweaty
Glucagon
Hormone secreted from the alpha cells of the pancreas that helps regulate blood glucose levels (TOO LOW) by promoting the release and breakdown of glycogen releasing glucose into the bloodstream; Stimulates Lipolysis
Insulin
Hormone secreted from the beta cells of the pancreas that helps regulate blood glucose levels (TOO HIGH) by enabling glucose to enter most cells; Enhances energy storage by promoting cellular fat, glycogen, and protein production
What are the treatments for kwashiorkor, marasmic kwashiorkor, and marasmus?
Hospitalization, controlled refeedings, frequent health assessments to recover from PEM
Fatty Acids
Hydrocarbon chain found in lipids; Provide energy for muscle and other cell types; One end of the chain forms a carboxylic acid, and one end forms a methyl group
Sickle Cell Anemia
Inherited form of anemia caused by genetic defect
Reactive Hypoglycemia (Postprandial Hypoglycemia)
Low blood glucose that occurs within 4 hours of eating; Results from eating too much highly refined carbohydrates, and the pancreas responds by releasing too much insulin
By balancing intakes of ______ and ______ foods, daily fat intake can average less than 35% of total energy intake.
Low-fat; High-fat
How can Celiac Disease be diagnosed?
Microscopic examination of the condition of villi; Damaged villi help confirm Celiac disease
Complementary Combinations
Mixing certain plant foods to provide all essential amino acids without adding animal protein
Fructose
Monosaccharide in fruits, honey, and certain vegetables; Not used much by the body; "levulose" or "fruit sugar";
Galactose
Monosaccharide that is a component of lactose (Carbohydrate in milk); Not commonly found in foods
Natural Sugar
Monosaccharides or disaccharides in whole foods like fruits, vegetables, grain products, milk, etc. (i.e. Apples)
Type 2 Diabetes
Most common type of diabetes; "Insulin Resistant;" Beta cells of the pancreas produce insulin, but the hormone's target cells are insulin-resistant, leading to elevated blood glucose levels
What food can lower cholesterol levels by binding to bile and causing it to be eliminated?
Oat cereal
What can consuming high amounts of certain lipids increase the risk of?
Obesity, certain cancers, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) including heart disease and stroke
Eating high-fiber foods may reduce a person's risk of what diseases?
Obesity, type 2 diabetes, certain intestinal tract disorders, cardiovascular disease (Heart disease, stroke)
Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)
Occurs when the diet lacks sufficient protein and energy; Marasmus, kwashiorkor, and marasmic kwashiorkor forms
Alpha-linolenic Acid
Omega-3 Fatty Acid; 18-carbon polyunsatu-rated fatty acid with three double bonds; an essential fatty acid
Linoleic Acid
Omega-6 Fatty Acid; 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid with two double bonds; an essential fatty acid
More than ____ ___ ____ adult Americans has one or more forms of CVD.
One in three
What are some food sources of Raffinose and Stachyose (Oligosaccharides)?
Onions, brussel sprouts, cabbage, broccoli, legumes, whole grains
Unsaturated fatty acids that have the cis double-bond arrangement, especially PUFAs, are very susceptible to ______.
Oxidation
What is responsible for the rancidity, unappetizing odor, and taste of fat after time?
Oxidation
The consumption of red meats and processed meats, such as ham and sausage, is associated with the increased risk of what cancers?
Pancreatic, stomach, esophageal, breast cancers
R group (side chain)
Part of an amino acid that determines the molecule's physical and chemical properties
According to the Dietary Guidelines, adults should emphasize foods that are rich sources of ______ and ______ fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils.
Polyunsaturated; Monounsaturated
What can result from diets that do not supply adequate amounts of essential amino acids leading to inadequate protein synthesis?
Poor growth, slowed recovery from illness, death
Why is it important to understand the differences between saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats and to identify foods that contain high amounts of these fats?
Populations that consume diets rich in saturated fat and trans fat have higher incidence of developing CVD than populations whose diets contain more unsaturated than saturated fat
Genes
Portion of DNA
Amino (nitrogen-containing) group
Portion of an amino acid that contains nitrogen
Lipolysis
Process by which triglycerides (fats) are broken down and glycerol and fatty acids are released into the bloodstream; Stimulated by Glucagon
High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)
Protein produced primarily by the liver in response to inflammation; a marker of CVD
Low-quality (incomplete) protein
Protein that lacks or has inadequate amounts of one or more of the essential amino acids
What are the 2 most common Oligosaccharides found in food?
Raffinose, Stachyose
Secondary Structure (Protein)
Refers to the coiling of a polypeptide chain
Quaternary Structure (Protein)
Refers to the structure of protein that is comprised of two or more polypeptide chains arranged together in a unique manner; Example: Hemoglobin
Deamination
Removal of the nitrogen-containing group from an amino acid
What will eating foods from soybeans possibly reduce?
Risk of osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers
What bodily fluids contain Mucins, a class of carbohydrates that are chemically associated with proteins?
Saliva, mucus, and the fluid that lubricates skeletal joints
Lipoprotein Profile
Series of blood tests to evaluate total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceride levels
What length of fatty acids can absorb directly into the villi of the small intestine to enter the blood capillary network?
Short (2-4 C) and Medium (6-12 C) chain fatty acids
Disaccharide (C12H24O12)
Simple sugar comprised of two monosaccharides
Monosaccharide (C6H12O6)
Simple sugar that is the basic molecule of carbohydrates
Why are plants rich sources of Carbohydrates?
Some of the energy from the sun is transferred to the bonds that hold the carbon and hydrogen atoms together
______ and ______ are polysaccharides that contain hundreds of glucose molecules bound together into large, chainlike structures.
Starch; Glycogen
Starch
Storage polysaccharide in plants; composed of amylose (linear glucose chain) and amylopectin (branched glucose chain)
Embolus
Thrombus or part of a plaque that breaks free and travels through the bloodstream
Why will some manufacturers add emulsifiers to foods?
To keep oily and watery ingredients from separating during storage
Glycemic Index (GI)
Tool to measure the body's insulin response to a carbohydrate-containing food
Carbohydrates are an important source of energy for the body. Plants use carbon dioxide, water, and the sun's energy to make carbohydrates. Human cells break down the bonds in carbohydrates, releasing energy for cellular work. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Cells metabolize glucose to release the energy stored in the molecule. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Fiber is considered, by the Dietary Guidelines, as a "nutrient of public health concern. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Fibers are categorized as soluble or insoluble based on their solubility in water. Whole-grain products are rich sources of fiber, particularly insoluble fiber. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Glucose is a primary fuel for muscles and other cells; nervous system and red blood cells rely on glucose for energy under normal conditions. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Glucose, fructose, and galactose are absorbed by the small intestine and travel through the hepatic portal vein to the liver. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Healthy Americans should consume diets that furnish 45 to 65% of energy from carbohydrates, primarily complex carbohydrates. Intake of added sugars should be limited to less than 10% of total calories. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
High-protein diets may lead to higher-than-normal urinary losses of calcium. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Most foods contain fats with both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Plants, animals, bacteria, and even viruses contain proteins. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Regular blood glucose monitoring is important for diabetes management. Physicians treating diabetes evaluate both daily blood glucose measurements as well as hemoglobin A1c in determining treatment options. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Ribosomes are organelles that reside in the cytoplasm of living cells. Their role during protein synthesis is to "translate" or decode the mRNA strand. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Sports drinks and sports or energy bars often include modified starches such as maltodextrin and dextrin. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Every organism synthesizes proteins that are ______ to that specific organism.
Unique
Trans Fat (Fatty Acid)
Unsaturated fatty acids that have a trans double bond; Allows chain to be relatively straight;
How do monosaccharides enter the capillary system when being absorbed?
Villi of Small Intestine
Unlike triglycerides, phospholipids are partially ______-soluble because the phosphorus-containing portion of the molecule is hydrophilic.
Water
Lipoprotein
Water-soluble structure that transports lipids through the bloodstream; Example: Chylomicron
What are the 2 groups of Carbohydrates?
1) Simple carbohydrates 2) Complex carbohydrates (includes most forms of dietary fiber)
As many as __% of pregnant American women develop a form of diabetes called Gestational Diabetes.
10%
Long-chain fatty acids have how many carbons?
14-24 carbons
Some people with type __ diabetes can take oral medication to stimulate their bodies' insulin production.
2
Short-chain fatty acids have how many carbons?
2-4 carbons
Triglycerides comprise about __% of lipids in food and in the human body.
95%
Hypertension
Abnormally high blood pressure levels that persist even when the person is relaxed
How much fiber does the typical American diet supply?
About 16 g/day
Edema
Accumulation of fluid in tissues; "swelling"
Essential Amino Acids
Amino acids the body cannot make or cannot make enough of to meet its needs; 9; "Non-dispensable"
Table Sugar
Sucrose. The common name for "regular" white granulated sugar. Usually extracted from sugar cane or sugar beets
Although ______ occurs naturally in honey, maple syrup, carrots, and pineapples, much of the sucrose in the American diet is refined from sugar ______ and sugar ______.
Sucrose; Cane; Beets
Added sugars (Refined)
Sugars added to foods during processing or preparation; Contribute to browning, tenderness in baked cereal products; Serves as preservative (Inhibits molds/bacteria growth)
What are the 3 major classes of lipids?
Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Sterols (cholesterol, vitamin D)
A Phospholipid molecule has both a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic portion. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
A food that is gluten-free is not necessarily nutrient dense and a healthy addition to the diet. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Alternative sweeteners provide few or no kcal while sweetening foods and beverages. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Although nearly all foods contain protein, no naturally occurring food is 100% protein. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Starch, glycogen, and most forms of dietary fiber are polysaccharides. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
The three most important dietary monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
What are the 2 key factors to determining the quality of a protein?
1) Digestibility 2) Amino Acid Composition
Modifiable risk factor vs. Non-modifiable risk factor
A modifiable risk factor can be changed or prevented. A non-modifiable cannot, such as genetics or age
What are some signs and symptoms of Celiac Disease?
Abdominal bloating, chronic diarrhea, weight loss; Anemia, osteoporosis, liver disease, intestinal cancer (if untreated)
Intestinal cells absorb glucose and galactose by ______ ______.
Active transport
______ intake also increases the concentration of triglycerides in blood, so consuming less may help reduce a person's blood level of this lipid in blood.
Alcohol
Omega-3 Fatty Acid
Alpha-linolenic Acid; Type of polyunsaturated fatty acid with the first double bond at the third carbon from the omega end of the molecule
Denaturation
Altering a protein's natural shape and function by exposing it to conditions such as heat, acids, and physical agitation
Conditionally Essential Amino Acids
Amino acids that become essential under certain conditions
How can people reduce their risk of Type 2 Diabetes?
Avoid excess body fat, exercise daily, improve their diets (Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes)
Gestational Diabetes
Type of diabetes that develops in some pregnant women (usually after the 24th week of pregnancy)
Complex Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates comprised of three or more monosaccharides bonded together
Oligosaccharide
Carbohydrates comprised of three to 10 monosaccharides bonded together
Adipose (fat) cells
Cells that store triglycerides
What are some factors that affect the treatment option a person receives for Diabetes?
Type of diabetes, age, current health status.
Phospholipid
Type of lipid needed to make cell membranes and for proper functioning of nerve cells; Chemically similar to a triglyceride except that one of the fatty acids is replaced by a chemical group that contains phosphorus
Sterols
Type of lipid that has a more complex chemical structure than triglycerides and phospholipids
Chylomicron
Type of lipoprotein (largest/least dense) formed in enterocytes to transport lipids away from the GI tract
What individuals have a greater risk of developing Gestational Diabetes?
Women who have a family history of type 2 diabetes, overweight, or have high blood pressure
Plant Sterols/Stanols
Chemicals found in plants that are structurally similar to Cholesterol; Can lower Cholesterol absorption thus helping reduce blood cholesterol levels; Occur naturally in small amounts in grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, legumes; Includes sitostanol
What 2 hormones are stimulated to release from intestinal cells upon fatty chyme leaving the stomach and entering the small intestine?
Cholecystokinin (CCK), Secretin
What type of cholesterol is often called "good" cholesterol? Why?
Cholesterol carried by HDL (HDL cholesterol); Does not contribute to plaque formation
Amines
Compounds that include amino groups in their chemical structure
Ketosis
Condition in which ketone bodies accumulate in the blood; Can result in loss of consciousness and death in severe cases
Hyperinsulinemia
Condition in which the pancreas releases an excessive amount of insulin; over time, condition may contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes
The typical Western diet (high animal proteins and saturated fat) increases the risk of what illnesses?
Heart disease, colorectal cancer, prostate cancer
What diseases is poorly controlled diabetes a major cause of?
Heart disease, kidney failure, blindness, poor blood circulation
What fat related diseases are among the top 4 leading causes of death in the U.S.?
Heart disease, stroke, hypertension
What is a common result to the fetus of a mother who has Gestational Diabetes?
Heavier at birth (too much glucose during development)
What is an example of a protein that has a Quaternary structure?
Hemoglobin
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Hereditary material that provides instructions for making proteins
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Hormone (SI) that signals the pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes (pancreatic lipase) into duodenum; Stimulates gallbladder release of stored bile; Causes sphincter that controls the flow of bile and pancreatic juice into the duodenum to open
What are the major Modifiable risk factors of Atherosclerosis?
Hypertension Diabetes High cholesterol Excess body fat Physical inactivity Tobacco use/exposure Untreated sleep apnea
Lactose Intolerance (Maldigestion)
Inability to digest lactose properly because of a deficiency in the enzyme lactase; Bloating, Diarrhea, Gas (More likely to occur in adulthood)
Saturated Fats may raise ______.
LDL
Glucose (C6H12O6)
Most important monosaccharide because it is the primary fuel for muscles and other cells; "dextrose" or "blood sugar"; Example: Fruits and vegetables
What are the main sites of glycogen formation and storage in the body?
Muscles, liver
Amino Acids
Nitrogen-containing chemical units that comprise proteins
Amino Acid Derivatives
Nitrogen-containing compounds that are not proteins but have important physiological roles
Creatinine
Nitrogen-containing waste produced by muscles
Raffinose
Nondigestible oligosaccharide made of three monosaccharides
A group of international health and safety organizations, including the FDA, have established Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADIs) for certain ______ sweeteners.
Nonnutritive
What can you do to improve Blood Lipid Profile?
Physical Activity, Weight Control, MUFA & PUFA Instead of Saturated Fats, Soluble Fibers, Antioxidants (Vitamin C, Vitamin E, etc)
All cells in the body contain ______.
Protein
What contributes the most to lipoprotein density?
Protein content
A diet of what foods can reduce the likelihood of developing the colon cancer?
Rich in whole grains, fruits, vegetables
According to the Dietary Guidelines, adults should consume less than 10% of their total calories from ______ fatty acids, and limit their _____ fat and cholesterol intakes to as little as possible.
Saturated; Trans
What are the 3 forms of PEM (Protein-Energy Malnutrition)?
1) Marasmus 2) Kwashiorkor 3) Marasmic kwashiorkor
What is the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for protein?
10 to 35% (energy from protein)
What are the carbohydrate forms of Fiber?
Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gums, mucilages
Celiac Disease
Inherited condition in which the protein gluten cannot be absorbed; results in damage to the small intestine and poor absorption of nutrients
Oxidized LDL
LDL that has been damaged by free radicals
Albumin
Protein in the blood that maintains the proper distribution of fluids in blood and body tissues
High-quality (complete) protein
Protein that contains all essential amino acids in amounts that support the deposition of protein in tissues and the growth of a young person; Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk
Buffer
Substance that can protect the pH of a solution
Kwashiorkor
Form of undernutrition (PEM) that results from consuming adequate energy and insufficient high-quality protein; Stunted growth, unnaturally blond, sparse, brittle hair, discolored skin patches, misleading appearance
Marasmus
Form of undernutrition (PEM) that results from starvation; Diet lacks energy and nutrients; Signs: Weakness/wasting
Marasmic kwashiorkor
Form of undernutrition that results in a child with kwashiorkor who then starts to not consume enough energy; characterized by edema and wasting
Stachyose
Nondigestible oligosaccharide made of four monosaccharides
What is the difference between fats and oils?
Both have Fatty Acids; Fats tend to be solid and oils liquid at room temperature; Fats contain more long-chain saturated FAs; Oils contain more long-chain unsaturated FAs
Why should honey not be fed to children younger than 12 months of age?
Botulism poisoning; Honey can contain spores of Clostridium botulinum which resist destruction by the child's weak stomach acid
Dietary Fiber ("Fiber")
Nondigestible plant material; most types are polysaccharides
What are milk and milk products excellent sources of?
Protein, vitamins, minerals (Calcium, Phosphorus)
Chymotrypsin
Protein-splitting enzyme secreted from the pancreas
Trypsin
Protein-splitting enzyme secreted from the pancreas
What are the negatives to Trans Fats?
Raise LDL Lower HDL Increase Inflammation & Insulin Resistance
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Rare inherited disorder that results in abnormal phenylalanine metabolism;
Primary Structure (Protein)
Refers to the basic structure of protein; a linear chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Tertiary Structure (Protein)
Refers to the three-dimensional, twisted structure of a polypeptide chain that includes interactions between various amino acid groups on the chain
Where does Starch digestion begins in the mouth. How? Where does it end?
Salivary Amylase (converts oat starch molecules into maltose); Stomach (due to acidic environment)
What are some results of PEM in children?
Stunted growth, weak, irritable, vulnerable to dehydration and infections (measles), lower intelligence
Nutritive Sweeteners
Substances that sweeten and contribute energy to foods
Nerves use Choline contained in Lecithin to form the neurotransmitter ______.
Acetylcholine
A healthy human body can make ___ of the 20 amino acids.
11 (Nonessential AA)
Certain carbohydrates serve as the "______" that holds cells together in tissues.
Glue
What is the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Cabohydrates, and is enough to prevent Ketosis?
130 g/day
What is a healthy adult's RDA for protein?
0.8 g/kg of body weight; Multiply his or her weight in kilograms by 0.8 g
People with type __ diabetes rely on daily insulin injections, either by the use of multiple daily insulin shots or an insulin pump.
1
What are the 9 major functions/uses of Proteins in the body?
1) Build new cells/components of cells 2) Make up hardened structures (hair and nails) 3) Enzymes 4) Lubricants to ease movement 5) Blood-clotting component 6) Build antibodies 7) Help maintain fluid and pH balance (Albumin) 8) Transporters/ hormones 9) Energy source (minor function)
What 5 parts to all Amino Acids contain?
1) Central Carbon 2) Hydrogen 3) Amino group (N) 4) R group (side chain) 5) Carboxylic Acid group
How long after a meal does it take for most chylomicrons to be reduced to small cholesterol-rich remnants?
10-12 hours (Liver clears and recycles these remnants)
What are the recommended Adequate Intakes (AIs) for Fiber?
38 and 25 g/day for young men and women (respectively)
In general, most plant foods provide less than ___g of protein per ounce.
3g
How many kcals of energy does 1g of mono and disaccharides supply?
4 kcal
How percentage of the body's total energy (calories) should come from carbohydrates?
45 to 65%
How many days a week is it recommended to engage in physical activity?
5
The American Heart Association issued an advisory statement indicating that consuming 5 to 10% of total energy intake in the form of omega-_____ fatty acids reduces the risk of developing heart disease.
6
Medium-chain fatty acids have how many carbons?
6-12 carbons
According to the ADA, people with diabetes should strive to maintain their HbA1c level below __%
7%
Starches (in plants) and Glycogen (in body) are simple carbohydrates. (TRUE/FALSE)
False; Complex carbohydrates
If someone consumes excess energy (kcals) from protein, the extra protein is ultimately converted to muscle. (TRUE/FALSE)
False; Converted to fat
Arterial Plaques
Fatty buildup (cholesterol) in the artery
What are the positives of Omega-3 Fatty Acids?
May Lower LDL
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)
Measure of the concentration of urea in blood; Used to measure kidney function
Urine Urea Nitrogen (UUN)
Measure of the concentration of urea in urine
What is the Adequate Intake (AI) for Alpha-linolenic Acid in men and women?
Men: 1.6 g/day Women: 1.1 g/day
What is the Adequate Intake (AI) for Linoleic Acid in men and women?
Men: 17 g/day Women: 12 g/day (between 19 and 50 years old)
A woman's risk of developing CVD increases after ______.
Menopause
What cells can use Ketone Bodies for energy?
Muscle and brain cells
Cis Fatty Acid
Unsaturated fatty acids that have a cis double bond
Which tastes sweeter, Glucose or Fructose?
Fructose
The liver uses glycerol to produce ______.
Glucose
Under normal conditions, red blood cells as well as brain and other nervous system cells burn mostly ______ for energy.
Glucose
The human body stores limited amounts of glucose as ______.
Glycogen
What does the body store extra glucose as in a resting ("fed") state?
Glycogen
When ______ storage reaches maximum capacity, the liver can convert excess glucose into ______.
Glycogen; Fat
Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c)
Glycosylated hemoglobin; blood test used to measure a person's average blood glucose over several months' period of time
Non-essential Amino Acids
Group of amino acids that the body can make; 11; "Dispensable"
What has more of a negative effect on blood cholesterol levels, Dietary cholesterol or Dietary saturated fat?
Dietary saturated fat. (liver synthesizes less cholesterol when dietary cholesterol intake is higher. Eating large amounts of saturated fat increases the liver's cholesterol production)
Maltase
Enzyme in Small Intestine; Splits maltose molecule into 2 glucose
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
Essential fatty acid; Converted from Alpha-Linoleic Acid and other Omega-6 FAs; Precursor to some eicosanoids; Required in infants for nervous system development
Arachidonic acid (AA)
Essential fatty acid; Converted from Linoleic Acid; Precursor to some eicosanoids
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
Essential fatty acid; precursor to some eicosanoids; Required in infants for nervous system development
In biological systems, common fatty acids have a(n) _____ number of carbon atoms.
Even
Eicosanoids
Group of long-chain fatty acids with hormone-like functions
Glycemic Load (GL)
Tool to measure the body's insulin response to a carbohydrate-containing food; similar to the glycemic index, but also factors in a typical serving size of the food
What are the desirable blood lipid levels for: Total Cholesterol, Triglycerides, LDL, and HDL?
Total Cholesterol: < 200 mg/dL Triglycerides: < 150 mg/dL LDL: < 100 mg/dL HDL: > 60 mg/dL
Fats that contain a high proportion of ______ fatty acids are more solid at room temperature than those with a high proportion of cis fatty acids.
Trans
Transamination
Transfer of the nitrogen-containing group from an unneeded amino acid to a carbon skeleton to form an amino acid
Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Hydrocarbon Chain
Chain of carbon atoms bonded to each other and to hydrogen atoms
Ketone Bodies (Ketones)
Chemicals formed from the incomplete breakdown of fat; Formed from poorly managed diabetes, fasting/starving, low-carb/high-protein diet
What are the major signs and symptoms of hyperglycemia?
Excessive thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, and poor wound healing
What accounts for most of the body's nitrogen loss?
Excretion of urea and creatinine in urine
What organization requires food manufacturers to include information about trans fatty acid content on their product's Nutrition Facts panels?
FDA (only if over 1g of trans fats)
Carbohydrates are sometimes found in meat. (TRUE/FALSE)
False
Women are more likely to have heart attacks than men. (TRUE/FALSE)
False; Men are more likely
Most plant foods are sources of high-quality protein. (TRUE/FALSE)
False; Most plant foods are NOT sources of high-quality protein; EXCEPT Quinoa and soy protein
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (PUFA)
Fatty acid that has two or more double bonds within the carbon chain
Arteriosclerosis is a symptom or by-product of Atherosclerosis. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Eating foods that supply omega-3 fatty acids reduces the risk of developing heart disease to a greater extent than does eating foods that supply omega-6 fatty acids. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
To reduce the risk of developing CVD, Dietary Guidelines and American Heart Association guidelines recommend limiting saturated fat intake to less than 10% of total energy by replacing foods that are rich sources of long-chain saturated fat with foods that contain high amounts of unsaturated fat. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
Tooth decay is the only health problem that is clearly associated with eating carbohydrates. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
When the shape of a protein changes, it's called denaturation. When the nitrogen group is removed from a protein (so it can be used as energy), it's called deamination. (TRUE/FALSE)
True
How are fatty acids classified?
1) Length of Carbon Chain 2) Degree of Saturation 3) Location of Double Bonds 4) Shape & Orientation
What are the 3 priorities for protein in the body?
1) Provide amino acids to make new body proteins (Protein Turnover) 2) Provide energy 3) Be stored as fat as a long-term energy source
What are the 2 types of Dietary Fiber?
1) Soluble Fiber 2) Insoluble Fiber
What is a normal blood glucose level?
70-110 mg/dL
Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
Group of diseases that affect the heart and blood vessels; Includes coronary artery disease (CAD), stroke, and disease of the blood vessels
Diabetes Mellitus (Diabetes)
Group of serious chronic conditions characterized by abnormal glucose, fat, and protein metabolism
What arteries are more commonly damaged by atherosclerosis?
Heart, neck, brain, kidneys, retina, legs
Undernutrition
Lack of food
Where do Chylomicrons leave the villus? What system do they enter?
Lacteal; Lymphatic System (then into the bloodstream)
Proteins
Large, complex organic molecules made up of amino acids; Contain Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
What is the most abundant phospholipid in food?
Lechithin
Gluten
Type of protein found in many grains; provides texture and shape to baked products
Insoluble (Fermentation-resistant) Fiber
Forms of dietary fiber that generally do not dissolve in water; Does not break down completely and contributes to softer, easier to eliminate feces, Anti-Cancer Effects; Include Whole Wheat Bran, Whole Grain Breads & Cereals, Some Veggies, Nuts, Seeds (cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin)
What are the 7 major functions of Lipids?
1) Provide and store energy (triglycerides) 2) Form and maintain cell membranes 3) Produce steroid hormones 4) Insulate the body against cold temperatures 5) Cushion the body against bumps and blows 6) Form body contours 7) Absorb fat-soluble vitamins and phytochemicals
How many different Amino Acids make up the proteins found in the body?
20
What is the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for fat?
20 to 35% of total caloric intake
How many grams/day of fat does the average American consume?
77 g/day
To determine an individual's RDA for protein, you multiply their weight in pounds by 0.8. (TRUE/FALSE)
False; Multiply weight in kg
Essential Fatty Acids
Fatty acids that must be supplied by the diet; linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid are essential fatty acids
Refined grain products are generally low in ______, because such foods lack the fiber-rich bran seed component.
Fiber
Thrombus
Fixed bunch of clots that remain in place and disrupt blood flow
Hydrogenation
Food manufacturing process that adds hydrogen atoms to liquid vegetable oil, forming trans fats
Foods made with partially ______ fat can be stored for longer periods of time—for some products, over a year—than foods that contain cis fatty acids. Why?
Hydrogenated; Trans fatty acids are less likely to undergo oxidation (chemical process that alters the compound's structure)
Most lipids are completely ______ in water, making lipid digestion, absorption, and transport more complicated than that of carbohydrates, because these three processes involve considerable amounts of water.
Insoluble
What is a healthy ratio of total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol?
Less than 4:1
When labeled as "Gluten-free" by the FDA how much gluten can be contained in the food?
Less than 6mg/serving
Monogylceride
Lipid that has one fatty acid attached to a three-carbon compound glycerol
Triglyceride
Lipid that has three fatty acids attached to a three-carbon compound called glycerol
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
Lipoprotein that carries cholesterol into tissues; Elevated LDL is strongly linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease
High-density lipoprotein (HDL)
Lipoprotein that transports cholesterol away from tissues and to the liver, where it can be eliminated; Low HDL is linked to increased risk for cardiovascular disease
Where is the majority (2/3) of the body's needed cholesterol produced? The rest?
Liver; Food
Atherosclerosis
Long-term disease process in which plaque builds up inside arterial walls; Results in most cases of heart disease and stroke
What are the positives of Monounsaturated Fats?
Lower LDL Don't Affect HDL
What are the positives of Polyunsaturated Fats?
Lower LDL May Lower HDL
Acid-Base Balance
Maintaining the proper pH of body fluids
What type of fatty acid generally lowers blood LDL cholesterol without reducing HDL cholesterol levels?
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) (and polyunsaturated fatty acids)
What happens with the Oligosaccharides that cannot be broken down in the digestive system?
Most pass through the stomach and small intestine intact. Large intestine bacteria use them as a source of energy, producing waste products (various gases) as a result
What is the cure for Celiac Disease?
No cure; Can maintain good health with gluten-free diet
When do normal protein needs exceed the RDA?
Pregnancy, breastfeeding, periods of rapid growth, recovery from serious illnesses, blood losses, burns
Gluten Sensitivity
Uncomfortable symptoms develop following consumption of gluten, but the individual does not have damage to the small intestine
